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  • Articles  (2,986)
  • Springer  (2,986)
  • International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
  • 1970-1974  (2,508)
  • 1950-1954  (297)
  • 1935-1939  (181)
  • Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying  (2,986)
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  • Articles  (2,986)
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  • 1
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 29-54 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract This paper explains the need for the application of cost-benefit analysis to the evaluation of alternative projects for investment in the transport field and outlines briefly the historical development of the technique. The results of a comparative survey of a number of cost-benefit studies which have been carried out in Britain and some conclusions as to their thoroughness and comprehensiveness (or otherwise) are presented. The article concludes with a number of specific and detailed recommendations to remedy apparent methodological weaknesses. Six of these recommendations seem to merit particular attention: (1) The viewpoint of most studies should be extended so as to avoid confinement, for example, within an arbitrary local government boundary, and a wider range of “externalities” should be considered. Intangibles should be included explicitly in all such evaluation exercises. (2) The actual incidence of costs and benefits should be examined in order to indicate the directional impact of the project and its implications in terms of equity. The elimination of transfer payments and double-counting should be postponed until the latest possible stage in the evaluation. (3) Equity considerations should be investigated in any transportation plan, since most projects have considerable equity implications for particular areas or socio-economic groups. (4) Discounted cash flow techniques, which are still used only in a minority of transportation studies, should become standard practice. Most evaluations are based on a single-year rate of return, or at best on simple trend forecasting. More resources should be devoted to proper evaluation of alternative plans which give due importance to the cost and benefit streams through time. (5) Sensitivity analysis should be used in all transportation evaluations. Knowledge of the impact of different assignments, shadow prices, and discount rates are essential information for any decisionmaker. (6) Last, but not least, much greater communication should exist between analyst and decisionmaker than has existed in the past.
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  • 2
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 1-27 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Officials at various levels around the world are getting increasingly worried about the growth in automobile ownership and all the associated environmental problems that this implies. Voices are often heard advocating the exclusion of automobiles from the central areas of cities, much easier to say than to realise, unless the area is entirely reconstructed under a comprehensive redevelopment scheme, as, for instance, in the city of Västeras, Sweden. Another possible solution is to introduce some type of traffic restraint scheme involving compulsory rearrangement of the vehicular flow through the central area. The report deals firstly with an experiment carried out during the highly intensive, pre-Christmas shopping days in December 1969, when parts of the central business area of the city of Gothenburg, Sweden (population around 450,000) were closed to all unauthorised vehicles. The experience gained with this scheme was valuable when the next stage was being planned, i.e., a permanent traffic restraint scheme which was put into effect on August 18, 1970. Most of the report deals with the objectives, planning, realisation, and experience of the traffic restraint scheme, which involved dividing the central business area into five separate zones. During the first six months, several surveys were conducted to establish the impact of the scheme on vehicular flow, parking, pedestrian flow, public transport, accidents, air pollution, noise, and retail businesses. The scheme put into operation in Gothenburg has been a great success, having accomplished most of its objectives, and will be expanded to cover a still larger area in subsequent years.
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  • 3
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 147-164 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract The current process for allocating federal funds within the transportation sector of the U. S. is dominated by concerns for territorial equity, administrative feasibility, technical feasibility, and national defense. Economic efficiency as a long range objective is conspicuous by its absence except insofar as it is embodied in the desire to “promote the commerce” of the nation. Federal allocations for highways, waterways, and maritime subsidies are declining relative to urban public transit, and Coast Guard navigation related expenditures. Environmental considerations and obvious failure in the case of maritime subsidies appear to be the major reasons. Airport and airway allocations will be subject to the same negative forces. The next massive transportation program to appear in the federal budget other than urban public transit is likely to involve the national railway system. The big question here is how the money will be handed out. Economists and planners so far appear to have had little interest or impact in this difficult and crucial area of public decision making.
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  • 4
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 165-182 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract The purpose of this paper is to discuss various types of behavioral data of potential relevance to transit planning. In particular a distinction is drawn between behavorial information regarding feelings, attitudes, opinions, and the like and more sophisticated types of data dealing with individuals' intentions to respond in certain ways given certain configurations of stimuli (transportation variables). The former is shown to be an important input to incremental planning, i.e., where information as to system performance is desired. The latter is shown to be critical to decisions regarding manipulations of transit system parameters, i.e., where knowledge of the outcome of manipulating system parameters is desired. A methodological example as to how the first type of data — informational level data — can be collected and utilized in system planning is presented. Specifically, data collected along the lines of traditional attitude surveys is collected in an attempt to monitor changes in public “satisfaction” with the Iowa City, Iowa, bus system before and after major system innovations. Implications of the collection and analytical procedures are discussed.
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  • 5
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 185-192 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
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  • 6
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 243-254 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract The analysis tests the utility of a simple regression approach in “postdictively” explaining transport development in West Malaysia from 1887 to 1968. The growth of the network is modelled as a process of contagious diffusion where transport densities of adjacent cells are used as predictor variables on a lagged basis. The partial regression coefficients provide measures of network orientation over time. The results demonstrate the importance of the contagion process in transport forecasting and provide equivalent levels of explanation when compared with a model which utilizes modernization indexes as predictor weights.
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  • 7
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 225-242 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract There are two ways in which new road schemes may influence capital expenditure on vehicles. Firstly, by improving utilisation of existing vehicles, the size of fleet needed to perform a given volume of work may be reduced. This will clearly reduce the amount of capital tied up in motor vehicles at any point in time, and to the extent that vehicle life is determined by age rather than mileage run, will also yield savings in terms of investment in new vehicles. Secondly, by generating additional road traffic, road schemes may lead to an increase in the stock of vehicles in use. This paper argues that the current treatment of vehicle depreciation and interest charges in U.K. cost data fails to allow correctly for either of these items. Errors of logic occur in the way in which the capital stock of vehicles is valued, and in the fact that certain overheads are ignored even when fleet size changes. Moreover, the empirical evidence supporting the current partitioning of depreciation into overhead and running cost components, and the assumption of constant hours in service after an increase in journey speed seems of doubtful validity. An alternative method of calculating vehicle capital costs, based on the concept of annual capital charge, and making explicit the assumptions with respect to vehicle utilisation, is advocated, and the sensitivity of results to the view taken of the latter is demonstrated by means of specimen calculations.
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  • 8
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 289-310 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract An experimental technique for exploring the sensitivity of transportation plan evaluations to forecasting and community value uncertainties is described. Three kinds of uncertainty — goal-achievement impacts, costs, and goal-weights — are included. Within a cost-effectiveness evaluation framework, an “on-line” capability for interactively and iteratively testing plan comparisons is outlined. A series of user-oriented computer instructions is developed to test plan comparison outcomes according to a wide variety of user-selected changes in impact forecasts, goal weights, and cost forecasts. A sample, hypothetical application of the technique is described. The technique is currently under further development by the San Diego Region Comprehensive Planning Organization.
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  • 9
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 323-334 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Evidence of the inability of transport models to elucidate policy is cited and reasons for this weakness are then suggested. Attention is drawn to the fundamental changes in both opinion and policy currently taking place. There is less concern with accessibility per se and rather more concern with the provision of adequate or minimum accessibility for certain social groups. More emphasis is placed also on the environmental aspects of transportation. The implications of these changes are outlined. It is not at all clear that the need to adapt and up-date models is appreciated widely enough. Finally, it is considered whether fundamental changes in methodology may help to make transport models more responsive to policy needs.
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  • 10
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 343-356 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract This paper describes a disaggregate simultaneous destination and mode choice model for shopping trips. Following an introduction to the model structure and a review of the data, the results of five different model specifications are discussed. The models were estimated using data from two communities adjacent to Eindhoven, the Netherlands and utilise the multinomial logit model.
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  • 11
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 1-24 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Among the crises facing our society is the public's loss of confidence in technical professionals and their ability to make decisions about large-scale projects (such as highways) in the public interest. To overcome this crisis of confidence, this paper hypothesizes a model for the role of the technical professional in the process of reaching decisions about public actions. In evaluating technological projects with social consequences, one key issue is the differential incidence of impacts. Typically, some groups are hurt in order that others may benefit. Social equity must be considered explicitly. Such presently-used techniques as benefit-cost analysis and point-rating schemes are unsatisfactory. New techniques are needed, reflecting a more comprehensive model for the role of the technical team in the political process. A normative model is outlined. First, the objective of the technical process is defined: to achieve substantial effective community agreement on a course of action which is feasible, equitable, and desirable. Second, a process for achieving this objective is proposed. A key element of this process is a four-phase strategy of technical and community interaction activities to achieve the objective. The basic premise of this approach is that the role of the technical team is to clarify the issues of choice, to assist the community in determining what is best for itself. This theoretical model has resulted in several practical products. A procedural guide for use by highway and transportation agencies has been prepared, and a number of specific operational techniques have been developed and are included in the guide. The procedural guide is now being field-tested in several state highway departments. The theoretical model has already been useful in identifying, in one highway department, opportunities for significant changes in the agency's mission, organization and procedures to enable it to be more responsive to public concerns. The theoretical model also has served as the basis for the development of federal guidelines for consideration of social, economic and environmental factors in highway planning and decision-making, in all of the state highway departments in the U.S.
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  • 12
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 25-52 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract This paper draws together empirical evidence from a variety of sources about the magnitudes of transit price elasticities and cross-elasticities. A number of different practical measures of demand elasticity are first defined and some expectations about magnitude are discussed. Evidence is then collated from the analysis of transit operating statistics, from experience in demonstration projects and from attempts to develop cross-sectional models of demand and modal choice. In general, all of the limited evidence available suggests that transit demand is inelastic with respect to money price. Typically, ridership is significantly more sensitive to changes in the level of service (particularly door-to-door journey time) than to changes in fare, although service elasticities also are usually numerically less than unity. In broad terms, short-run direct fare elasticities are characteristically observed to lie within the range of -0.1 to −0.7. A more precise value in a particular instance will depend on a variety of factors in ways which largely support a priori notions. Thus in very large cities, central city areas, at peak hours, and in other circumstances where the prices of alternative modes are high, transit fare elasticities are usually numerically at the lower end of the range. Estimates of cross-elasticities (representing the volumes of transit traffic diverted to other modes by transit price increases) are much harder to come by, and in fact only a few very uncertain estimates are presented here.
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  • 13
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 71-86 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Analysis of the results of past mass transit bond issues can aid transportation planners in understanding and anticipating voter behavior. This paper reports the results of an analysis of the 1968 rapid transit bond issue vote in Los Angeles, California. The simple relationships of the vote to a variety of possible explanatory variables are first examined. An attempt to assess the relative independent importance of these variables and to offer a partial explanation of the vote using multiple regression analysis is then presented. Variables found to have had the greatest impact on the vote are proximity to the proposed transit system, income-level, and ethnicity. Variables found to have had little or no effect, on the other hand, are population density, age, partisanship, and election turnout rate. The analysis indicates that the frequently used “mood-of-the-electorate” explanation of bond-issue failures in general, and transit proposals in particular, underestimates the quality of the electoral decision. The electorate does make rational distinctions, and future bonding attempts will confront voters capable of perceiving the utility to them of proposed transit systems and voting accordingly. The policy implications of this analysis suggest that the design of future mass transit proposals should, firstly more explicitly attempt to incorporate the preferences of middle-income voters, and secondly, be part of a comprehensive transit plan for the entire metropolitan area.
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  • 14
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. i 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
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  • 15
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 79-95 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
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  • 16
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 69-78 
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  • 17
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 97-104 
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  • 18
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  • 19
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    Transportation 1 (1973), S. 475-475 
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  • 20
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    Transportation 1 (1973), S. 419-453 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Although the urban transportation planning process has evolved into the most sophisticated of all urban planning processes, the increasirig difficulty in implementing long-range transportation plans in urban areas today suggests basic questions concerning the process which deserve critical examination. Planning for implementation of urban transportation programs, particularly during periods of rapidly changing human values, requires a continuing re-evaluation of both technical and organizational strategies and their interrelationships. This paper raises some fundamental questions about the traditional activities and relationships that have characterized most urban transportation planning programs in the past. It also suggests a number of strategies, both technical and organizational, that may contribute to the implementation of plans and programs resulting from the transportation planning process. The first portion of this paper discusses the implications of not providing transportation services to match metropolitan growth. The experience of the Washington Metropolitan Area over the past decade is used to illustrate these implications. A discussion of organizational and institutional constraints upon the planning process follows. Then, the implications for the planning process are explored, and the scale of planning is reviewed as well as the need for monitoring the performance and impact of facilities. Next, the paper deals with the need to broaden the range of solutions to transportation problems, including consideration of economic and land development policies to reduce travel demand, as well as the provision of new facilities. Finally, techniques for involving decision-makers in the planning process are discussed. Examples of special project activities in the Washington area are used to illustrate these techniques and their value.
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  • 21
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 409-412 
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  • 22
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 413-423 
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  • 23
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 97-110 
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  • 24
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 111-117 
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  • 25
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 153-193 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Hypotheses are developed about the effects of telecommunication advances on urban growth patterns and urban travel demands. It is suggested that CBD (central business district) office employment might decentralize if telecommunications could effectively substitute for short inter-office business trips and that job decentralization would alter journey-to-work patterns and the viability of certain public transit systems. Major research questions are raised and keyed to an extensive bibliography.
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  • 26
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 313-319 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Over the last 15 years travel patterns were investigated in 15 urban settlements in Israel. The results indicate an unusual combination of high trip generation by dwelling unit and low motorization rates. The diversity of socio-economic characteristics of population groups, as well as that of city size distribution, are reflected both in motorization rates and in trip generation.
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  • 27
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 299-312 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract This study examines variations in the basic parameter of the gravity model: the distance or travel time exponent. In a conceptual examination of the exponent under ideal conditions, it is noted that the exponent will be low if either production or consumption of the phenomena is geographically concentrated. It is further noted that if all regions produce and consume the phenomena, this generally implies a large number of substitute regions, and therefore a large exponent. These three variables are made operational and related to a set of eighty exponents for 1967 commodity flows in the United States. A multiple regression model is derived and utilized to estimate the exponents. The latter are then used to reestimate the flows. The root mean squared errors are quite similar for the fitted and estimated exponents. Implications of the research appear to be consistent with variations of the exponent in the urban context.
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  • 28
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 281-298 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract The main line of the State Railway of Thailand to serve the Northeastern region of the Kingdom was built in 1900 to the town of Korat and subsequently extended to its northern extremity at the Laos border. The Friendship Highway, a modern highway parallel to the railway and serving the same transportation corridor, was completed in 1958 as far as Korat. In 1965 the northern extension of the Friendship Highway was opened to Nong Khai, the northern terminus of the railway. The effect of the nearby and parallel highway on freight traffic - for upland crops, vegetables, rice, kenaf, and forest products - is shown in terms of tonnages dispatched by the railway and in relation to the production of those commodities. Passenger traffic originating on the Northeastern railway line is analysed. Statistics indicating the shift in modal split between road and rail, for both freight and passengers in the Kingdom, are presented for a six-year period. An estimate of the loss in revenue for the Korat-Nong Khai segment of the railway has been made for both originating passengers and certain classes of freight traffic. Clearly demonstrated is the unceasing trend toward road haulage of freight and the use of highway buses by intercity passengers. This paper is intended to draw attention to the magnitude of the problem rather than to suggest definitive solutions.
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 337-339 
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  • 30
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 341-345 
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  • 31
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 347-349 
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 321-335 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Existing methods of evaluating large-scale transport networks involve the use of mathematical models of traffic flow which are generally both large and complex. However, the time and cost involved in the use of these models normally restricts their use for the detailed forecasting of traffic flows and costs to the assessment of a relatively small number of alternative patterns of overall investment. In order to evaluate the individual projects and groups of projects which go to make up an overall investment plan, it is, therefore, usually necessary to make simplifying assumptions about the influence of any one project on the overall traffic pattern, so as to isolate it from the influence of neighbouring projects. These assumptions generally result in the loss of a certain amount of the detail normally available from a standard model, and the task of assessing the relative value of different projects and the amount of interaction between them is made more difficult. This paper describes a new technique, designed to permit the evaluation of individual projects whilst still retaining the level of detail available from a full-scale mathematical model. The aim has been to produce a cheap and easy-to-use technique, capable of producing substantially the same results as a standard model. The technique uses newly developed computer algorithms which short-cut the full-scale model by forecasting the changes in an existing travel pattern resulting from the influence of a particular project. Initial tests suggest that approaching the problem in this way can save up to 70% of the computing time and costs involved in the use of a standard model for the evaluation of individual projects. The technique as described here is envisaged as a tool for aiding strategic investment decisions. It can, however, provide data for more detailed investigations, and could, with modifications, carry out these investigations on smaller problems than those for which it was originally designed.
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 373-389 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract Two problems concerning the use of aerial photographs for conducting traffic studies in urban areas are considered in this paper: (1) Suitable procedures requiring simple equipment and methods and the appropriate formulae for determining the traffic characteristics of density, volume, traffic count, speed, composition; (2) Problems relating to flight planning for traffic surveys from the points of view of duration of photography and the scale of the photography from considerations of the reliability of the determined traffic characteristics, vehicle identification, and also economy. The conclusions concerning the flight planning were applied in a test flight from which traffic data were determined as illustrated in a sample calculation.
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 391-409 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract In an effort to improve transit ridership prediction, this manuscript proposes a conceptually unique mode choice model derived from the field of experimental psychology. The “psychophysical“ model, as it is called, differs from earlier modal split models in its substantive use of psychological theory. The result is a modal split model with a sound behavioral foundation. The psychophysical model is tested using data from the recent demonstration of dial-a-bus in Columbia, Maryland and found to be a marginal predictor of modal split. It is noted though that the difference between actual and predicted ridership may be accounted for in a second generation model. This will employ individual rather than aggregate data, incorporate the concept of adaptation-level, and refine the decision-making process.
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 351-371 
    ISSN: 1572-9435
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract An examination of current population statistics shows that in the U.S. more than half of the population is without immediate access to a car, and in the U.K. more than three-fifths of the population is without access to a car. This phenomenon has been accentuated by national investment in both countries in major highway programs. The term carless refers to more than just households that own no cars. It extends, in households with cars to those without licenses (old and young), the handicapped, and even the licensed drivers who have no access to the family car when it is in use elsewhere (e.g. at work). The most severely effected are those in urban areas and especially the urban poor. Transportation expenses are limited for the poor when other family expenditures (food, shelter) take a high priority. Once the work trip has been satisfied, money for other trips, for the poor, is not always available. One solution to cost-free travel is pedestrianism (walking), but this too is difficult in urban areas where the pedestrian has been overlooked in favor of the car. Solutions to problems of the carless include dial-a-ride, better public transit, and better design of urban form.
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 411-430 
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying
    Notes: Abstract This paper reviews the results of an origin-destination survey conducted in Beirut, Lebanon. The survey was conducted according to the techniques developed and used in the U.S.A. There has always been some doubt that methodologies and techniques, namely dwelling unit interviews, developed for use in U.S. cities would work in cities of developing countries. The results of the study indicated that such methods proved to be useful and effective. In spite of the higher residential density and lower level of car ownership, trip rates in the city of Beirut were within the ranges observed in U.S. cities. The comparison of travel parameters acquired from various cities around the world might show that the regularities and trends in urban transportation are universal.
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 431-442 
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 453-454 
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 443-451 
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 53-70 
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    Notes: Abstract The trip end models which have been used in past transportation studies are briefly summarised. Problems associated with the use of zone-based models are outlined and reasons are given to support the development of models at the household rather than zonal level. It is suggested that recent developments which have taken place in household-based models have not been entirely logical. In particular, arguments between regression models and category analysis models have been confused with the use of aggregate (zonal) as against disaggregate (household) data — regression models being associated with the use of zonal data and category analysis models with household data. Misunderstood arguments and false notions regarding sample sizes have directed attention from the regression analysis approach. A detailed comparison of the category analysis and regression analysis methods for developing household-based trip end models is given. Both methods have been applied using data from the Monmouthshire Land Use Transportation Study. The regression results reported are from a very preliminary analysis and contain a number of anomalies, although it is thought that sufficient work has been done to provide an objective evaluation of the two methods. It is recommended that the household regression approach should be further investigated since it has advantages as a modelbuilding procedure and makes better use of sample data. A certain amount of categorisation of household types is necessary and the investigations would attempt to determine the best balance between categorisation and regression fitting. Further development will be restricted if the trend towards minimum sample sizes of about 1000 households is continued. Larger samples should be taken in certain circumstances to pursue development work.
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 87-96 
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 195-218 
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    Notes: Abstract Urban transit in the United States is going through a crisis of rising costs, increasing fares, falling patronage, and concomitant service reductions; typical of the pattern is San Francisco’s Municipal Railway, the agency in charge of all the City’s transit. From a basic fare of 15c in 1969, two increases brought the fare to 25c by 1972, and cut sharply into a previously stable patronage. The “Muni”, in an effort to reduce costs and meet its budgeted deficit, attempted to reduce service by ten to fifteen percent. From an analysis of the data which could be obtained, it appears that neither efficiency not equity in the City would have been served by the proposed cutbacks. The analysis draws from a variety of sources and methods in exploring the interactions within the transportation system and within the city budget.
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 121-152 
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    Notes: Abstract This article documents the development of a direct travel demand model for bus and rail modes. In the model, the number of interzonal work trips is dependent on travel times and travel costs on each available mode, size and socioeconomic characteristics of the labor force, and the number of jobs. In estimating the models’ coefficients constraints are imposed to insure that the travel demand elasticities behave according to the economic theory of consumer behavior. The direct access time elasticities for both transit modes are estimated to be approximately minus two, and the direct linehaul time elasticities approximately minus one. The cross-elasticities with respect to the travel time components are estimated to be less than the corresponding direct elasticities. In general, the time cross-elasticities are such that rail trip characteristics but not car trip characteristics affect bus travel, and car trip characteristics but not bus trip characteristics affect rail travel. The cost elasticities lie between zero and one-half. Thus, the success of mass transit serving a strong downtown appears to depend on good access arrangements. This success can be confirmed with competitive linehaul speeds. The cost of travel appears to assume a minor role in choice of mode and tripmaking decisions. In the paper, a comparison is also made between the predictive performance of the models developed and that of a traditional transit model. The results indicate that the econometric models developed attain both lower percent error and lower variation of the error than the traditional model.
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 237-242 
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. II 
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    Notes: Abstract Hypotheses are developed about the effects of telecommunication advances on urban growth patterns and urban travel demands. It is suggested that CBD (central business district) office employment might decentralize if telecommunications could effectively substitute for short inter-office business trips and that job decentralization would alter journey-to-work patterns and the viability of certain public transit systems. Major research questions are raised and keyed to an extensive bibliography.
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. II 
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    Notes: Abstract Urban transit in the United States is going through a crisis of rising costs, increasing fares, falling patronage, and concomitant service reductions; typical of the pattern is San Francisco’s Municipal Railway, the agency in charge of all the City’s transit. From a basic fare of I 5c in 1969, two increases brought the fare to 25c by 1972, and cut sharply into a previously stable patronage. The “Muni”, in an effort to reduce costs and meet its budgeted deficit, attempted to reduce service by ten to fifteen percent. From an analysis of the data which could be obtained, it appears that neither efficiency not equity in the City would have been served by the proposed cutbacks. The analysis draws from a variety of sources and methods in exploring the interactions within the transportation system and within the city budget.
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. I 
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    Notes: Abstract This article documents the development of a direct travel demand model for bus and rail modes. In the model, the number of interzonal work trips is dependent on travel times and travel costs on each available mode, size and socioeconomic characteristics of the labor force, and the number of jobs. In estimating the models’ coefficients constraints are imposed to insure that the travel demand elasticities behave according to the economic theory of consumer behavior. The direct access time elasticities for both transit modes are estimated to be approximately minus two, and the direct linehaul time elasticities approximately minus one. The cross-elasticities with respect to the travel time components are estimated to be less than the corresponding direct elasticities. In general, the time cross-elasticities are such that rail trip characteristics but not car trip characteristics affect bus travel, and car trip characteristics but not bus trip characteristics affect rail travel. The cost elasticities lie between zero and one-half. Thus, the success of mass transit serving a strong downtown appears to depend on good access arrangements. This success can be confirmed with competitive linehaul speeds. The cost of travel appears to assume a minor role in choice of mode and tripmaking decisions. In the paper, a comparison is also made between the predictive performance of the models developed and that of a traditional transit model. The results indicate that the econometric models developed attain both lower percent error and lower variation of the error than the traditional model.
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    Transportation 2 (1973), S. 245-280 
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    Notes: Abstract Dynamic transport planning refers to the analysis of the problem of choice of implementation date of the construction or improvement of transport facilities. This analysis may also include consideration of stage construction or progressive improvements in quality and/or capacity over time, beginning from some relatively low standard. A transport facility is defined as a vehicle (e.g., automobile, airplane) or a supporting facility (e.g., highway, port). There appears at present to be a serious lack of any truly comprehensive evaluation of the essentials of the problem of choice of implementation date. It is the intent of the ensuing presentation to help to rectify that situation by introducing new concepts which structure the timing problem. The concepts are based on a suggested classification of future traffic and definitions of independent and indivisible facilities. In addition, volume of traffic and benefits of a transport facility are recognized to be dependent on calendar time and the facility's age. Presently, no uniform theoretical framework exists for establishing the optimal time for constructing new facilities or improving existing ones. A framework based on the aforementioned concepts is introduced. It distinguishes between the phasing of projects through time in the absence of budget constraints and this phasing in the presence of such restrictions. The specific procedures suggested in this paper for the analysis of the problem of choice of implementation date apply to any individual transport facility and tend to unify the concepts involved in dynamic transport planning. The article concludes with a survey of current approaches to dynamic transport planning and discusses these in the light of the above framework.
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 55-67 
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    Notes: Abstract This paper discusses the aesthetic and ecological effects of highways. Little is known about the subject at the present time, and thus this treatment cannot be considered in any sense definitive. Part I offers a definition of aesthetic quality and considers its relevance to highway planning. It is noted that, although the principles of rural freeway design (curvilinear alignments, variable medians, etc.) generally accord with the aesthetic character of rural areas, freeways are infinitely more difficult to integrate aesthetically into urban areas. Comparisons are made in this regard among basic types of freeways. Part II notes that the effect of man's presence on the earth's ecology has resulted in new systems and processes to which man is now subject. Highways, as works of man, affect him and his environment in ways which are known only imperfectly. Nevertheless, there are steps which can be taken to minimize the more obvious forms of damage to the environment which can result from highway building. Part III discusses procedures for incorporating aesthetic and ecological considerations into highway planning. No method yet proposed is in itself sufficient, and none leads to a decision on an objective basis. A generally acceptable method must await further research. In the meantime, every effort must be made to assure full and fair consideration of environmental effects on an ad hoc basis.
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 177-196 
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    Notes: Abstract Urban transportation is identified as a functional element in the broader context of urban facilities and services. From this point of view, the relative merits of separate information systems for transportation planning and general urban planning, as contrasted to unified systems for all urban management functions, are discussed. The overriding need to make the most effective use of urban resources argues strongly for the unification of urban information systems to the greatest possible extent consistent with the special data requirements of various functional programs. The need to identify and correlate data items for very small areal units and to keep current records of the constantly shifting patterns of social and economic activities in urban areas present difficult, but not insurmountable technical problems. However, the most serious barrier to the development and implementation of comprehensive urban information systems is concluded to be institutional, rather than technical, in nature.
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 207-226 
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 151-176 
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    Notes: Abstract Etarea is a planned satellite town for Prague, the capital of Czechoslovakia, located some 10 km from the outskirts of the capital. Its projected population of 135,000 will live in 13 residential areas, each of which will have its own retail centre in addition to the main retail centre. The plans for Etarea incorporate a unique approach to the related problems of the storage and distribution of goods within urban areas. All incoming goods will be delivered by road or rail, and possibly in the future by water, to a central storage complex. Goods for the retail trade are distributed from this central store by automated trains pulled by battery-powered trucks, each train having a capacity of 8.75 tons. The trains, which run in a network of underground tunnels, 2 \sX 2.5 meters in cross section, are guided by an optical sensing system. The underground network comprises 3 main routes with branches serving the individual centres. Secondary storage facilities are planned for each of the 14 retail centres where unit loads received from the main storage centre are subdivided for retail sale. One of the proposed methods of retail distribution provides for the fully automated delivery of goods from the retail centres direct to the consumer's household. This is accomplished by means of a pneumatic tube system similar to that used for handling cash in some large stores. Orders will be placed by dialling the code number assigned to the required item, given in a catalogue of available goods. Provided that the customer's account is in credit the order will be accepted and the goods automatically dispatched from the local centre; delivery is estimated to take between 2.5 and 11.5 minutes depending on the distance of the customer's house from the centre. The same system is utilised for the delivery of regular orders for such items as newspapers and magazines as well as for mail and for the the removal of household refuse. In addition to the automated system each retail centre will also have over-the-counter, self-service and slot machine facilities for the sale of goods. All proposals for goods storage and distribution planned for Etarea are based on existing technologies.
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 227-238 
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 239-245 
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    Notes: Abstract Citizen participation at the neighborhood level will become effective only if reliable procedures can be developed for involving residents in the formulation of alternative plans before official decisions are made. Therefore, a research project in transportation planning was conducted in the Pico-Union neighborhood of Los Angeles, California, in order to design and test methods for producing reliable information that could be used by the neighborhood as well as by city transportation planners. The transportation problem of most concern to the residents of Pico-Union was the patterns and uses of their local streets, rather than the usual trip-to-work problem. Two independent methods were designed for determining what street patterns and uses were most preferred by the resident: a home-interview method and a photo-comparison method. The second enabled residents to compare photographic simulations of many possible re-designs of one of their local streets, and to make individual and group decisions about them. Results of the two methods generally agreed. However, one part of the research revealed that significant differences in decisions occur when simple changes are made in the orientation and sequence of the same two photographic simulations. Methods can be developed for obtaining information useful in urban planning at the neighborhood level by involving residents in an iterative learning and decision process. Broadly representative interdisciplinary teams are needed for further research to improve the reliability of such methods and for putting them into practice.
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 246-246 
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 197-206 
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    Notes: Abstract This article deals with the Transportation Study currently nearing completion in Dublin. A feature of this Study was the use of simplified data collection and modelling techniques. Beginning with a brief outline of the background to the transportation problem in Dublin, the article goes on to outline the objectives of the Study and the methods by which these objectives were fulfilled. These methods involved the taking of detailed inventories of Dublin's travel patterns, of its land uses, population and employment, and of its road and public transport systems. Mathematical models were then developed and modified until they could simulate the existing travel patterns to an acceptable degree of accuracy. These models covered the Study's trip generation, modal split, trip distribution and trip assignment stages, and the forms taken by the models are dealt with in the article. The article ends with a summary of the main recommendations of the Dublin Transportation Study.
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 291-305 
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 247-264 
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    Notes: Abstract This paper develops recommendations for improving in an evolutionary manner the performance of our urban ground transportation systems. The strengths and limitations of present static control technology and current computer traffic signal and freeway surveillance and control systems in urban areas are described. A taxonomy of possible information and control configurations in urban traffic operations is developed. The alternatives in the taxonomy are analysed and used as the basis for recommending specific real time information and control functions for improving, in an evolutionary manner, the performance of urban ground transportation systems. The recommended improvements would allow for the first time a meaningful substitution of operational control for physical (static) capacity increases in urban transportation.
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 321-341 
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 307-319 
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    Notes: Abstract The demand for large-scale interregional transport modelling is growing as the ability to do this type of work increases. There is clearly a promise held out by modelling to answer questions of regional economic growth distribution of benefits and incidence of costs. However, many problems are still to be faced in the design and implementation of these models before these expectations can be fully realized. This paper treats some of these problems with suggestions as to how they can be handled.
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 356-356 
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 343-355 
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    Transportation 1 (1972), S. 265-289 
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    Notes: Abstract An examination of the relationship between energy supplies and transportation systems indicates that a major confrontation is forthcoming. Predictions of the world's petroleum supplies and the primary dependence of transportation systems on petroleum show that there will be a depletion of these supplies in the next 50 years unless major changes in transportation and energy planning and policy making are forthcoming. A closer examination of specific transportation systems through the use of the transportation/ energy efficiency indicates that automobiles, aircraft and intercity trucking are most inefficient on a mobility per unit of petroleum basis. Recommendations on the difficult problem of how to account for the depletion characteristics of transportation systems are given. These include coordinated transportation and energy planning, restricted petroleum and transportation toll and tax rates, research and development on propulsion systems less dependent on petroleum, and a shifting of emphasis to higher transportation/energy efficiency systems such as compact automobiles, buses and trains.
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    Transportation 1 (1973), S. 357-357 
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    Transportation 1 (1973), S. 359-363 
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    Transportation 1 (1973), S. 403-418 
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    Notes: Abstract Transportation planning and comprehensive planning have evolved as separate and frequently conflicting fields of professional activity. Current relationships between both types of planning are characterized by increasing frustration and declining effectiveness in the national pursuit of public development policy objectives. At the federal level, ambivalence toward comprehensive planning has hampered the development of planning capacity among state, metropolitan, and local agencies, while unquestioning pursuit of federal-aid highway construction has produced a monolithic transportation planning establishment operating at a single level of government and dominated by a single mode. The results of the current separatism characteristic of comprehensive planning and transportation planning are apparent in a pattern of local injunctions against highway projects, belated analyses of a comprehensive range of environmental and socio-economic factors inherent in highway construction, and widespread public demand for a reassessment of the true costs and benefits of highway systems. Organizational and structural prescriptions are offered to achieve more appropriate relationships between transportation planning and comprehevensive planning institutions in order to achieve the potential benefits of both through integrated action.
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    Transportation 1 (1973), S. 455-455 
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    Transportation 1 (1973), S. 365-377 
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    Notes: Abstract “Planning” occurs as a part of governmental operations wherever “decision-making” happens. For US metropolitan areas, the locuses of decision-making are multiple, ranging in scale from very small jurisdictions up through the hierarchy to state and federal levels, and in function from general governments to many special-purpose agencies — transportation, health care, education, etc. Almost all might affect or be affected by urban transportation decisions and actions. Since no one of these units of government is comprehensive in authority and activity, there is no single, centralized planning operation that is truly “comprehensive.” “Pluralistic planning” is increasingly trying to foresee and to accommodate the interactions among the various levels and functions. Instead of fragmenting, with the fragments pulled apart and insulated, we need to move toward partitioning, not merely to delimit boundaries but also to identify interfaces. This movement is hampered by the differentials in the development of the “state-of-the-art” of the technical planning process now used by the several levels and functional units of government. This is most advanced, and most effective, for small, homogeneous suburban jurisdictions primarily concerned with guiding and controlling physical development; it is in disarray in central cities trying to cope with social and economic problems as well as with physical deterioration; at the metropolitan scale it is highly developed technically but not very influential. There is a trend toward a network of planning activities that recognizes and facilitates interrelationships and interactions, both vertically among functional boundaries and horizontally across geographical-scale distinctions — a trend toward the “comprehensive” —but we have a very long way to go.
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    Transportation 1 (1973), S. 379-401 
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    Notes: Abstract This paper traces the development of urban transportation planning in the United States, focusing particularly on the influence that three previous conferences -Sagamore (1958), Hershey (1962), and Williamsburg (1965) - have had on the course of this development. Included also are comments on the current state of the art of urban transportation planning and observations as to its future direction. The Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1934, which authorized the use of “1 $${\raise0.7ex\hbox{$1$} \!\mathord{\left/ {\vphantom {1 2}}\right.\kern-\nulldelimiterspace}\!\lower0.7ex\hbox{$2$}}$$ percent funds” for highway planning is identified as the progenitor of urban transportation planning in the U.S., and two reports based on information developed by the highway planning surveys first funded under the 1934 Act, “Toll Roads and Free Roads” (1939) and “Interregional Highways” (1944), are credited with preparing the ground for much of the urban transportation planning that was to follow. The rapid development of home interview survey techniques in the late 1940's and the full-scale introduction of computer technology in the Detroit Area Transportation Study are noted, as is the work of the National Committee on Urban Transportation, which was initiated in 1954 under sponsorship of the Automotive Safety Foundation. In addition to its substantial technical contributions, the NCUT, through its success in mobilizing the cooperative efforts of virtually every major group concerned with urban transportation, stimulated significant gains in Federal-State-local relationships and paved the way for increased Federal aid to cities in solving their local transportation problems. The impact of the 1956 and 1962 Federal-Aid Highway Acts on urban transportation planning is assessed. The substantial contributions, of the Hartford, Sagamore, Hershey, and Williamsburg conferences are discussed, as are their shortcomings. It is noted that many of our present concerns — environmental impacts, relationships between transportation and land use, need for cooperation among all levels of government, the multi-modal nature of urban transportation, and the need for citizen involvement, to name a few — were incorporated in the provisions of either one or another of the Federal-Aid statutes in the 1950's and ‘60's or appear in the recommendations of the several conferences. That these matters still concern us today is given as evidence that planning has not fully lived up to its promise and responsibility, that more rather than less planning is needed, and that, above all, new leadership to pick up where the old has left off must soon assert itself.
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    Transportation 1 (1973), S. 461-474 
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 127-146 
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    Notes: Abstract The purpose of this paper is to explore an important and unique role which community participation and involvement can play in a revised transportation planning process. A review of diverse views about community participation, as well as a critique of the current urban transportation planning process, reveals that the former has played, primarily, ad hoc opportunistic and diverse roles, and that the latter is in desperate need for dynamic, subjective, “impact” information — required to assess attractive transportation systems. The contributions of several disciplines — economics, operations research, management science, political science, public administration, and others — are reviewed to assist in the development of a conceptual framework for a new community participation role, as a provider of key information to the planning process. An eclectic, experimental approach is recommended to explore the possibilities further.
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 95-126 
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    Notes: Abstract Oxford Street in London, is the capital's principal shopping street and famous throughout the Western World; it is also the most obvious route from the city of London to the West, the Midlands and the North of England. The conflict between its twin roles of shopping centre and major traffic route was demonstrated in its accident record which put Oxford Street top of the list of accident blackspots in London, whilst its location in the most fashionable area of London make the costs of new road construction prohibitive. A comprehensive accident analysis defined the pedestrian/vehicle conflict by time and place and facilitated the detail design of a limited traffic ban with associated rerouting. Considerable uncertainties in prediction of the resulting traffic conditions, in the absence of data on demand elasticity, dominated the design of the experiment and led to the inclusion of an “avert chaos” policy. Traffic predictions which included details of the probable manner in which congestion would spread were assisted by a new network simulation model developed by one of the authors and described here. The report outlines the history of the experiment from conception to implementation (in record time) and reports some early and generally encouraging results. On the strength of which the Greater London Council has confirmed the scheme (August 1973) and has announced plans for its extension to the remaining half of Oxford Street — from Oxford Circus to St. Giles' Circus — which still carries the full weight of traffic.
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 183-184 
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 193-224 
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    Notes: Abstract This paper describes the results, to date, of an effort to integrate a land use model with a transportation network model for the purpose of analyzing the interrelationships of transportation facility development and land development. In the system which has been developed each model provides input to, and receives feedbacks from, each other model. To the author's knowledge, the effort described here represents the first successful attempt to develop and test an integrated model package involving these reciprocal relationships. The results obtained from preliminary runs of this package should be of considerable interest to both transportation planners and land use planners. With this integrated system it has been possible to observe the interrelationships, and in particular the feedbacks, between land use and levels of traffic on the networks. Preliminary results indicate that congested networks produce tendencies toward metropolitan centralization. Attempts to relieve congestion seem to produce metropolitan decentralization and increased travel which lead, in turn, to metropolitan sprawl and increased spread of congestion.
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 255-288 
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    Notes: Abstract With the publication of the Sydney Area Transportation Study, land-use/transportation studies now have been conducted in all capital cities as well as in the majority of other urban areas with populations in excess of 40.000. A review of these studies is made and a qualitative assessment is attempted of the technical phases —land-use planning, trip-generation, trip-distribution, modal-split, traffic assignment and evaluation. Full summary results of this comparative survey are presented in tabular form, although themes developed in the text are illustrated with specific examples from individual studies. The methodology of land-use/transportation studies has been attacked by some Australian writers. An attempt is made to assess the relevance of these criticisms when applied to the practical planning process in Australia.
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 311-312 
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 313-322 
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 335-342 
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    Notes: Abstract This paper is intended to provide a general background to the two following papers, “A Simultaneous Destination and Mode Choice Model for Shopping Trips” and “Some Estimation Results of a Simultaneous Model of Auto Ownership and Mode Choice to Work.” Some of the deficiences of the conventional urban transport modelling system are reviewed and a case is made for the use of simultaneous models estimated with disaggregate data.
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 357-376 
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    Notes: Abstract This paper describes the theory, development and estimation of a simultaneous disaggregate model of automobile ownership and mode to work choices. The motivation for such a model and the general theory of the simultaneous probabilistic choice model are briefly discussed. The general model specification and the set of choices assumed to be available to each household is then considered. Finally, the variables used in the model are defined and the estimation results are presented.
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 377-392 
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    Notes: Abstract A mode choice decision structure incorporating traveler attitudes toward modes and situational constraints is investigated. The major hypothesis tested is that mode choice is determined primarily by situational constraints, such as auto ownership and income, secondly by the quality of alternative modes. The structure of the mode choice process is analyzed with respect to (1) applicability of certain choice criterion forms; (2) psychological weighting of modal attributes in the choice criterion; (3) strength of logit, probit, and discriminant functional forms; (4) the relative strength of socio-economic and attitudinal variables in predicting mode choice. An evaluation is made of 50 binary choice models fitted to a sample of 471 randomly drawn urban travelers. Results indicate that (1) the four choice criterion forms tested are all about equal in predictive strength; (2) psychological weighting has no effect on model strength, but does influence which modal attributes appear to determine choice; (3) the three functional forms tested are all about equal in strength; (4) situational factors account for 80–90% of variation explained by the models, attitudes toward modes 10–20%, thus confirming the primary hypothesis. Implications of these results for mode choice modeling and transit planning are discussed.
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    Transportation 3 (1974), S. 393-408 
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    Notes: Abstract Even where unreliability has been recognised as a significant component in the generalised cost of trip-making, few attempts have been made to quantify it in the evaluation of transport improvements. This neglect is perhaps explained by the difficulty of observing a suitable “trade-off” situation in which transport users can trade money directly or indirectly for improved reliability of their transport modes. This article investigates the characteristics of a possible trade-off which might be made by commuters — the allowance of extra time for travelling in order to avoid unpredictable lateness at destination. The form of the costs of a response to unreliability of this nature is considered within a more general framework of the allocation of time under uncertainty or risk conditions. Certain other approaches to the evaluation of travel unreliability are reviewed and a brief outline is given to a current research project which attempts to test the applicability of the “safety margin” in London commuters' timing of the trips that they take to work.
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 2 (1970), S. 71-74 
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 2 (1970), S. 112-116 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary Repair and Reconstruction of Railway Tunnels During Traffic Maintenance The reconstruction and repair of railway tunnels on lines of the Czechoslovak State Railways (CSD) requires — especially on main lines with high traffic density — special kinds of solution. New, progressive methods enable a considerable increase in efficiency and much shorter working times. The method of tunnel reconstruction during railway traffic maintenance is based on a modification of the ring tunnelling system. This system takes advantage of the natural properties of the rock mass for the stabilization of the expanded tunnel tube. For a successful application of this kind of renovation a profound knowledge of the laws of origin and effects of rock pressures (their magnitude and direction) is absolutely necessary, and also an exact geotechnical prospection to reliably ascertain the properties of the rock mass. The article is dealing with the reasons for renovations, with a new working method for tunnel reconstruction and its techniques. A completely mechanized working train can be applied for the renovation works.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Ausbesserung und Umbau von Eisenbahntunneln während des Betriebes Die Ausbesserung und der Umbau von Eisenbahntunneln auf den Strecken der Tschechoslowakischen Eisenbahnen (CSD) erfordert, namentlich auf Strecken mit hoher Verkehrsdichte, Lösungen ganz besonderer Art. Neue, fortschrittliche Methoden können dabei eine wesentliche Leistungssteigerung und erheblich kürzere Baufristen ermöglichen. Die hier behandelte Methode der Tunnelerneuerung unter Aufrechterhaltung des Betriebes beruht auf einer Modifizierung des Ringausbausystems. Diese Bauart nützt die natürlichen Eigenschaften des Gebirges zur Stabilisierung des aufgeweiteten Tunnelhohlraumes aus. Voraussetzung zur erfolgreichen Anwendung dieser Erneuerungsart ist eine gründliche Kenntnis der Gesetze der Entstehung und Wirkung der Gebirgsdrücke (Größe, Wirkungsrichtung) und eine genaue geotechnische Aufnahme, welche die Eigenschaften des Gebirges verläßlich feststellt. Der Aufsatz behandelt die Gründe für Erneuerungsarbeiten, eine neue Arbeitsmethode zum Tunnelumbau und deren Techniken. Bei den Erneuerungsarbeiten kann eine komplett mechanisierte Arbeitsgarnitur auf Waggons angewendet werden.
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 2 (1970), S. 120-122 
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 2 (1970), S. 173-175 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary Stress Phenomena over Galleries in Prestressed Sandy Gravel The outlets of an airraid shelter in prestressed gravel have been observed to widen like a trumpet due to the spalling of stressed shales. Distressing at the tunnel outlet can lead to dangerous collapse of the tunnel entrance.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Spannungserscheinungen über Stollen in vorgepreßten sandigen Kiesen Die Ausmündungen einer Luftschutzanlage, die in vorgepreßten Kiesen angelegt war, erweitern sich durch das Abplatzen von Entspannungsschalen trompetenförmig. Die Spannungen, die am Stollenmundloch herrschen, führen oft zu Zusammenbrüchen am Stollenbeginn.
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 2 (1970), S. 177-180 
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 2 (1970), S. 181-188 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Experimenteller Nachweis zur Dilatanz als volumenbezogene Eigenschaft spröder, bis zum Bruch belasteter Körper. Dilatanz, d. h. relative Volumenvergrößerung im Vergleich zur elastischen Zusammendrückung, ist ein Phänomen, welches häufig bei der Druckbeanspruchung von Gesteinen beobachtet werden kann. Diese Erscheinung ist für das Verständnis der Bruchvorgänge von Gesteinen und deren Anwendung auf geologische und technische Probleme von beträchtlicher Bedeutung. Ein Großteil der bisherigen Untersuchungen zu dieser Frage wurde an kleinen zylindrischen Probekörpern mit großem Verhältnis von Oberfläche : Volumen durchgeführt. Bei diesen Versuchen wurden meist Dehnmeßstreifen an die Oberfläche der Probekörper geklebt. Demnach kann die Möglichkeit nicht ausgeschlossen werden, daß die beobachtete Dilatation infolge abnormaler Oberflächenverformungen ein Oberflächenphänomen ist. Messungen der Dilatation an der Innen- und Außenseite eines hohlen zylindrischen Probekörpers während der Druckbeanspruchung in einem homogenen Spannungsfeld bilden eine Möglichkeit, diese Ungewißheit zu beseitigen. Im Falle einer oberflächengebundenen Dilatation würde es zu einer relativen Verkleinerung des inneren Querschnittes des hohlen Probekörpers kommen, während die Dilatation der Außenseite mit der Verformung anwachsen würde. Demgegenüber würde es im Falle der Dilatation als einer volumetrischen Eigenschaft zu einer ähnlichen relativen Vergrößerung des inneren Querschnittes des hohlen Probekörpers und des Probekörpers selbst kommen. Die Experimente an hohlen zylindrischen Probekörpern aus Quarzit zeigen, daß die Dilatanz ein volumetrisches Phänomen ist.
    Abstract: Résumé Expérience prouvant que la dilatance est répartie dans tout le volume des roches fragiles chargées jusqu'à la rupture. La dilatance, c'est-à-dire l'augmentation de volume par rapport à la déformation élastique en compression, se manifeste souvent quand on comprime des échantillons de roche jusqu'à la rupture. Ce phénomène a une importance considérable pour la compréhension des processus de rupture des roches, et pour les applications aux problèmes géologiques et géotechniques. La plupart des essais ont été faits à ce jour sur de petits échantillons cylindriques, dont la surface est grande par rapport au volume, le plus souvent au moyen de jauges à résistance collées sur la surface de l'échantillon. Il reste la possibilité que la dilatance mesurée ne soit qu'un phénomène superficiel, dû à des déformations anormales de la surface. Pour lever cette incertitude, on peut mesurer la dilatance à la fois sur la surface externe et sur la surface interne de cylindres creux soumis à des contraintes homogènes: une dilatance superficielle produirait une diminution de la section du trou et une augmentation de la section totale, tandis qu'une dilatance répartie dans tout le volume produirait des augmentations de section similaires. Les essais sur cylindres creux de quartzite montrent que la dilatance est un phénomène réparti dans tout le volume.
    Notes: Summary An Experiment Proving that Dilatancy is a Pervasive Volumetric Property of Brittle Rock Loaded to Failure. Dilatancy, that is, volumetric expansion relative to the compression resulting from elastic deformation is often observed in the compression of rock specimens to failure. This phenomenon is of considerable importance to the understanding of the processes of rock failure and in their application to geological and engineering problems. Most of the observations to date have been made on small cylindrical specimens of rock, with a high surface area to volume ratio; frequently by means of resistance strain gauges cemented to the surface of the specimen. The possibility of the measured dilatancy being a superficial phenomenon due to anomalous surface deformations cannot be excluded. Measurements of dilatant deformation on the inside and outside of hollow cylindrical specimens during compression under homogeneous stresses provide a means of resolving this uncertainty. Superficial dilatancy would result in a relative diminution of the cross-section of the hole as that of the outside of the specimen increases with deformation; whereas pervasive volumetric dilatancy would result in similar relative increases in the cross-section of both the hole and the specimen. Experiments on hollow cyclindrical specimens of quartzite show that dilatancy is a pervasive volumetric phenomenon.
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 2 (1970), S. 245-248 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary The Function of Rock Mechanics in Modern Tunnelling. For modern methods of tunnel driving it is necessary to apply new procedures of geological investigations including large-scale rock mechanics tests. This view holds equally for reconstruction projects. In addition to the mechanical properties of the rock masses it is necessary to determine the intrinsic stresses in the rock and in the tunnel lining, the thickness of the inelastic (relaxed) zone around the tunnel, as well as the possibility of grouting and anchoring.
    Abstract: Résumé Application de la mécanique des roches aux méthodes modernes de construction et de reconstruction des tunnels. Dans la technique moderne des tunnels il est nécessaire d'appliquer de nouvelles méthodes de reconnaissance comportant davantage d'essais de mécanique des roches. La même exigence est valable pour la reconstruction des tunnels. Outre les propriétés mécaniques du massif rocheux, on déterminera aussi les contraintes dans le rocher et dans le revêtement, l'épaisseur de la zone décomprimée et même les possibilités d'injection et de boulonnage.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Aufgaben der Felsmechanik bei neuzeitlichen Tunnelrekonstruktionen. Für die neuzeitliche Tunnelbauweise müssen neue Erkundungsmethoden mit erweitertem Umfang felsmechanischer Prüfungen angewandt werden. Diese Forderung soll ebenso bei Rekonstruktionen erfüllt werden. Außer den mechanischen Eigenschaften werden auch die innere Spannung im Felsmassiv und in der Ausmauerung, die Mächtigkeit der gelockerten Zone sowie die Injektions- und Verankerungsmöglichkeit bestimmt.
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 2 (1970), S. 205-222 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Eine Theorie für die Scherfestigkeit von Gröbstkornschüttungen (Steinbrockenschüttungen). Das vorhandene Wissen vom Wesen der Scherfestigkeit von Gröbstkornschüttungen sowie davon, wie und warum sie verschieden groß ist, ist unzulänglich. Es wird gezeigt, daß die Scherfestigkeit durch den entscheidenden Reibungswinkel von Gestein auf Gestein (Φ u ), den Hohlraum-Quotienten (e) und den Bruch von Teilchen (B) bestimmt wird, und daß sie von dem Quotienten aus größter und kleinster Hauptnormalspannung abhängt. Bei der Anwendung statistischer Methoden, welche mit einigen einfachen, auf Versuchen beruhenden Annahmen kombiniert werden, können Formeln für die Scherfestigkeit von Gröbstkornschüttungen abgeleitet werden. Theoretische Ergebnisse werden mit den Ergebnissen von Triaxialversuchen im Labor verglichen.
    Abstract: Résumé Une théorie pour la résistance au cisaillement des enrochements. Les connaissances actuelles sur la signification de la résistance au cisaillement des enrochements, et sur le pourquoi et le comment de ses variations sont insuffisantes. On montre que la résistance au cisaillement dépend de l'angle de frottement élémentaire rocher sur rocher (Φ u ), de l'indice des vides (e) et de la rupture des blocs (B), et qu'elle varie avec le rapport des contraintes principales extrêmes. Grâce à des méthodes statistiques et à quelques hypothèses simples basées sur un travail expérimental, on obtient des formules donnant la résistance au cisaillement des enrochements. Les résultats théoriques sont comparés avec les résultats d'essais triaxiaux au laboratoire.
    Notes: Summary A Theory for the Shear Strength of Rockfill Existing knowledge of the meaning of the shear strength of rock fill, and of how and why it varies is inadequate. Shear strength is shown to be controlled by the basic angle of friction of rock on rock (Φ u ), the voids ratio (e) and the particle breakage (B) and to be dependent on the ratio of major to minor principal stresses. Using statistical methods combined with some simple assumptions based on experimental work formulas are derived for the shear strength of rock fill. Theoretical results are compared with the results of laboratory triaxial tests.
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 2 (1970), S. 189-204 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Bestimmung des Verhaltens von sprödem Gestein nach dem Bruch mittels eines servogesteuerten Prüfgerätes. Es wird über ein neues Verfahren berichtet, den Bruch spröden Gesteins zu kontrollieren, nachdem seine maximale Bruchlast überschritten ist. Dieser Bereich ist im allgemeinen der Untersuchung nicht zugänglich, da bei der Verwendung herkömmlicher Belastungs-Maschinen vom Belastungs-System ein Überschuß an Energie frei wird, der für eine explosionsartige Zerstörung des Gesteins verantwortlich ist. Bei dem hier beschriebenen Verfahren wird das Freiwerden der im System gespeicherten Energie durch ein hochfrequentes, elektronisch geregeltes Servo-System in Verbindung mit einer Hydraulik mit kurzer Verzögerungszeit kontrolliert. Es wird dabei der Gesteinsprobe zu jedem Zeitpunkt nur so viel Energie zugeführt wie zur Aufrechterhaltung für den stabilen Bruch notwendig ist. Die theoretische Betrachtung des Systems zeigt, daß die Bedingung für den stabilen Bruch entlang der Post-Failure-Charakteristik durch die Fähigkeit des Belastungs-Systems bestimmt wird, rasch zu entladen. Der Begriff einer ‚dynamischen Steife‘ wird definiert. Für genügend kleine Verformungsgeschwindigkeiten und kurze Verzögerungszeiten des Servo-Systems kann der Bruch auch dann kontrolliert werden, wenn die Neigung der Post-Failure-Kurve sich sehr großen Werten (− ∞) nähert. Der Versuchsaufbau und die Versuchsdurchführung werden beschrieben und es werden einige Post-Failure-Kurven für Tennessee Kalkstein unter einachsiger und zweiachsiger Druckbeanspruchung wiedergegeben, wobei das neue Verfahren verwendet wurde.
    Abstract: Résumé Détermination du comportement après la rupture des roches fragiles au moyen d'une machine d'essai asservie. On présente un nouveau système pour contrôler la rupture des roches fragiles lorsque leur limite de rupture est dépassée. En général, il n'est pas possible d'étudier le comportement des roches dans ce domaine. L'emploi d'une machine d'essai traditionnelle libère inévitablement lorsque la limite de rupture est dépassée, un excès d'énergie qui provoque une violente désintégration de la roche. L'appareil, décrit dans cet article, contrôle la libération de l'énergie accumulée dans le système à l'aide d'un servosystème électronique à haute fréquence règlant un mécanisme hydraulique à temps de réponse très court. De cette facon, il est possible de limiter l'énergie transmise à la roche à la quantité nécessaire pour développer une rupture stable. L'analyse théorique du système révèle que la possibilité d'obtention d'une rupture stable, la limite de rupture ayant été dépassée, est déterminée par la rapidité avec laquelle le système hydraulique peut se décharger. Le concept de rigidité dynamique est défini. Si les vitesses de déformation sont petites et si les temps de réponse du servosystème sont courts, il est possible de contrôler la rupture, même lorsque la pente du diagramme effort-déformation tend à devenir infiniment raide, la limite de rupture étant dépassée. Le dispositif expérimental et l'exécution d'un essai sont décrits. Quelques diagrammes complets (y compris la partie descendante) d'un marbre du Tennessee pour les cas de compression simple et de compression double utilisant ce nouveau système sont présentés.
    Notes: Summary Determination of the Post-Failure Behavior of Brittle Rock Using a Servo-Controlled Testing Machine. The use of the servo-controlled testing machine to control fracture when a rock specimen is deformed beyond its peak strength is discussed. This region of deformation can not usually be examined because excess energy released by the loading system produces rapid disintegration of the specimen. In the test method described the energy release is controlled by a high frequency electronic servo-control system acting in combination with a hydraulic system of very short response time. The control causes the excess energy to be withdrawn before it can be released into the disintegrating specimen, by removing pressurized fluid from the hydraulic system. Theoretical considerations reveal that the condition for controlled fracture is determined by the ability of the hydraulic loading system to unload rapidly. This may be expressed in terms of a ‘dynamic stiffness’,K r , of the hydraulic system. For sufficiently small deformation rates and short servo-control response times the fracture process can be controlled, even though the unloading slope of the stress-strain curve of the rock specimen tends to become infinitely steep. The experimental technique is described in detail and some results obtained in studying the post-failure behavior of Tennessee Marble under uni-axial and bi-axial compression using the new system are presented.
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 2 (1970), S. 256-256 
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 2 (1970), S. 249-256 
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 3 (1971), S. 51-51 
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 3 (1971), S. 181-184 
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 4 (1972), S. 129-129 
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 4 (1972), S. 115-128 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Anwendung von Spritzbeton als Ausbau von Wasserstollen in wenig festem, wasserhaltigem Fels mit unbeschränkter Druckfestigkeit von ungefähr 1,9 kp/cm2 wird beschrieben. Die Stollen hatten eine Spannweite von 6 bis 8 m in Höhe der Mittellinie, die sich in einem Ausweitungsbereich bei einer Höhe von 6 bis 9 m bis auf 17 m vergrößerte. Ein ständiger Wasserzustrom von 25 l/s mit Schwallen bis 50 l/s wurde beobachtet. Im Ausweitungsbereich wurde kein innerer Stahlverbau benötigt, sondern es wurden 3 m lange, vorgemörtelte Bolzen zur Unterstützung des Felsens im Gewölbe verwendet. Scher- und Zugspannung entwickelten sich langsam in den Wänden des Übergangsbereiches, die dann geankert wurden. Im Hinblick auf Hohlraumbildungen durch Wassereinwirkung in den Wänden, die dem Ausbruch nachfolgend (6 m) entstanden, wurde ein Stahldrahtnetz unterhalb der Mittellinie in den Spritzbeton eingeführt. Geflutet und 12 Monate lang unter Wasser gelassen, entwickelte sich eine Bodenschwellung von 20–30 cm, ohne den Spritzbeton in den Wänden und im Gewölbe zu beschädigen. Die Sohlbögen wurden ohne Ausbau offen gelassen.
    Abstract: Résumé On décrit l'emploi du béton projeté comme soutènement dans des roches semiconsolidées, meubles, et aquafères, dont la résistance à la compression simple est de l'ordre de 2 bar. Les tunnels ont 6 à 9 m de hauteur, 6 à 7,5 m de largeur aux naissances et jusqu'à 16 m dans les bifurcations. Le débit d'exhaure est 25 l/s avec des pointes à 50 l/s. On n'a pas employé d'armatures métalliques dans les bifurcations, mais on a renforcé le terrain de la voûte par des boulons injectés de 3 m de longueur. Des contraintes de cisaillement et de traction se sont lentement développées dans les piédroits des bifurcations, qui ont dû être boulonnés aussi. A l'avancement du tunnel après la bifurcation (en 6 m de large) l'écoulement de l'eau a provoqué des cavités dans les piédroits. On a alors ajoté du grillage au béton projeté au-dessous des naissances. Après un an d'abandon sans épuiser l'eau, le radier qui n'avait pas été revêtu s'est soulevé de 20 à 30 cm sans endommager la voûte ni les piédroits en béton projeté.
    Notes: Summary The use of shotcrete is described as a structural support in tunnels in soft, waterbearing, semi-consolidated soil-rocks with an unconfined compressive strength ranging about 27 psi. The tunnels were 20′–25′ span at springline, widening to 56′ in a transition section, 20′–30′ in height. Continuous water inflows of 25 litres/sec with surges to 50 litres/sec were experienced. No interior steel reinforcement was used in the transition section, though 3 m grouted bolts were used for rock reinforcement of the arch. Shear and tensile stresses slowly developed in the walls about the transition section, which were then bolted. In the face of waterinduced wall cavitations occurring in subsequent (20′) tunnelling steel wire mesh was introduced in the shotcrete below springline. Abandoned for 12 months and left under water, floor heave of 20–30 cm developed, without damage to the shotcrete arch and walls. The inverts had been left open without lining.
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    Rock mechanics and rock engineering 4 (1972), S. 139-154 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Spannungsverteilung um einen Tunnel unter dem Einfluβ des Eigengewichtes Aufgrund experimenteller Studien wurden Verschiebungen und die Spannungsverteilung in der Umgebung eines kreisrunden Tunnels in einer vertikalen, schmalen Gesteinsschicht eines homogenen Mediums untersucht, welche unter dem Einfluß des Eigengewichtes derselben steht. Die Versuche wurden an Modellen aus einem sorgfältig plastifizierten Expoydharz durchgeführt, welches empfindlich genug ist, den Einfluß des Eigengewichtes deutlich zu machen. Die Verschiebungen wurden unter Anwendung des projizierenden Moiré-Verfahrens gemessen. Ein engmaschiger Meßraster wurde mittels eines parallel geführten Lichtstrahles auf einen ähnlichen, aber linearen Referenzraster projiziert, welcher auf eine Glasplatte aufgedruckt war. Die Verformung wurde dem Modell so aufgeprägt, daß dieses auf einem freien Ende aufgehängt und so, unter Umkehrung der Spannungen, durch sein Eigengewicht belastet war. Die Auswertung geschah durch Photographien in verschiedenen Zeitintervallen, wobei der Referenzraster abwechselnd parallel zu den beiden Hauptachsen des Modellkörpers ausgerichtet war. Dadurch konnten ausreichende Daten zur vollständigen Erfassung aller Verformungs- und Spannungskomponenten rund um den Tunnel erhalten werden. Die Spannungskomponenten wurden unter Voraussetzung der für diesen Fall gültigen elastischen Spannungs-Dehnungs-Beziehungen und der dem Material zugehörigen elastischen Materialkonstanten ermittelt. Die Auswertung ergab bedeutende Spannungskonzentrationen am Umfang des Hohlraumes. Die so erreichten Untersuchungsergebnisse können auf Probleme der Boden- und Felsmechanik angewendet werden.
    Abstract: Résumé Distribution des contraintes autour d'un tunnel situé dans une couche, sous l'action des forces de gravité Une étude expérimentale est presentée sur la distribution des déplacements et des contraintes dans une couche mince d'un milieu homogène, percé par un tunnel central de section circulaire, sous l'influence des forces de gravité. Les essais sont exécutés à l'aide de modèles en résine epoxide plastifiée présentant une très grande sensibilité sous l'action des forces de gravité. La méthode du moiré par image projeté a été utilisé pour les mesures de déplacements. Pour cela un réseau dense croisé, imprimé sur la surface du modèle, a été projeté sur un réseau de référence linéaire ayant le même pas. La déformation du modèle a été obtenue en utilisant la méthode d'inversion, dans laquelle le modèle est suspendu libre par une de ses extrémités, ayant ainsi la possibilité de se déformer sous l'action des forces de gravité. L'évaluation de toutes les composantes des déplacements et déformations autour du tunnel a été faite à l'aide d'un grand nombre des photos prises à des intervalles de temps différents. Les contraintes sont calculées à l'aide des relations élastiques entre les contraintes et les déformations, valables pour ce cas de sollicitation. L'examen des résultats a montré des valeurs importantes pour les contraintes au bord du tunnel. Les résultats de cette étude sont applicables dans des problèmes de mécanique des sols et des roches.
    Notes: Summary Stress Distribution Around a Tunnel Situated in a Layer Under the Action of Gravity An experimental investigation is presented of the displacement and stress distribution in a narrow layer made of a homogeneous medium, which contains a central circular tunnel, under the influence of its own weight. The tests were executed in models made of a strongly plasticized epoxy polymer, which were very sensitive to the influence of body forces. For the measurement of displacements theprojected image moiré method was used. A dense crossed grating was printed on the surface of the model, which was projected, by a parallel light beam, on a similar, but linear, reference grating, which was printed on a glass plate. The deformation of the model was achieved by the inversion method, where the model was freely suspended from the one extremity and left to deform by its own weight. A series of photographs at different time intervals, with the reference grating positioned successively parallely to the two principal axes of the specimen, gave sufficient data for the complete evaluation of all components of displacements and strains around the tunnel. The components of stresses were evaluated by using the elastic stress-strain relations holding for this case and the mechanical elastic constants valid for the material. Important stress-concentrations were revealed at the boundary of the cavity. The results derived from this investigation are applicable to problems of soil and rock mechanics.
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