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  • Cambridge University Press  (12,675)
  • American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)  (10,817)
  • International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
  • 1980-1984  (26,298)
  • 1955-1959  (3,618)
  • 1925-1929
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  • 1
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    Electronic Resource
    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 1-6 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
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  • 2
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 547-563 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: In 1961, soon after the beginning of the first United Nations Development Decade, a conference of African Ministers of Education was convened by Unesco. The meeting resolved, inter alia, that by the year 1980 primary schooling throughout the continent should be ‘universal, compulsory and free’.1 As we have now reached that date, it is appropriate to review progress. A few countries have achieved the goal, but many others have fallen short. This article will examine the experience of the last two decades, and assess its implications for ultimate objectives and the strategies for achieving them. Despite national policy variations and divergent social and economic conditions, instructive overall patterns may be discerned.
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  • 3
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 565-594 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: In the last few years there has been a growing interest in that very considerable and hitherto mostly unrecorded part of the economic life of the Third World which flourishes outside the state and foreign-owned medium and large-scale concerns. This great mass of non-enumerated enterprises and activities is a major source of employment and production. For the purpose of this article, it will be argued that many of those undertaking research in this sector can be regarded as belonging to one or other of two fairly distinct schools of thought formed by (1) a number of officials from the International Labour Organisation, the World Bank, and other international and government agencies, as well as some purely academic writers,1 and (2) the majority of social scientists attached to the British Sociological Association Development Group, some of whom operate to a greater or lesser extent within a Marxian or neo-Marxian perspective.2 For purposes of abbreviation only, these will be referred to as the ‘I.L.O.’ and the ‘Radical’ groups.
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  • 4
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 595-624 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: In his classic study of decentralisation and development, Henry Maddick argued that economic growth and social modernisation depend in part on the ability of Third-World govenments to diffuse responsibility for development planning and administration, to expand participation in economic activities, and to promote new centres of creativity within society. Over-concentration of administrative authority stifles development, Maddick insisted; it leads to waste and corruption, delays action, and creates irrational and inefficient management practices, the costs of which developing countries cannot afford.1 To illustrate his point, Maddick cited the effects of the centralised supply system in the Sudan in the late 1950s, through which ‘shoes made in Fasher were sent 400 miles by rail to Khartoum where the whole shoe supply was concentrated. When Fasher wanted shoes for school children and government personnel it had to send to Khartoum for them.’ He also noted that school desks and equipment for the provincial city of Juba had to be ordered from Khartoum, which was 900 miles away and connected only by inefficient river transport, even though the wood from which the furniture was made originally came from Juba.2
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  • 5
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 625-646 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: Theories of modernisation and social change have been increasingly challenged during the past decade by events in the Middle East and other areas of the developing world. Leaders of oil-rich nations are choosing to industrialise but not to westernise, and Islamic revivals are shaping new patterns of political and social development. For example, improvements in female status can no longer be regarded as the inevitable concomitants of industrialisation; to the contrary, gender inequality may actually be exacerbated by national resurgences of religious and cultural traditions which often accompany planned social change.1
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  • 6
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 647-665 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: Foreign investment in South Africa during the past 20 years has been subject to criticism form several diverse schools of thought, ranging from those who believe it has contributed to country's economic growth without improving the condition of the black workers, to those who maintain that – at best – apartheid has been modernised rather than fundamentally changed.Today the focus of attention has shifted to collective bargaining and trade union rights, to the action that can be taken on their own behalf by the ecomomically underprivileged and the politically dispossessed, and to the assistance which foreign-owned companies have been given in improving the terms and conditions of employment of their own non-white employees by the codes of conduct that have quite recently been adopted by their own governments.
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  • 7
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 705-708 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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  • 8
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  • 9
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 667-704 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: People of quite diverse social position and perspective have turned to economic growth as a source of political change in South Africa. Contained within the concept of growth, they maintain, are processes — capital accumulation and class formation, business enterprise and markets, changing skill and capital requirements – that, at the very least, allow some blacks a more secure and higher living standard, that may bring greater equality between the races, or more profoundly, confound traditional racial lines and privileges of quite diverse social position and perspective have turned to economic growth as a source of political change in South Africa. Contained within the concept of growth, they maintain, are processes — capital accumulation and class formation, business enterprise and markets, changing skill and capital requirements – that, at the very least, allow some blacks a more secure and higher living standard, that may bring greater equality between the races, or more profoundly, confound traditional racial lines and privileges. Indeed, some argue that growth undermines the foundations of the racial state. Many of those who posit a relationship between economics and politics, take the next logical step: supporting actions, including foreign investment, that foster economic growth and, presumably, political change in South Africa.
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  • 10
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
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  • 11
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  • 12
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 715-717 
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  • 13
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 717-719 
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  • 14
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 719-720 
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  • 15
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 1-10 
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  • 16
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 722-728 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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  • 17
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 499-502 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: Urban unemployment and underemployment are widespread problems in Africa, perhaps more so than on other continents. It is a truism, apparently accepted by most governments, that capital is scarce, and that the rate of development and employment creation are constrained by the relative scarcity of capital equipment and the slow rate of capital formation. And yet these two observations, challengeable but generally accepted as commonplace and obvious truths, co-exist in much of Africa with a paradoxical third statement: that much of the urban capital stock, particularly in the modern-service sectors – government, education, large-scale commerce, finance, etcetera – is utilised at a very low rate, typically of the order of 25–30 per cent of the potential maximum. This brief note speculates on the reasons for this state of affairs, and explores the consequences of adopting a possible policy designed to produce a significant change.
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  • 18
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 513-515 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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  • 19
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 221-256 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: Virtually all analyses of Lesotho's political framework have agreed that strong elements of national identity have neither forestalled domestic conflict nor served to promote a unified assault on awesome economic problems. Hence many writers imply that a major asset, rarely found in independent Africa, has been wasted.1 Roger Leys has perceptively applied dependency theories of a ‘labour reserve’ economy to Lesotho,2 and spends considerable effort on historical analysis aimed at demonstrating the duration and pervasiveness of this process of systematic underdevelopment. In his conclusion he suggests that ‘the long and courageous battle of the Basotho to assert their dignity and worth is in fact a resource and political weapon of incomparable significance in the long-term battle for the liberation of southern Africa.’ Leys infers that national and class identities are interrelated, and possibly reinforcing, when he says that ‘the history of the struggle of the Basotho people and the very degree of their integration into the black working class of South Africa is a formidable weapon.’3
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  • 20
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 307-335 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: Ethiopia has long been regarded as the only African state, along with Liberia, to have escaped the ravages of European colonialism, the epitome of African independence and self-determination.1 It was also considered a stable, relatively integrated, and viable political community amidst a continent of new states characterised by chronic instability.2 But by 1974, most if not all of these myths were in the process of being broken, as Ethiopia struggled for its very existence against pressures from within and without that threatened to dismember the Empire.
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  • 21
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 337-339 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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  • 22
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  • 23
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  • 24
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  • 25
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 345-347 
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  • 26
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 348-350 
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  • 27
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 347-348 
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  • 28
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 350-351 
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  • 29
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 356-357 
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  • 30
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 75-105 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: Mauritius became independent on 12 March 1968, and was then said to be the paradigm of the small isolated, poor, dependent country, only emerging from the colonial era to fall immediately into neocolonialism – the Third World's Third World.
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  • 31
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    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 107-132 
    ISSN: 0022-278X
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    Notes: In 1955 the South African Government began to demolish a black freehold suburb in Johannesburg, and to relocate its inhabitants in a state-controlled township. Resistance to these moves by the leading black political organisation of the time, the African National Congress (A.N.C.), was short-lived and unsuccessful. Despite its abortive nature, the attempt to oppose the destruction of Sophiatown was historically significant for several reasons.
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  • 32
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 57-73 
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: In the course of several field studies carried out during 1978–9 on behalf of the Working Group on Recurrent Costs established by the Comité Inter-états de Lutte contre la Sécheresse dans le Sahel and the Club du Sahel, it became clear that imperfect functioning of domestic capital markets hampers the efforts of Sahelian governments to raise domestic non-tax resources for budget finance. Inasmuch as the operation and maintenance of development projects compete for a severely limited pool of uncommitted government revenues – that is, revenues not committed to debt service, meeting the civil service payroll, and other inflexible obligations – reforms that augment this pool are of particular interest from the viewpoint of ensuring that these projects function properly once established.
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  • 33
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 19 (1981), S. 133-161 
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: Legislation in the former British colonial territories exhibited a pair of paradoxes. First, it spoke in legalese, a patois that only judges and lawyers can read easily. Many laws concerning development, however, addressed ordinary citizens. Second, drafters invented and used a specialised style to reduce official and judicial discretion by making legislation more precise, but this frequently endowed officials with discretion as broad as the unbroken sky. In Africa, the uses of legalese seemed to war with the purposes for which it was developed.
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  • 34
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 1-4 
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  • 35
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  • 36
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 711-712 
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  • 37
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  • 38
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    Cambridge : Cambridge University Press
    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 411-425 
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    Notes: Late in 1979 the Zambian Government unveiled its Third National Development Plan which will guide policies until the year 1984, and this implies that problems of unemployment, particularly in urban areas, will be partly overcome by an expansion of self-employment possibilities.Such was the enthusiasm for the new initiative that the absence of reliable information surrounding it was largely ignored. This article attempts to provide relevant data concerning a number of issues which will be vital in implementing any measures to encourage self-employment in the so-called ‘informal sector’ of the Zambian economy. In particular we shall endeavour to quantify the likely flows into the labour force, particularly from the educational system, the possible growth of formal wage employment in urban areas, and the current size and composition of the informal sector. Finally, conclusions are drawn concerning the possible rôle of this sector in absorbing the unemployed in the plan period.
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  • 39
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 427-441 
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    Notes: Discussion of industrial activity in capitalist Third-World countries has usually centred on a series of dualistic frameworks, most recently the opposition between the so-called ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ sectors of an economy. Such dichotomies attempt to divide the activities of labour as cleanly as possible into two groups sharing common characteristics. The categories that emerge – modern/traditional, large/small-scale, formal/informal – overlap to a considerable degree because, in effect, they all attempt, with varying crudity, to compare the socio-economic characteristics of those dominant capitalist enterprises which are based on intensive capital, high-level technology, and a large scale of production, with those activities in the economy which are not based on such features. As such, the second category tends to have both negative and residual components.
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  • 40
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 443-468 
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    Notes: The constitutional development of Nigeria which started under the British occupation has been marked by two fundamental principles: the decision to set the political evolution of the country on a federal basis, and the effort, far less successful, to integrate the traditional institutions into a modern political system. This second principle will be the subject of this article, which I hope will also shed some light on the complex relationships between tradition and modernity, and thus show the importance of ‘primordial loyalties’ in political life.
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  • 41
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 493-508 
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    Notes: The potential for superpower confrontation on the Horn of Africa in 1977 and 1978 focused world attention on Somalia. For a few brief months, the popular press published regular accounts of President Siad Barre's military campaign in the Ogaden desert against neighbouring Ethiopia. The U.S. Department of State heralded the rôle of Soviet and Cuban advisers in the conflict. When Somalia ousted the Russian forces and abrogated the Treaty of Friendship and Co-operation with the U.S.S.R., the move was interpreted as a major diplomatic setback for Moscow. Now, as quickly as it erupted, the news flow about the Horn has halted.
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  • 42
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 509-524 
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    Notes: When Henry Kissinger became Secretary of State in September 1973 he instructed all American embassy personnel to monitor human rights in the countries in which they were serving. President Jimmy Carter was not responsible for America's interest in human rights, only for the policy of affirmative action. When his Assistant Secretary for Human Rights commenced work she found only two members of the State Department permanently assigned to the task, and her sole guideline was the manual for setting up her office.
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  • 43
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 525-531 
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    Notes: Throughout Ghana many commercial passenger vehicles bear mottos and names, boldly written on their bodies, usually at the front. The widespread nature of these inscriptions would seem to suggest that they are a part of the occupational sub-culture, namely the distinctive pattern of behaviour, norms, and customs which serves to identify commercial transportation. A general theme running throughout the present study is that this sub-culture reflects not only the unique needs of the drivers, but also the socio-economic and cultural environment within which they operate.
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  • 44
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 533-540 
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    Notes: The Lesotho Minister for Agriculture, Co-operatives, and Marketing was reported recently to have shaken the delegates at the World Conference on Agrarian Reform and Development in Rome by his observation on the value of such intergovernmental gatherings on the subject of development:
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  • 45
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 1-4 
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  • 46
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 1-6 
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  • 47
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 541-549 
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    Notes: On 22 October 1966, 393 students, all but 70 of them from the University College, demonstrated in Dar es Salaam against the Tanzania Government's proposals for National Service to be compulsory for students completing their education at Form VI level and above.1 Marching through the streets of the capital to show their disapproval, and carrying banners some of which read ‘Colonialism was Better’2 they were diverted to State House, where they had to deliver their ultimatum to the President, Mwalimu Julius K. Nyerere, in person. Flanked by his Ministers, he listened to their demand that unless the terms of the National Service were changed they would not accept the scheme in spirit: ‘Let our bodies go, but our souls will remain outside the scheme’. In his reply, the President made it clear that he had no intention of forcing anyone into National Service against his will. But since these students were unwilling to serve the nation, they should be returned immediately to their parental homes. Whereupon the demonstrators were rounded up by waiting (and obviously prepared) police, finger-printed, and despatched under armed guards to their homes throughout the country.
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  • 48
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 237-256 
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , History , Political Science , Economics
    Notes: There is general agreement that sports are used for political purposes. The controversy over whether this should or should not be the case is really a struggle about how they should be used. Those who argue for the separation of sports and politics tend to be satisfied with the existing use, while those against the separation tend to be dissatisfied with the present situation. The positions are rational: each group seeks to use this arena to achieve its own political objectives. Although some involvement of politics in sports appears universal, the degree varies considerably from country to country.
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 181-200 
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    Notes: Only a few social scientists outside the field of Middle East studies are aware that in the sovereign state of Libya today there is no government. Indeed, it is not likely to have one so long as the country's strongman, Colonel Mu'ammar al-Qadhafi,1 continues to be the leader of the Libyan revolution. This has been the case ever since 2 March 1977, when the institution of government in its traditional legal-bureaucratic sense was dismantled, and the people's authority, exercised through people's congresses and committees, was proclaimed. By this action, Libya initiated in practice the so-called era of jamahiriya—the era of the masses and the practice of direct democracy – and has taken a number of steps in that direction. A recent example was the renaming of some of its embassies overseas as ‘people's bureaux’, with Libyan students and citizens taking charge of their functions and management.2 This action, instigated personally by Qadhafi, was intended to illustrate to the world that since Libya has no government, ordinary Libyan citizens overseas represent themselves directly to foreign peoples.
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 281-295 
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    Notes: Although the analysis which follows centres upon the West African state of Mali, much of what is said applies in varying measure to other examples of military state capitalism in Africa and elsewhere. Its importance is underscored by the fact that this is an increasingly common régime variant in the Third World. Similarly, domestic militarism has been transformed from an unusual occurrence to a phenomenon which evokes little more than a déjà vu response. Today nearly half of the governments of the ‘South’ are directly or indirectly dominated by the military, whereas three decades ago little more than 15 per cent could be so classified.
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 330-332 
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 332-334 
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 334-337 
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 1-4 
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 1-22 
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    Notes: In October 1970, after the civil war had ended, General Yakubu Gowon reiterated his earlier pledge that military rule would be terminated on 1 October 1976, but two years before that date he postponed the return to civilian rule indefinitely on the grounds that Nigerians had not yet demonstrated ‘moderation and self-control in pursuing sectional ends’.1 In July 1975, nine years after his own elevation to Head of the Federal Military Government (F.M.G.), Gowon was removed by a coup d'état led by Brigadier Murtala Mohammed, who cited mismanagement as the immediate reason. However, after the coup, ‘well-placed spokesmen for the new administration...reaffirmed that the goals of the coup were to restore the good image of the military and to create conditions which will make reactive military intervention unnecessary in the future’.2
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    The @journal of modern African studies 18 (1980), S. 143-150 
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    Notes: Disappointed with the development performance of most Third-World countries during the past two decades, many scholars and public officials have looked for a more effective strategy. They are concerned not merely with the extent of growth, but where it has occurred, with evidence that relatively little of the benefits of increased productivity has ‘trickled down’ to the poorer half of the populations of these lands. Capital-intensive methods have raised expectations in both the urban and the rural areas without generating adequate employment opportunities or distributing the benefits of growth equitably. As a consequence, the many poor remain as desperately disadvantaged as they ever were, making a re-evaluation of development priorities, within as well as outside of Africa, of the utmost importance at this juncture.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 307-310 
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Transparent yellow-greenish single crystals of Pb6GeO8 were obtained by spontaneous crystallization from a melt with a molar ratio of PbO:GeO2 = 4.7:1. The compound is monoclinic, probable space group P21/a, a = 52.665 (12), b = 15.063 (4), c = 23.949 (6) Å and β = 111.03 (5)°; Dm(293 K) = 8.65 (3), Dx = 8.653 Mg m−3 for Z = 64 formula units. Pb11Ge3O17 was synthesized by sintering high-purity oxides PbO and GeO2 of molar ratio 3.69:1 at 990 K. The compound is also monoclinic, probable space groups C2/c or Cc, a = 25.117 (5), b = 15.440 (2), c = 45.529 (13) Å and β = 103.20 (4)°; Dm(293 K) = 8.55 (2), Dx = 8.560 Mg m−3 for Z = 32.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 311-315 
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    Notes: Series of chalcopyrite-type solid solutions AgGaxIn1−xSe2 and CuGaxIn1−xSe2, 0≤x≤1, have been prepared by direct synthesis from the melt. The space group is I\bar 42d (No. 122), Z = 4. The unit-cell parameters a and c and the ratio c/a change linearly with x. Powder data at 298 K are given for AgGaSe2, AgGa0.80In0.20Se2, AgGa0.70In0.30Se2, AgGa0.40In0.60Se2, AgGa0.20In0.80Se2 and AgInSe2, and for CuGaSe2, CuGa0.60In0.40Se2, CuGa0.30In0.70Se2 and CuInSe2.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 318-337 
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 338-339 
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    Notes: If the length of the focal spot is increased while the width remains constant, X-ray output can be increased without changing the specific loading on the anode.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 391-394 
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    Notes: To increase the integrated reflexion intensity of a monochromating crystal, the strain distributed due to impurity introduction can be utilized and, compared with conventional mechanical processing, can be a more controllable method. From this viewpoint, numerical computations on the dynamical diffraction theory for distorted crystals have been performed for the 220 reflexion of Cu Kα X-rays by Si crystals with several different strain distributions; the one changing linearly with depth from −10−3 at the surface to zero at 28 μm depth gives the maximum integrated intensity within the restriction that the full width of the intensity profile is 100′′. The integrated intensity in this case is 5.3 and 4.5 times as strong as that of a perfect crystal plate for σ and π polarizations respectively. It is more enhanced for shorter wavelengths, e.g. nine times for Mo Kα. In addition, that intensity profiles for distributed strains are cut sharply at both ends is certainly favourable for the purpose of monochromating white X-rays. A preliminary experiment with an intentionally processed sample showed a fourfold intensity increase for a σ-polarized Cu Kα line with a full width of 80′′.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 401-401 
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 88-92 
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    Notes: The device described here has been designed to perform microcreep experiments and, simultaneously, to get X-ray topographic images of the sample. Such dynamic experiments are now possible with white synchrotron radiation (LURE-DCI Orsay). The sample material, germanium, is hard to machine; so a simple shape was chosen (rectangular platelet 20 × 5 × 0–2 mm). The grip system is quite simple and the whole assembly is compact enough to be adapted to fit a standard goniometer head. Temperatures as high as 923 K in air and forces up to few tens of Newtons can be reached. The first experiments on Ge bicrystals have shown the device to perform as expected.
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  • 64
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 78-87 
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    Notes: A polished plate of type Ia natural diamond, containing regions which had been bombarded by electrons of energy between 2.0 and 4.5 GeV to total doses of 1̃024 electrons m−2 in polarized-photon production experiments, was examined, both before and after annealing at 1133 K for 8 h, using birefringence, cathodoluminescence photography and spectroscopy, X-ray topography and a novel method for mapping differences of interplanar spacing; `dilatation topography'. The annealing effected some reduction of overall strain, but it also generated an enhancement of diffraction contrast and cathodoluminescence at certain grown-in defects that the specimen contained. By means of dilatation topographs, interplanar spacings in a region of maximum electron-beam damage were compared with those in least-damaged regions some millimetres away. In the case of (110) planes that had been grazed by the electron beam, the maximum relative expansion, Δd/d, in damaged regions so found was reduced from 1.2 × 10−3 to 0.9 × 10−3 by the annealing. Evidence was obtained that the magnitude of expansion in the region of maximum damage was dependent upon crystallographic direction. Criteria are suggested for selection of diamonds to be used in polarized-photon production experiments.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 93-95 
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    Notes: Cell data for monoclinic sebacic acid COOH(CH2)8COOH, C10H18O4, and dodecanedioic acid COOH(CH2)10COOH, C12 H22O4, are accurately given: (C10) a = 15.064 (6), b = 4.987 (4), c = 10.142 (6) Å, β = 133.14 (5)°; (C12) a = 17.594 (8), b = 4.933 (3), c = 10.174 (5) Å, β = 132.35 (3)°. It is shown that crystallographic data for molecular alloys [C10]x[C12]1 −x are significantly different for those prepared by fusion (m.a.f.) and those by sublimation (m.a.s.). X-ray powder data are given for the two series of solid solutions.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 95-96 
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    Notes: The cell constants for the title compound, HMTSFT–CNQ4, (C12F4N4).(C12H12Se4), M.W. 748.21, were determined from a single crystal exposed on a Syntex P{\bar 1} automated diffractometer and then refined from precision powder data with Cr Kα1 (2.28962 Å): a = 21.906 (5), b = 12.918 (3), c = 4.0184 (10) Å and β = 91.658 (10)°; U = 1136.7 Å3, Z = 2, space group C2/m; Dc = 2.186 Mg m−3.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 128-131 
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    Notes: A &psgr;-φ goniometer with two axes of rotation, driven by stepping motors, was designed as an attachment for a horizontal &thgr;/2&thgr; goniometer. By means of this arrangement it is possible to measure strains and compute stresses in single crystals and in separate crystals of a bicrystal or a coarse-grained polycrystalline specimen. The available rotations also make it possible to investigate residual macrostresses and textures in polycrystalline specimens. Results of the test measurements on a tensile specimen of a molybdenum single-crystal are given.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 132-134 
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    Notes: A calculation of γ(r), the correlation function which gives the X-ray scattering of a cubic object of uniform density, is given for the full range of r. A new method, which can be applied to other systems, is used. The function γ(r) and its first derivative are everywhere continuous, but γ′′(r) is discontinuous at r = L and r = L□2 (L = cube edge length). This leads to an intersect distribution of unexpected shape. The scattering intensity as a function of angle is calculated by Fourier inversion of γ(r).
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 135-140 
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    Notes: An experimental method is described which enables the inelastically scattered X-ray component to be removed from diffractometer data prior to radial density function analysis. At each scattering angle an energy spectrum is generated from a Si(Li) detector combined with a multi-channel analyser from which the coherently scattered component is separated. The data obtained from organic polymers has an improved signal/noise ratio at high values of scattering angle, and a commensurate enhancement of resolution of the RDF at low r is demonstrated for the case of PMMA (ICI `Perspex'). The method obviates the need for the complicated correction for multiple scattering.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 148-153 
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    Notes: Until now, the calculation of intensities diffracted by layer structures has only been treated in the two extreme cases, namely (i) the layers interfere completely and (ii) the layers do not interfere (turbostratic structures). The present paper develops the mathematical treatment which allows the calculation in the intermediate case, namely when layers are only partially interfering.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 141-147 
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    Notes: A niobium tungsten bronze crystal with a nominal composition 3 Nb2O5.8WO3 gives circular diffuse scattering in the electron diffraction pattern. The diffuse rings change shape and size when the crystal is reduced at high temperature. The observations are explained by improving the cluster model proposed by De Ridder, Van Tendeloo, Van Dyck & Amelinckx [Phys. Status Solidi A (1977), 41, 555–560]; the present clusters are composed of nine pentagonal-tunnel sites. The 1 MV high-resolution electron microscope images reveal that the clusters have several different atomic arrangements and compositions. The relation between the clusters and the micro-domains, formed in the initial stage of long-range ordering, is clarified.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 163-167 
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    Notes: Analysis of Bragg X-ray intensities collected on a single-crystal diffractometer with a pyrolitic graphite monochromator in the diffracted beam has revealed small systematic errors which are a consequence of the necessarily large illuminated area of monochromator crystal.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 154-162 
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    Notes: The amount of information which can be obtained from a small-angle X-ray experiment can be considerably increased by orienting the solute particles with external forces during the scattering experiment. In this paper it is shown that orientation by flow, for instance through a capillary tube, gives additional information about size, shape, flexibility and rotational diffusion of the particles. The only requirement, in order to obtain flow-oriented samples, is that the solute particles must be relatively large and asymmetric. On the other hand, if the scattering curve is dependent on the flow rate through the capillary, it can immediately be concluded that the solute particles are asymmetric (or they are deformed in the hydrodynamic field). Equations describing the relationship between flow rate, molecular shape and scattered intensity are given, and theoretical intensity patterns for some representative cases are presented. It follows that there is a fundamental difference in scattering patterns for oblate and prolate ellipsoids of revolution. This difference can be used to differentiate between these two cases. Some experimental results obtained using inorganic model colloids are presented.
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    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 168-175 
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    Notes: An analysis of the small-angle scattering problem based on Shannon sampling is presented. It is shown that this approach leads to an accurate assessment of the information contained in a given data set and rigorous estimates of the errors inherent in the parameters derived therefrom.
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 3-7 
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    Notes: There has recently been an increased amount of interest in laboratory equipment for extended X-ray absorption fine-structure (EXAFS) measurements. In an earlier paper a facility for performing such measurements easily in a few hours was described in some detail. In this paper, further development of the techniques is reported. The use of high-power rotating-anode X-ray generator, the design of an X-ray curved-crystal spectrometer, the factors governing the proper choice of monochromator crystals and the design of fast-counting detectors and electronics are discussed. In addition, it is shown how errors caused by characteristic lines in the spectrum can be eliminated by use of a flux stabilization circuit.
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 24-27 
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    Notes: Photographic neutron intensity measurements on a 2 mm3 single-crystal of triclinic lysozyme are compared with conventional neutron diffractometer data. The reflections were recorded with the oscillation technique. The structure factors were derived from the optical densities scanned by an automatic microdensitometer and processed by computer programs. A statistical analysis shows that the photographic data are of about the same accuracy as recently collected diffractometer data. For the same flux and crystal volume the data collection time is reduced by up to two orders of magnitude.
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 43-50 
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    Notes: A device is described which uses liquid nitrogen to generate a cold or hot gas stream which is blown directly onto the crystal mounted on an X-ray diffractometer. With a specially constructed high-vacuum (〈 1.3 × 10–5 Pa) jacketed silica Dewar tube, it can operate between 83 and 1120 K with a stability over long time periods of ± ¼ K below and ± 1 K above ambient temperature. In the latter case the short-time stability is ± ¼ K for hours. It gives an inert atmosphere at elevated temperatures and allows extensive data collection for the accurate determination of crystal structures. The evaporator, the automatic refilling system and the silica Dewar tube are described.
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 60-61 
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    Notes: A fitting method is proposed for X-ray diffraction profiles which requires only a small number of parameters.
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 61-62 
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    Notes: Complete solid solution is observed amongst the compounds of the type M1MgCr2(VO4)3 (where M1 = K, Rb or Tl). The solid-solution series obtained show linear changes in peak positions and peak intensities in their X-ray diffraction patterns. The crystallographic behaviour with respect to the value of x for (RbxK1−xMgCr2(VO4)3 and (TlxK1−x)MgCr2(VO4)3 solid solutions is discussed.
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 64-65 
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    Notes: Indexed powder patterns of the monoclinic phase, stable at room temperature, and of the orthorhombic phase, stable for T 〉 786 K, are given. The cell dimensions are: a = 15.737 (8), b = 9.231 (5), c = 18.224 (9) Å, β = 125.46 (2)° at 295 K; a = 9.330 (3), b = 12.868 (5), c = 9.242 (3) Å at 818.6 K. Linear equations describing the thermal expansion of the two phases of ferric molybdate are reported. To verify if ferric molybdate can incorporate excess MoO3, measurements on non-stoichiometric samples were also made: no evidence of the presence of excess MoO3 was found.
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 68-68 
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    Notes: High-temperature As2O5 at 768 ± 5 K is tetragonal with a = 8.577 (1), c = 4.637 (1) Å, V = 341.2 Å3, Z = 4, Dc = 4.475 Mg m−3. Indexed powder data are given.
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 85-93 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A flat, relatively thin (9 mm) xenon-filled multiwire proportional counter with two-dimensional, 2 μs delay line readout of a 270 × 300 mm active area has been developed for use as a position-sensitive area X-ray detector in the 8 keV energy region (Cu Kα) used in crystallographic structure work with large biological molecules. Its quantum detection efficiency for 8 keV X-ray photons is about 0.5, a value which is spatially uniform to within ± 2%. Its dead-time loss fraction at a typical data collection rate of 30000 photons s−1 is 12%. The detector has spatial resolution for X-rays of 0.6 mm FWHM in the horizontal direction and 2 mm, the anode wire spacing, in the vertical direction. The effects of parallax are found to be limited and do not seriously increase the apparent size of the diffracted beams. The position sensitivity of this detector is geometrically linear to within 0.5 mm across its active surface. Routine maintenance of the detector requires the attention of a skilled technician but is not time consuming. For four years, this detector has been used to measure millions of reflection intensities from crystals of many different proteins. The down time due to the detector has averaged less than four days per year, considerably less than the down time of other components of the data collection system. Four new protein structures have now been solved using data from this detector. Also, a considerable amount of data have been collected at higher resolution or at different temperatures with crystals of other proteins.
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  • 83
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 124-130 
    ISSN: 1600-5767
    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The sources of systematic error in the X-ray diffractometer method of stress measurement are discussed. The errors in stress measurement and correction procedures for their elimination are described and quantitatively assessed.
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  • 84
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    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 117-123 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The diffraction aspect and rough cell parameters of a crystal to be studied are usually known before mounting the crystal on a diffractometer. Such data are used for orientation purposes in the method described. An ordered list of indexed 2θ values is calculated from which an optimum 2θ for a peak search is derived. The peaks found are centered, their possible unique indices are derived by comparison of the observed 2θ values with the calculated values. Two intense reflections with few indexing ambiguities are selected to define the crystal orientation. Their possible pairs of indices are found by considering combinations of indices related to the unique indices by the Laue-group symmetry and for which the calculated angle between the reciprocal vectors is comparable with the observed angle. Only the non-equivalent orientations defined by these initial pairs will be accepted. An initial pair will be rejected if the indices of both reflections can be transformed into those of a previously accepted pair by a single Laue-group symmetry operator of the first kind. The correct setting is usually obvious from a very short list of possible orientations and is retained. This simple approach has been programmed and treats all symmetries without branching of the logic. Rhombohedral crystals can be referred to hR or rP cells. The possible non-equivalent settings due to metric ambiguities, to pseudo-symmetry or to symmetry are exhaustively listed, but no symmetry-related setting is indicated. This scheme has automatically oriented more than 40 crystals from the seven crystal systems in 20–50 min each. The wavelength, the cell parameters and the short symbol of a valid space group in the correct diffraction aspect are the only input.
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  • 85
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 137-139 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Neutron time-of-flight powder data have been collected for forsterite [Mg2SiO4; Pbnm (D162h, No. 62); Z = 4, a = 4.7534 (1), b = 10.1989 (2), c = 5.9813 (1) Å] with the ZING-P′ high-resolution diffractometer at Argonne National Laboratory. Forty-seven variables, including anisotropic temperature-factor coefficients, were refined with a profile-fitting procedure to R(profile) = 2.10% and R(Rietveld) = 3.53%. Positional and thermal parameters are in good agreement with those determined from recent X-ray and neutron single-crystal diffraction experiments. Results suggest that powder data can be used to obtain accurate positional parameters and reasonable temperature factors for moderately complex structures.
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  • 86
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 139-141 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A Kratky small-angle X-ray camera was modified so as to allow the use of a one-dimensional (one-dimensional) position-sensitive detector (PSD) with it. The modification was designed in such a way that most of the calibrations, necessary for subsequent correction of the collected intensity data, can be performed with little alteration in the collimation geometry or the electronics settings. In particular, the calibration of the uniformity of detector efficiency can be performed by repeated vertical travel of the detector at a constant speed across a beam scattered from a sample.
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  • 87
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 145-148 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A computer program for the separation of a composite peak into the components and the background has been written in Fortran. Each component is approximated by a function of the form y(x) = c [1 + ({{x - d}\over{e}})^{2}]^{-f}, where c, d, e and f are the parameters to be determined by a least-squares method. Arbitrary, known or assumed relations among the parameters of different components may be read in to reduce the number of independent parameters and save computation time or, in other cases, to offer a better chance of separating a complex composite peak by varying a subset of the parameters.
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  • 88
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 151-153 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A computer program has been written with the aim of calculating the domain of an atom in a structure. The domain may be limited by planes situated half-way between the atoms, or at a distance that takes into account the relative radii of the atoms. Data concerning this domain and the corresponding coordination polyhedron are computed and printed. Punched cards, to be used in a special plotting program, can also be produced. Three types of weighted coordination number are calculated.
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  • 89
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 160-168 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Intensity can often be measured as a continuous function of scattering angle in diffraction from non-crystalline specimens. An analysis of the amount of information contained in one-dimensional continuous diffraction data is presented here. This analysis, based on the sampling theorem and the theory of entire functions, indicates that there is a limited but often rather large number of possible phase solutions to any given continuous intensity distribution. A refinement technique has been developed which allows phase solutions to be found that are consistent with the diffraction data and with other physical and chemical data. In favourable cases, when diffraction data is used in coordination with other kinds of data, there can be enough information in a diffraction pattern to identify a unique structural solution.
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  • 90
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    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 13 (1980), S. 401-402 
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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  • 91
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 370-382 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A small-angle neutron scattering (SANS) spectrometer has been constructed at the University of Missouri Research Reactor Facility (MURR). The design of the MURR–SANS is unusual in that the size of the reactor containment building constrains the flight path to be vertical. This is achieved by Bragg scattering upward through 90° from a set of slightly misaligned pyrolytic graphite crystals to provide a neutron beam at 4.75 Å with a wavelength spread of approximately 4.1%. The beam incident on the sample is defined by two matched variable apertures located either 3.0 or 4.5 m apart. The evacuated scattered flight path is designed with removable extensions to match the primary flight path in length. The instrument has an automatic sample handling capability provided by its own dedicated PDP 11/03 computer. The detector is a large assembly of commercially available linear 3He detectors as an economic alternative to a crossed-wire two-dimensional multi-detector. An array of 43 position-sensitive proportional counters, 24 in (609.6 mm) long and 0.5 in (12.7 mm) in diameter, using charge division gives a spatial resolution of 5 x 12.7 mm. The area-averaged detector efficiency is about 84% at a wavelength of 4.75 Å. The range of scattering vectors that can be measured is 0.005 〈 Q〈 0.15 Å−1. The instrument is well suited to a wide variety of experiments on specimens having characteristic dimensions between 20 and 500 Å. MURR–SANS is designed as a user-oriented facility which provides both reasonable resolution and intensity on sample at a modest cost, and forms part of a neutron scattering center.
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  • 92
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
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    Notes: Two-dimensional antiphase domain structures existing in the composition range 20–23 at.% Mn were investigated by a high-resolution structure-imaging technique with a 1 MV electron microscope. The structures are based on the DO22 structure and consist of parallelogram-shaped domains containing 4 × 3 columns of Mn atoms and lozenge-shaped domains with 4 × 4 and 3 × 3 columns, and the domains are separated by two-dimensional antiphase boundaries parallel to the ({\bar 2}40) and (240) planes of the fundamental face-centred structure. The configuration of the domains changes delicately with a slight change of composition or annealing temperature, and the symmetry of the structure is lowered below about 670 K. The ideal structure models have compositions of about 22.7 at.% Mn. The images of about half of the specimen area of the 22.6 at.% Mn alloy annealed at 570 K do not correspond to these new structures, but bear a resemblance to the image expected from the two-dimensional antiphase structure proposed by Watanabe [J. Phys. Soc. Jpn (1960), 15, 1030–1040] for Au3Mn, which is based on the L12 structure and has boundaries parallel to the (100) and (010) planes.
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  • 93
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    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 432-436 
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Two methods for the numerical resolution of the Takagi-Taupin equations are compared. It is shown that for a small integration step Taupin's [Acta Cryst. (1967), 23, 25–35] extension to two dimensions of the one-dimensional Runge–Kutta third-order method is more accurate than the algorithm of Authier, Malgrange & Tournarie [Acta Cryst. (1968), A24, 126–136] but, for a given precision, Authier, Malgrange & Tournarie's method is faster than Taupin's so the former will usually be preferred for numerical calculation.
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  • 94
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 444-446 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The phase separation of an 80% B2O3–15% PbO–5% Al2O3 (weight %) glass after splat-cooling was studied by small-angle X-ray scattering. The wavenumber which receives maximal amplification and the scattering intensity corresponding to this wavenumber were determined as a function of the cooling rate of the glass. The experimental results qualitatively agree with the main features of previous calculations based on the linear theory of spinodal decomposition, but no quantitative agreement is obtained.
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  • 95
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 455-461 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: An analysis of published X-ray diffraction data from nerve myelin is given based on the properties of analytic functions. Functions defined by a finite Fourier transform may be described by their distribution of zeros. This description allows a phase function to be determined from real data, which is unique in principle. A solution to the phase assignment is given and compared with corresponding published solutions derived by other methods. The strong measure of agreement for the phases of the first nine diffraction orders, and the stability of this agreement against the efforts of experimental error, leads to the conclusion that these phases are probably correct.
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  • 96
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 465-465 
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The powder data for [2.1.2.1]paracyclophan is reported. This compound is monoclinic with a = 21.44 (4), b = 17.22 (6), c = 9.70 (4) Å, γ = 141.30 (3)°, Z = 4.
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  • 97
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    Applied crystallography online 14 (1981), S. 491-491 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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  • 98
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    Applied crystallography online 15 (1982), S. 5-14 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: A method of measuring accurate cubic lattice parameters is developed which is suited to the type of conditions encountered in high- and low-temperature powder diffractometry. This is based on the fact that the absolute Bragg angle of each line in an indexed cubic diffraction pattern can be determined from a knowledge of the differences in angles between lines. Accurate zero-angle alignment, therefore, is unnecessary. Furthermore, it is shown that the peak or centroid shift of the line profiles arising from the instrumental and physical aberrations can be determined directly from the measured angular data without assuming a specific angular dependence. In practice the accuracy of the method is of the order of 0.0002 Å for a lattice parameter of approximately 8 Å.
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  • 99
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    Applied crystallography online 15 (1982), S. 20-26 
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Calculations of diffraction line profiles and Scherrer constants for crystallites whose external shape has cubic symmetry are extended to crystallites of cylindrical shape. The analysis includes the limiting cases of acicular crystals and disks and, to a reasonable degree of approximation in many cases, to hexagonal prisms. These shapes have applications in size determination for materials which form prismatic crystallites, particularly those which belong to the hexagonal system or have been derived from substances with this symmetry.
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  • 100
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    Copenhagen : International Union of Crystallography (IUCr)
    Applied crystallography online 15 (1982), S. 35-38 
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    Source: Crystallography Journals Online : IUCR Backfile Archive 1948-2001
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The Warren–Averbach profile analysis was modified to study the deformed state of Al. The X-ray diffraction effect of dislocations locating on cell boundaries may be treated as `size broadening', while that of dislocations inside cells is `strain broadening', which may be treated with Wilkens's theory. X-ray Debye profile measurement was performed on deformed, recovered and annealed samples of commercial pure Al. Some information concerning the dislocation glide systems and distribution as well as the differences between the deformed and recovered state were given by the Debye profile analysis. The results are in good agreement with those obtained by other authors, which prove the reliability and correctness of the method.
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