ALBERT

Notes: Five human teratoma cell lines have been characterized for the presence of a certain number of marker antigens whose presence or absence has been shown to be characteristic of mouse embryonal carcinoma (EC) cells. Four out of the five lines have been shown to respond to at least some of the criteria associated with murine EC cells even though only limited in vitro differentiation could be demonstrated. The significance of certain unusual marker antigen combinations present on the cell line Tera I and its clones and so far unobserved for the murine model is discussed. The observation in Tera I populations of cells carrying simultaneously both the F9 and β2-microglobulin or HLA antigens, suggest that the human cell lines may represent a novel material for the study of mammalian differentiation.

Notes: Principles of Gene Manipulation. Studies in Microbiology

Notes: A healthy 22-year-old woman was noted to have erythrocytes of the Pk phenotype: a strong Pk antigen, no detectable P antigen and anti-P antibody in her serum. Her erythrocytes contained four to six times as much Pk glycolipid (globotriaosylceramide or CTH) and approximately half as much P glycolipid (globotertraosylceramide or globoside) as normal red cells. The structures of CTH and globoside were characterized by analysis of permethylated sugars and complement fixation in addition to chromaographic mobility and sugar composition. Inasmuch as the erythrocytes of two Pk individuals that were analysed previously (Marcus et al., 1976) contained no detectable globoside, these abnormalities appear o represent a new phenotype in the P blood group system.

Notes: We studied 201 unrelated French Basque individuals for HLA and Bf polymorphisms. The haplotypes of eighty-seven of them were deduced from family studies. The results show the frequency of the Bf F1 allele (0.1393) which is the highest one currently reported. They confirm the high frequencies of HLA-Aw19.2 and B18 previously reported in that population and show that a whole haplotype with strong linkage disequilibria, namely Aw19.2, Cw5, B18, Bf F1, DRw3 is frequent. On the other hand, the gene frequency of Bf S is decreased (0.5497) as compared with the other European Caucasoïd populations, while a slight increase in the Bf F gene frequency (0.2960) appears. These results point out that it is of importance to consider the genetic background in choosing the population where linkage disequilibria are to be studied.

Notes: The genetic control of hybrid resistance to BALB/c fibrosarcoma Meth-A was investigated. A Meth-A tumour grew slower in (BALB/c X C57BL/6)F1 and reciprocal hybrid mice than in syngeneic BALB/c mice and was also found to grow slower in females than in males. Significant F1 resistance was demonstrated after both subcutaneous and intraperitoneal injection of tumour cells. However, (BALB/c X DBA/2)F1 mice did not show any significant resistance to Meth-A. In H-2 linkage studies of [BALB/c X (BALB/c X C57BL/6)] backcross mice, no statistically significant differences in the resistance of H-2 heterozygotes and homozygotes to Meth-A were observed. These results indicated that F1 hybrid resistance to Meth-A was controlled by non-H-2-linked resistance factor(s). No linkage was observed between resistance to Meth-A and coat colour c- and b-loci.

Notes: CBA/N mice have an X-linked B cell defect which prevents them from responding to non-mitogenic thymic independent (TI-II) antigens such as dinitrophenylated (DNP-AGG) Ficoll. The F1 male progeny of CBA/N female mice express the same defect. Spleen cell suspensions from such defective mice (CBA/N X C3H/HeN F1 males) could not respond to DNP-AGG-Ficoll following in vitro immunization and subsequent transfer into irradiated, syngeneic, F1 male recipients as expected. In contrast, normal CBA/N X C3H/HeN F1 female spleen cells could respond and effect a ‘rescue'; they mounted strong plaque-foriming cell 7 days after in vitro exposure to DNP-AGG-Ficoll and subsequent transfer into irradiated F1 male recipients. Defective F1 male spleen cells could bind significant quantities of DNP-AGG-Ficoll, however, after, in vitro exposure. Extensive washing of these spleen cells could not reverse this binding. Such DNP-AGG-Ficoll-exposed and washed F1 male spleen cells could, after transfer, aid normal untreated F1 female cells in their rescue function. The defective F1 male spleen cells could convey immunogenic quantities of DNP-AGG-Ficoll to the ‘rescuing’ F1 female cells.Mitomycin treatment of F1 male cells did not interfere with their conveyor function. Goat anti-mouse μ serum impeded the passive antigen conveyor function of defective F1 male cells as did prior exposure to high concentrations of free DNP-AGG hapten. Our data support the view that the B cell defect of CBA/N X C3H/HeN F1 male mice does not relate to antigen binding, but rather to an inability to be effectively triggered by certain cell-bound polymeric antigens.

Notes: Results of a population study with all currently available B-cell specific alloantisera indicate that eight antigens controlled by the RhLA-linked DR locus can now be identified. This leaves a gene frequency of about 0.15 for unidentified or ‘blank’ antigens of that locus. Of the nine identifiable la antigens which are not controlled by the DR locus, three or four may form the basis of a second series which is probably also controlled by the RhLA region.

Notes: Induction of tolerance to bovine serum albumin was studied in mice selected for high (H) or low (L) antibody responsiveness and in their F1 hybrids. No high or low zone tolerances were obtained in H mice whereas L mice were susceptible to tolerance induction by the two schedules. H mice were immunized by repeated injections of tolerogenic BSA for low zone tolerance induction but not after the administration of a single high dose of tolerogenic BSA. Resistance to tolerance induction is dominant in F1 hybrids.

Notes: An attempt is made to account for immunoglobulin chain synthesis in terms of genetic events involving IS or controlling elements analogous to those found in bacteria, maize and drosophila. Transposition of variable and constant genes and normal immunoglobulin chain synthesis as well as qualitative and quantitative abnormalities might be explained by such regulatory elements. Intrachromosomal transpositions over short distances would be expressed as apparent hypermutability or redundancy of the variable DNA segment. The constant gene might comprise four sequences coding for the three homology domains and the hinge, separated by intervening sequences. A strong preference for shortrange transposition on the same chromosome and immobilization of the controlling element in the end might account for allelic exclusion.

Notes: Fab2 fragments from antisera raised in rabbits with partially purified cellular and serum HLA antigens were tested for their ability to block the cytolytic activity of operationally specific HLA-A, B alloantisera. One Fab2 fragment preparation blocked the cytolytic activity of all the HLA-A,B alloantisera tested; the remaining nine inhibited the lytic activity of alloantisera to certain HLA-A,B allospecificities, suggesting that these xenoantisera contain antibody to certain HLA-A,B allotype determinants or to closely associated structures. In contrast to previous reports in the literature none of the xenoantisera contained significant amounts of antibodies to human β2-microglobulin.

Notes: NIM-M8 is a monoclonla IgM antibody, specific for the LWab antigen as shown by its reaction with red cells of all donors except those lacking LWa, LWb and LWab. Indirect immunofluorescent staining and cell sorter analyses have shown that LWab is present on a subpopulation of human lymphoctes. Cell fractionation studies indicate that subsets of both B and T cells express LWab and it may, therefore, provide a further marker for heterogeneity in these lymphocyte populations.

Notes: Immunoprecipitation using a monoclonal antibody showed that the Wrb antigen is present on the abnormal (δ-α) hybrid sialoglycoprotein of Sta-positive human erythrocytes but not on the abnormal (δ-α) hybrid sialoglycoprotein of Dantu-positive erythrocytes. These results provide further information regarding the nature and location of the Wrb antigen on the normal erythrocyte sialoglycoprotein α.

Notes: We studied structural and functional characteristics of lymphocytes from adult and fetal baboons (Papio cynocephalus). Flow cytometry with monoclonal antibodies to human lymphocyte antigens and plant lectins was used to define expression of surface antigens on lymphocytes from adult and 140 day fetal baboons (term = 180 days). Major T cell antigenic determinants on adult and fetal baboon lymphocytes were the Tp50, Tp32-45, and p45 glycoproteins detected by monoclonal reagents T11, OKT8, and OKT10 respectively. Baboon T lymphocytes did not react with the OKT3/anti-Leu4 or OKT4/ anti-Leu3a reagents which detect, respectively, Tp19-29 and Tp55, major surface glycoproteins on human T lymphocytes. OKT6, which identifies the human TL antigen equivalent on thymocytes, did not react with baboon thymocytes. These data demonstrate major evolutionary divergence between human and baboon T lymphocytes. By contrast, baboon lymphocytes resembled human peripheral lymphocytes in reactivities with several non-T cell reagents. Lectin binding studies revealed substantially fewer peanut agglutinin-and wheat germ agglutinin-binding cells in suspensions of baboon fetal splenocytes and adult peripheral lymphocytes compared with fetal thymocytes. Thereffore, maturation of baboon T lymphocytes is associated with loss of surface carbohydrate structures that bind these lectins. Adult and fetal baboon lymphocytes resembled human and murine lymphocytes in their capabilities to respond to mitogens and to produce interleukin-2. As in oter species, adult, but not fetal baboon lymphocytes, mediated NK activity against a variety of nucleated target cells. Despite divergence in lymphocyte antigen epression, babbon lymphocyte functional development colsely parallels that seen in humans.

Notes: The Gm, Am and Km immunoglobulin allotypes and ABO blood groups were studied in three groups of Tunisian Berbers.The results showed that the actual Berbers of Tunisia present certain heterogeneity and their ancestors were probably the first inhabitants of North Africa. Indeed, although their Gm-Am haplotypes are mainly Caucasoid, some of them are typically African.The group of Kesra village, the most Caucasoid, shows frequencies of Gm-Am haplotypes very close to those of South European populations, particularly the Spanish, who are probably of the same origin. The gene frequencies of the ABO groups in the three Berber groups were similar to those recorded in European populations with a relatively high frequency of the O genes typical of the Berbers.

Notes: Monoclonal antibody 212.i.4.2 mediated complement-dependent lysis of spleen and lymph node cells carrying the tw1, tw12, tw71, t6, tw73, and tLub1 haplotypes, while cells from mice carrying 11 other t haplotypes were not lysed. The antibody also detected an epitope controlled by genes in the H-2Dd region of non-t mice. A molecule of 46,000 molecular weight was immunoprecipitated by 212.i.4.2 from detergent extracts of 125I-labelled spleen cells of +/tw12 and B10.D2 mice. The H-2dm2 mutation did not alter the expression of the epitope recognized by 212.i.4.2. However, the H-2dm1 mutation decreased the reactivity of lymphoid cells with the antibody in cytotoxicity tests, and 212.i.4.2 immunoprecipitated little or no protein from extracts of B10.D2(R106) spleen cells which carry the H-2dm1 mutation.

Notes: Spleen cells from Balb/c mice given multiple injections of intact human erythrocytes (group O, NN) were fused with NS1 myeloma cells. Culture fluids from the resulting hybrid cells were screened for agglutinating antibody against a panel of erythrocytes. One cell line, 2/23, secreted an IgM antibody which reacted more strongly with NN than with MM cells. Neuraminidase or papain treatment of erythrocytes abolished agglutination whereas trypsin treatment did not. Reactions with U-erythrocytes of different MN phenotypes confirmed the anti-N specificity of monoclonal antibody 2/23. This is the first report of monoclonal anti-N stimulated by the immunization of mice with intact erythrocytes.

Notes: Spleen cells from 30 individual murine irradiation chimeras of the type (P1 x P2)F1→ P1 were compared in a rosetting assay for H-2K and H-2D cell surface antigen expression with normal (P1 x P2)F1 hybrid controls. Eleven out of the 30 chimeras were in the normal range, but the other 19 differed from F1 controls by 4- to 100-fold in endpoint titre for at least one H-2K or H-2D antigen. Every possible class of variation was found, i.e. up or down variation of H-2K or H-2D antigens of P1 or P2 type. This evidence, together with data from T6 chromosome marker experiments which also showed full reconstitution of lethally irradiated P1 recipients by (P1 x P2)F1 donor lymphomyloid stem cells, suggested that incomplete reconstitution was not the cause of H-2 antigenic variation.Low expression of P2 H-2 antigens on spleen cells derived from (P1 x P2)F1→ P1 chimeras was investigated further. Fifteen lethally irradiated (P1 x P2)F1 recipients of bone marrow cells from two such chimeras were all of normal F1 H-2 phenotype when tested 10-12 weeks after reconstitution, thus excluding stable, low P2 H-2-expressing variant F1 stem cells as a cause of the phenomenon. If P1 recipients were hyperimmunized against P2 cells before lethal irradiation and reconstitution with (P1 x P2)F1 stem cells, there were significantly fewer Till-McCulloch colonies in their spleens 10 days after reconstitution than in spleens of unimmunized controls. Also 〉 90% of immunized recients died by 6 weeks after stem cell injection but two survivors both showed very low levels of P2 H-2K and H-2D antigens. These results together with previously published evidence of anti-P2 Tc cell activity and P2 skin graft rejection in (P1 x P2)F1→ P1 chimeras suggested that residual anti-P2 immunological capability in lethally irradiated P1 recipients may be associated with low P2 H-2 expression on their F1-derived spleen cells, although the mechanism does not involve selection of stable, variant F1 stem cells. The mechanism(s) of other classes of variation in H-2 expression in (P1 x P2)F1→ P1 chimeras were not investigated.

Notes: RNA was extracted from the splenocytes of Brucella abortus antigen stimulated mice and of control mice. The proportion of chromatographically separated polyadenylated 11.2S mRNA, was determined. With the technique used, only stimulated mice exhibited significant amounts of this RNA species. The highest level was reached 1 day after the stimulation, and the decay from this level presented an oscillatory form during the 4 weeks following the injection.In two different genetic backgrounds, H-2b mice did not respond to the stimulus, in contrast to H-2a and H-2f mice. H-2b/H-2f heterozygotes behaved roughly as intermediate between H-2b and H-2f mice. This genetic control seems to parallel the genetic control of some Brucella-induced, thymus-dependent events previously described.

Notes: Book Reviews in this ArticleR. WITKOWSKI and O. PROKOP: Genetik erblicher Syndrome und Mgbildungen. Worterbuch fur die Familienberatung.

Notes: Monoclonal anti-Ia inhibition experiments were conducted to confirm and extend genetic mapping data of I-A gene control of immunity to human haemoglobin (Hb). It was found that the Aβ gene is of critical importance in conferring immunity to the α-chain and β-chain subunits of Hb. A possible involvement of I-E region genes in B10.D2 mice to β-chain is discussed. Through the use of an α-chain specific T cell clone data, is obtained indicating that an intact Ia.8+ Aβ chain is necessary for antigen presentation in vitro.

Notes: C4 is composed of two tightly linked genes (C4A and C4B) lying within the major histocompatibility complex of chromosome 6 that can be demonstrated by agarose gel electrophoresis. Seven alleles and five alleles at the C4A and C4B loci, respectively, were detected in 169 black individuals from the southeastern United States. Furthermore, the phenotypic frequencies of C4A6, C4A5, C4A4, C4B4, C4B3, and C4BQO were significantly different between black and white Americans.

Notes: Two B complex genotypes, B1B1 and B19B19, of outbred line S1, were tested for low and high immune response to GAT, from which four recombinants were recovered: B1B1 GAT-hi and lo, and B19B19 GAT-hi and -lo. Also included in the study were birds of B2B2 genotype with an intermediate level of immune response to GAT.A total of 225 birds of these groups were challenged with the Bryan strain of Rous Sarcoma virus subgroup C, RSV (RAV-7), by inoculation into the wing web at five weeks of age. The B1B1 genotype had the lowest percentage of regressors (17.6%), B19B19 had the highest (42.2%), and the B2B2 genotype was intermediate (23.7%). Combining the results of GAT response over the B1B1 and B19B19 genotypes, 14.0% of GAT-lo and 37.8% of GAT-hi regressed their tumours, respectively. The highly significant (P ≤ 0.01) difference between the combined GAT-hi and -lo groups would suggest that the Rs locus controlling tumour regression induced by the subgroup C virus is closely linked to the region controlling immune response to GAT, but the data also provides evidence that the B-F region of the B complex also plays an important role in RSV-induced tumour regression.

Notes: Surface immunoglobulin on spleen cells from NZB and NZB/W mice and congenic mice bearing the nude or X-linked immune defective (Xid) gene was examined by flow microfluorometry with regard to both the frequency of positive cells and density expressed on the cell. These data indicate that although the frequency of unseparated sIg+ B lymphocytes is equivalent among all of these groups of mice, the densities of sIgM and sIgD are different. Spleen cells from these mice were also separated by free-flow electrophoresis and analyzed in a similar manner. This analysis demonstrated the absence of a subpopulation of B lymphocytes with a low electrophoretic mobility and low expression of sIgM. These studies suggest that maturational and/or activation states of the B cells in mice bearing the Xid or nude genes are different from those seen in the parent strains of mice. Such alterations in cell-surface antigens correlate with differences in the natural history of immunopathology of the autoimmune disease in these congenic colonies of New Zealand mice.

Notes: Fifty-five Caucasoid patients with polymalgia rheumatica (PMR) or giant cell arteritis (GCA) were immunoglobulin (Gm) allotyped for this study. Forty-four of these patients had been previously HLA-A,B,C and DR locus allotyped. The incidence of the immunoglobulin allotypic marker Glm(2) was significantly increased in the GCA group (50.00% v. controls 18.75%, P= 〈0.01). There was a similar but insignificant rise of this Gm marker in the PMR group (27.24% v. 18.75%, NS). The increase in Glm(2) in the GCA group was not accompanied by a corresponding rise in the number of people homozygous for Glm(2), i.e., all the increase could be attributed to patients with the Glm(1,2,3): G3m(5,10,21) phenotype.

Notes: The strains B 10.S(7R), B 10.S(23 R) and B 10.S(24R), all thought to be genetically identical, differ in levels of susceptibility to infection with Trichinella spiralis. In a series of nine independent experiments, B 10.S(7R) was shown to be more susceptible than the other two strains. In another series of seven experiments, the strain B 10.A(18R) was shown to be more susceptible to infection with T. spiralis than the strains B 10.S(21R) or B 10.BAR-5, all of which were thought to share common H-2 alleles. These results indicate that a gene mapping between the S and D loci influences susceptibility to infection with T. spiralis. Typing of these strains for Qa and Tl loci rule out the possibility of a double crossover accounting for the differences observed. The new gene is designated Ts-2. Previously published data have also been reinterpreted and another gene Ts-1 is shown to be associated with the Aβ locus. When the d allele is expressed at the Ts-2 locus, strains of mice expressing s, q, f or b alleles at Ts-1 are rendered more susceptible to infection.

Notes: IgG and IgA heavy chain allotypes were determined in the sera of 483 Caucasian Type 1 diabetes patients and 503 Caucasian healthy controls. There was no significant difference between patients and controls neither on the level of Gm phenotype frequencies nor on the level of Gm three-locus and two-locus haplotype frequencies. A selective IgA deficiency was found in 14 patients (2.9%) but in none of the control individuals (P〈10-4).

Notes: Gm allotypes were detected and quantitated by radioimmunoassay (RIA) in paired serum and CSF samples from patients suffering from various neurological diseases. Of 115 patients with neurological disorders (65 MS and 50 others), seven subjects displayed one or two allotypes in their CSF which were absent in serum. The Gm phenotype in the patient's serum allowed us to infer the genotype without the need of familial data. A comparison of the regression curves obtained in RIA from the unexpected allotype in CSF and the counterpart in a normal serum pool argued for an identity of the Gm antigen carried by both inhibitory molecules. The unexpected allotype(s) in CSF can be considered as the product of a latent Gm gene which may be activated by either immune perturbations due to the disease per se or some particular immune regulations in the central nervous system.

Notes: Book reviewed in this article:N. Catsimpoolas; Cell Analysis. Plenum Publishing CorpJ.W.Shay: Techniques In Somatic Cell Genetics

Notes: Immunoprecipitaon studies of the rhesus monkey major histocompatibility system have shown that the RhLA-DR locus codes for class II antigens with molecular features that are homologous to the class II antigens coded for by the human HLA-dR locus, The products of another alloantigenic RhLA-linked locus of the rhesus monkey, called ‘48’, is provisionally characterized as a class I system.

Notes: The relationships between the antigens recognized by four monoclonal anti-human ‘Ia’-like antibodies were investigated using sequential immunoprecipitation and capping techniques. Two of the antibodies were ‘monomorphic’ and have previously been shown to recognize epitopes in which carbohydrate residues are involved, whereas the two ‘polymorphic’ antibodies recognized protein-defined epitopes—one of these epitopes being present on MB+DR- molecules. In the absence of an indisputable anti-DR monoclonal antibody, it was not possible to conclusively verify which ‘Ia’-encoded antigens were detected by the anti-‘Ia’-like monoclonal antibodies. Nevertheless, several firm conclusions could be drawn: (a) so-called ‘monomorphic’ antibodies do not necessarily react with all ‘Ia’ molecules encoded by a single locus—from the results using the two monomorphic antibodies, B5.1 and 3F1.1, described herein, two populations of antigens being B5.1+3F1.1+ and B5.1+3F1.1- were identified; (b) cross-reactivity of a polymorphic determinant expressed on antigenically-separable ‘Ia’ molecules was noted—using the two polymorphic antibodies, 26.1 and F5C9, molecules which were 26.1+F5C9+ and 26.1-F5C9+ were identified; and (c) the data clearly point to the existence of at least two loci coding for ‘Ia’-like antigens (one of which may or may not be the HLA-DR locus). Given that polymorphisms can now include protein- and carbohydrate-defined epitopes, that cross-reactions occur and that the definition of DR itself by monoclonal antibodies is not clear, the complexity of the human ‘Ia’ antgens is apparent.

Notes: We report HLA genotypes in four familial cases of Hodgkin's disease (HD), Nodular Sclerosis (NS) histological subtype, where all patients showed B18 antigen. This finding, although statistically not supported, confirms the possible correlation between HD and B18 antigen which carries a high relative risk in international data.

Notes: Previous studies from this laboratory have resulted in the determination of the antigenic structure of sperm-whale myoglobin (Mb). In the present work, we have investigated the fine specificity requirements for T-cell recognition of one of the Mb antigenic sites (antigenic site 5). The antigenic site (peptide 145-153) and seven progressively longer peptides, increasing in length stepwise by two residues at a time, up to 22 residues in length (peptide 132-153), were synthesized. In addition, four truncated peptides were synthesized with intentional deletions at Tyr- 151 and Ala- 144. The T-cell recognition of these purified synthetic peptides was examined here in detail in three strains of mice (BALB/cByJ, B10.D2/n and SJL/J). Mb-primed mice afforded T-cells which proliferated to smaller peptides (two or four residues longer than the site; i.e. peptides 145-153 and 143-153) and more so to the longer peptides 135-153 and 132-153 and to Mb. No response was obtained to the truncated peptides, thus underscoring the fine specificity T-cells. No response was obtained also to intermediate-sized peptides. The latter result, due to an unfavourable mode of folding, suggested a conformational dependency in T-lymphocyte recognition.

Notes: Serum blood samples from 563 of the total 700 Nganasans, members of the isolate in the northern-most part of Siberia were tested for G1m, (z,a,x,f), G2m (n), G3m (g,b0,b1,b3,b5,s,t), and km (1) allotypic determinants. Additionally, 78 Yenisey Samoyeds (Entsi) who are the Nganasan's western neighbours were studied. Both populations are remarkable for high frequency of ‘Northern Oriental’Gm (za;.;b0b3b5st) which appears to be the most frequent haplotype in the Nganasans (0.486), and is the second frequent in Yenisey Samoyeds (0.276). The Gm (f;b) generalized haplotype which used to be considered as an indicator of Caucasian gene flow occurred in the Nganasans in the very low frequency of 0.008, versus 0.045 revealed in adjoining Yenisey Samoyeds. Both populations also differ in the frequency of Km1 which is two times lower in the Nganasans (0.048), than in Yenisey Samoyeds (0.103). When segregation ratios for the Gm locus were inspected in 67 Nganasan families, no apparent deviations from Mendelian expectations, and no recombinant phenotypes were observed.

Notes: Genetic control of PQ prolongation of the electrocardiogram (ECG) in the mouse, immunized with killed group A streptococci, was studied by using various congenic mice. Mice of H-2a, H-2k and H-2f haplotypes showed high frequencies of PQ prolongation, while haplotypes of H-2b, H-2d and H-2s showed low frequencies of PQ prolongation. Studies using various recombinant mice revealed that at least one immune-associated (Ir) gene mapped in the left side of the I-B subregion. High responsiveness of F1 hybrids of H-2b and H-2d, as well as B1O.A(5R) and B10.A(3R), suggests the existence of a complementing gene. In addition, the differences between C3H and CKB, as well as differences between C3H.SW and CWB, indicate that another Ir gene maps in the immunoglobulin heavy chain (Igh) coding loci. Repeated injections of anti-I-J or anti-I-A antisera also modified this PQ prolongation. These results suggested that both the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and immunoglobulin (Igh) loci seem to be playing important roles in the pathogenesis of PQ prolongation.

Notes: The growth and reproduction complex contains recessive genes (grc) which influence body weight and gonadal development. Homozygous males are sterile, and they have an arrest of spermatogenesis at the primary spermatocyte stage. Homozygous females are fertile but have a reduced reproductive capacity. The data presented in this paper show that the latter defect is associated with a decrease in the relative number of secondary ovarian follicles and an increase in the number of atretic follicles. This finding indicates that most of the primary follicles do not mature properly. Thus, the genetic defect in gametogenesis controlled by the grc appears to occur at the same stage of development in both females and males.

Notes: Austrian business cycle policy was unconventional but rather successful in the last three decades and especially since the oil crisis. The unconventional conception was developed by trial and error, only ex post it got the name Austro-Keynesianism. Nevertheless it has a theoretical basis, a rather radical interpretation of KEYNES, which bases economic instability on a deep-rooted uncertainty of entrepreneurs. According to this interpretation economic policy tried to stabilize the data most important for entrepreneurial decisions, especially wage increase, exchange rates and investment promotion. This lightened the burden of the traditional instruments of stabilization policy. In addition these instruments were assigned differently: Exchange rate policy was primarily used to stabilize prices in the short run, incomes policy to equilibrate the current account in the medium and longer run, fiscal policy to stabilize employment. While the new assignation proved useful for stabilization policy, some structural problems remained unsolved.

Notes: The German author Heinrich Ludwig Lambert Gall (1794-1863) who is characterized as socialist by the authors of histories of economic thought proposed a policy for full employment, based on the multiplier-principle and public expenditures financed by taxes, since 1822. Not Rodbertus but Gall was the first one describing the multiplier scheme. The interpretation of Gall's publications shows his important ideas about interventionism similar to the modern theory of full employment and the activity of the state.

Notes: Alternativen aussenwirtsckafflicker Anpassung. Jahresgutachten 1968/69 des Sachverständigenrats zur Begutachtung der gesamtwirtschaftlichen Entwicklung.Bachmann, Hans: The External Relations of Less-Developed Countries.Bliefernich; Gryck; Pfeifer; Wagner: Aufgaben zur Matrizenrech-nung und linearen Optimierung.BÖs, Dieter: Öffentliche Aufträge in ÖsterreichBraeuer, Walter: Frankreichs wirtschaftliche und soziale Lage urn 1700.Buhr, Walter: Dualvariable als Kriterien unternehmerischer PlanungCrockett, Jean: Consumer Expenditures and Incomes in GreeceCurrie, Laughlin: Obstacles to Development.Einzig, Paul: Foreign Exchange Crisis. An Essay in Economic Pathology.Exo, Reinhold: Die Entwicklung der sozialen und ökonomischen Struktur der Ersparnisbildung in der Bundesrepublik DeutschlandFeinstein, C. H. (Ed.): Socialism, Capitalism and Economic Growth: Essays Presented to Maurice Dobb. Forecasting on a Scientific Basis.Fromm, Gary, and Taubman, Paul: Policy Simulations with an Econometric Model.Gabriel, Peter B.: The International Transfer of Corporate Skills: Management Contracts in Less Developed Countries.Hutchison, T. W. : Economics and Economic Policy in Britain 1946-66.Caves, Richard E. et al.: Britain's Economic Prospects.Johnson, Harry G. (Ed.): Economic Nationalism in Old and Mew States.Jungenfelt, K. G. : Löneandelen och den ekonomiska utvecklingen. Les stratégies d'entreprise.Maass, GÜnther: Die Rolle des Pfund Sterlings in der Weltwirtschaft seit dem Zweiten WeltkriegMcKean, Roland N. (Ed.): Issues in Defense Economics—A Conference.Myrdal, Gunnar: Asian Drama.Pressburger, S.: Österreichische NotenbankSaville, Lloyd: Regional Development in Italy.Schelbert-Syfrig, H.: Empirische Untersuchungen über die Geldnachfrage in der Schweiz.Steiner, Helmut: Soziale Struktuweränderungen im modernen Kapitalismus.Stoleru, L. : L'équilibre et la croissance économiques.Theil, Henri: Applied Economic ForecastingTimm, H., und Haller, H. (Hrsg.): Beiträge zur Theorie der öffentlichen AusgabenTriantis, S. G.: Cyclical Changes in Trade Balances of Countries Exporting Primary Products 1927-33.Walter, Ingo: The European Common Market.Westphal, Uwe: Die importierte Inflation beifestem und flexiblem WechselkursZaleski, EugÈne: Planning Reforms in the Soviet Union, 1962-6.ZohlnhÖfer, Werner: Wettbewerbspolitik im Oligopol - Erfahrungen der amerikanischen Antitrustpolitik

Notes: In this paper on power relations the author assumes that each participant (A, B) behaves rationally, aims at an increase of his utility. The assumption of the purely instrumental character of power constitutes a second important premise: power is supposed to be a means, not an end in itself.When A tries to compel B to do something he wouldn't otherwise have done by threatening retaliation against any disobedience of B, A is interested in the credibility of his threat indeed. However A has usually no incentive actually to carry out the threat in case of resistance by B. Moreover the realization of the threat very often causes considerable costs to the power-holder. Because of A's dilemma B stands a good chance of resisting the pretension of A without being punished. Finally the author analyses what counter-moves A can make.In another form of influence—often called ‘manipulation’—B doesn't notice at all that his goals conflict with those of A. A does not make explicit the ends he is striving for. As long as the assumption of rational behaviour is retained, this kind of influence can only occur in case of uncertainty—taste structure of A and B assumed constant.

Notes: This paper develops a conceptual framework for the systematic analysis of inter-community spillovers and their implications for local expenditure-investment decisions. Spillovers are distinguished on the basis of the effects they have upon the rate of exchange between current goods for private consumption and publicly provided goods. The mechanisms of spillovers—economic interaction, fiscal inter-dependence, and migration—and the concept of community are examined in this context. A diagrammatic analysis is used to demonstrate the influence of spill-overs on the decision making unit's allocation of resources. Methodological issues and problems involved in estimating spillover magnitudes are presented. A case study provides numerical counterparts for the theoretical quantities of the analysis. While emphasis is on publicly provided education in the United States, the framework and methodology should be applicable to other local governments and their services.

Notes: Adelman, Irma, and Thorbecke, Erik (Eds.): The Theory and Design of Economic Development.Ben-Shahar, Haim: Interest Rates and the Cost of Capital in Israel (Publications of the List Society, Nr.44).Frey, RenÉ L.: Struktunvandlungen der israelischen Volkswirtschaft — global und regional 1948–1975 (Publications of the List Society, No. 39)Pirker, Theo: Die Histadrut, Gewerkschaftsprobleme in Israel (Publications of the List Society, No.45).Broekmeijer, M. W.: Fiction and Truth about ‘The Decade of Development'. Leyden 1966.Cameron, Rondo (with the collaboration of Olga Crisp, Hugh T. Patrick, and Richard Tilly): Banking in the Early Stages of Industrialization. New York, London, Toronto 1967.Clement, M. O., Pfister, Richard L., and Rothwell, Kenneth J.: Theoretical Issues in International Economics. Boston 1967.Court, W.H.B.: British Economic History 1870–1914– ommentary and Documents. Cambridge 1965.Currie, Lauchlin: Accelerating Development: The Necessity and the Means. New York 1966.Demmler, Horst: Verkehrspolitik in der Sowjetzone Deutschlands (Veroffentlichungen des Forschungsinstituts fur Wirtschaftspolitik an der Universitat Mainz, Bd. 21) Heidelberg 1967.Denison, Edward F., assisted by Jean-Pierre Poullier: Why Growth Rates Differ. Postwar Experience in Nine Western Countries. Washington D.C. 1967Ehrlicher, Werner; Esenwein-Rothe, Ingeborg; Jürgensen, Harald und Rose, Klaus (Hrsg.): Kompendium der Volkswirtschaftslehre, Bd. 1. Gottingen 1967.Field, Arthur J.: Urbanization and Work in Modernizing Societies. Detroit 1967.Henderson, J. M., et Quandt, R. E.: MicroÉconomie — formulation mathÉmatique ÉlÉmentaire (traduction franqaise de D. Godard et F. Eldin). Paris 1967.Horowitz, David: Hemispheres North and South conomic disparity among nations. Baltimore 1966Johansen, Leif: Public Economics. Amsterdam 1965.Johnson, Harry G.: Essays in Monetary Economics. London 1967.Kirzner, Israel M.: An Essay on Capital. New York 1967.Klein, Rudolf C.: Marktwirtschaft und Finanzsystem. Grundansichten uber das Rationale Finanzsystem einer funktionsfahigen Marktwirtschaft (Beitrage zur Erforschung der wirtschaftlichen Entwicklung, Heft 10). Stuttgart 1966. Dokumente der Weltrevolution. Bd. I: Die frühen Sozialisten, hrsg. von Frits Kool und Werner Krause. Bd. II: Die Arbeiterdemokratie oder Parteidiktatur, hrsg. von Frits Kool und Erwin Oberländer. Olten 1967.Lehbert, Berndt: Die interindustrielle und interregional Verflechtung der Wirtschaft des Landes Schleswig-Holstein– Versuch der Erstellung einer Input-Output-Tabelle fur ein einzelnes Bundesland (Forschungsberichte des Instituts fur Weltwirtschaft an der Universitat Kiel, Bd. 81). Tubingen 1967.Lewes, F. M. M.: Statistics of the British Economy. London 1967.Locke, John: Two Tracts on Government. Edited with an Introduction, Notes and Translation by Philip Abrams. Cambridge 1967.Lucas, J. R.: The Principles of Politics. London, Oxford 1966.Macbean, Alasdair I.: Export Instability and Economic Development. London 1966.Montaner, Antonio (Hrsg.): Geschichte der Volkswirtschaftslehre Koln und Berlin 1967.Müller-Ohlsen, Lotte: Wirtschaftsplanung und Wirtschaftswachstum in Frankreich (Kieler Studien, Nr. 80). Tiibingen 1967.Pollak, Helga: Wachstumsbedingte Verbrauchsstrukturänderungen und einige ihrer Konsequenzen für die Verbrauchsbesteuerung (Frankfurter Wirtschafts-und Sozialwissenschaftliche Studien, Heft 15). Berlin 1966.Recktenwald, Horst Claus: Steuerüberwälzungslehre. Theoretische und empirische Verteilung von Abgaben und Kosten. Zweite, uberarbeitete und erganzte Auflage (Volkswirtschaftliche Schriften, Heft 35). Berlin 1966.Riese, Hajo: Die Entwicklung des Bedarfs an Hochschulabsolventen in der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Mit einem Geleitwort des Vorsitzenden des Wissenschaftsrates Hans Leussink und einer Einleitung von Gottfried Bombach, Basel. Wiesbaden 1967Rose, Arnold: The Power Structure Political Process in American Society. New York 1967.Sawyer, Carole A.: Communist Trade with Developing Countries: 1955–1965 (Praeger Special Studies in International Economics and Development). New York, Washington, London 1966.Scherf, H.: Untersuchungen zur Theorie der Inflation (Kieler Studien, Nr.82).Tiibingen 1967.Schmitt-Rink, Gerhard: Konsum-Dynamik. Die qualitative Expansion des privaten Verbrauchs. Gottingen 1967.Skolnikoff, Eugene: Science, Technology, and American Foreign Policy. Cambridge, Mass., 1967.Sosa-Rodriguez, JosÉ: Linear Programming– A Management Tool. Genkve 1966.Timmermann, Vincenz: Probleme und Möglichkeiten der Entwicklungs-planungWeiss, Shirley F., Smith, John E., Kaiser, Edward J., Kenney, Kenneth B.: Residential Developer DecisionsWidmaier, Hans peter: Bildung und Wirtschaftswachstum. Eine Modellstudie zur Bildungsplanung im Auftrag des Kultusministeriums Baden-Württemberg. Mit einer Einführung von Kultusminister Professor Hahn. Villingen 1966.

Notes: Among economists there has generally been a lack of agreement as to the specific relation between exports and economic growth. The hypothesis presented here is that there is a causal relationship between the two, that this relationship is one of interdependence rather than of unilateral causation, but that it is mainly a rise in exports that stimulates an increase in aggregate economic growth rather than vice versa.There are strong logical and empirical grounds supporting the hypothesis. Rising exports provide the wherewithal for increased imports, so important to economic growth. Emphasis on exports helps concentrate investment in the more efficient sectors of the economy, thus raising productivity. Efficiency is aided further by production for international markets since this permits greater economies of scale and forces firms to hold down their costs in order to remain competitive in international markets. In addition, profitable export industries stimulate additional investment, encourage an increased flow of new technology and managerrial skills, and stimulate increased consumption.The hypothesis was also tested statistically. Multiple correlations and simple least-squares regression equations were calculated for a group of 50 countries using data on average rates of growth of per capita real G. N. P., of exports, and of earnings on current account during 1953-63. The results showed: 1. that the most significant correlation was between exports and G. N. P.; 2. that for every 2 1/2per cent increase in exports, per capita real G. N. P. showed a rise of 1 per cent; and 3. that this last relationship had a high degree of statistical reliability.

Notes: As a result of inadequacies in the traditional approach to location problems a new body of thought has emerged in recent years which centers on the notion of development poles (po̧les de croissance). This concept was first put forth systematically by F. PERROUX, though it now has come into use in many countries in both theoretical discussions and public policy programs.-The present article examines the often ambiguous uses which have been made of development pole theory and evaluates some of its principal strengths and weaknesses as a tool of economic analysis. Attention also is given to the related concepts of economic space and economic domination.Among the problems of development pole theory are its emphasis upon big industrial undertakings, its relationship to external economies of agglomeration, its relationship to public policy goals, and its need for semantic clarification. Nevertheless, the theory remains potentially valuable for conditional analysis of the process of regional development; moreover, it may be expected that French regional planning experience will provide data in the near future for refining the approach to rational spatial resource allocation to which French economists have so largely contributed.

Notes: The relationships between international trade and short-term capital placements are shown to be more numerous and complex than is often recognized in the literature. At first instance the trade balance determines a flow of private capital but these flows do not represent movements to equilibrium positions. At least partial repatriation of such flows will be desired by traders but the speed of this repatriation is constrained by the terms on which trade finance has been extended. With full repatriation, a ‘permanent’ change in the trade balance would not lead to a permanent change in private capital flows, but rather to a change in the net stock of short-term assets held abroad due to these constraints on instantaneous portfolio adjustment by traders. The size of the change in this stock is shown to depend on the terms on which trade is financed as well as on the size of the change in the trade balance. The time path of the permanent outward shift is dependent upon these terms as well.The effects just summarized depend upon a divergence between traders’ actual and desired portfolio allocations because of temporary constraints on portfolio adjustment. Longer run changes in the trade balance and absolute volume of trade will affect traders’ convenience and hedging returns from holdings of foreign balances and hence may affect their desired portfolio allocations. While these effects could conceptually go in cither direction, the secular expansion of trade should level to a short-term capital inflow into the United States because of the international role of the dollar.

Notes: This article presents a mathematical model for monopolistic price competition among firms with differentiated products. The conditions which distinguish the Chamberlinian analysis from that of Edgeworth are examined. Product differentiation is not sufficient to guarantee the existence of a stable non-cooperative equilibrium point in terms of price. The relationship among the degree of product variation, amount of capacity, and stability are examined. Explicit formulas are obtained for the non-cooperative equilibrium and the capacity conditions for its existence. The behavior of the model as the degree of differentiation approaches zero and as competition becomes large is examined. This connects the analysis of oligopoly with the analysis of pure competition.

Notes: Decision theory is applied to a situation of conflict which a mother of two actually faced in an isolated home in the American Rocky Mountains. While the father was away on a trip which he thought to last seven days, the mother was bitten by a poisonous snake. She thought the bite to be fatal. To spare her two children, aged two months and two years, the agony of death by starvation, she decided to kill them.The mother faced a decision problem under uncertainty. A theoretical analysis of the situation shows which rational decision would have been optimal. However, a rational decision derived in an objective fashion is not free of subjective elements. Assigning utility measures to the possible types of death of the children, suppositions as to nature's strategies, and the choice of one of four established decision criteria are subjective.The criteria of Wald and Savage picture nature as a hostile opponent wanting to inflict greatest possible injury. The difference between them consists merely in the valuation of the disutility of death. Rational behaviour of the mother calls for selecting that strategy which promises the best of the worst possible outcomes.The Hurwicz criterion can accommodate all variations of nature's attitude, from malignant to benignant. According to the mother's optimism a distribution is supposed over nature's most favourable and unfavourable strategies. The probabilities of all other possible strategies are assumed to be zero.The criterion of Laplace assumes an indifferent nature. All possible strategies of nature are equally likely to eventuate.Three strategies are open to the mother, leave both children alive, kill one child, kill both children. Depending on the utility valuations the mother attaches to the different possible types of death, one of these strategies is optimal. If a decision is arrived by the Wald or Savage criterion a mixed strategy is superior to a pure one. The possibility of the childrens survival through the arrival of a stranger only affects the choice of the mother's strategy if she uses the Laplace criterion.

Notes: Atkinson, Thomas R., and Simpson, Elizabeth T.: Trends in Corporate Bond Quality.Bohnet, Armin: Zur Theorie der personellen EinkotntnensverteilungBosch, Alfred, und Veit, Reinhold : Theorie der Geldpolitik.Brinkmann, Gerhard: Berufsausbildung und Arbeitseinkommen.Buckley, Helen, and Tihanyi, Eva : Canadian Policies for Rural Adjustment.Caves, Richard E., and Johnson, Harry G. (Eds.): Readings in International Economics.Deane, P., and Cole, W. A.: British Economic Growth, 1688-1959.Desai, V. R. Mutalik: Social Aspects of Savings.Diegues jr., Manual, and Wood, Bryce (Eds.): Social Science in Latin AmericaEhrlicher, Werner; Esenwein-Rothe, Ingeborg; JÜrgensen, Harald, und Rose, Klaus (Hrsg.): Kompendium der VolkswirtsckaftslehreEisermann, Gottfried (Hrsg.): Die gegenwärtige Situation der SoziologieFeiwel, George R.: The Soviet Quest for Economic Efficiency.Grand-Jean, Paul: Guerres, Fluctuations et Croissance.Hackett, John and Anne-Marie: The British Economy: Problems and Prospects.Harborth, Hans-JÜrgen : Neue Industriezentren an der weltwirtschaftlichen PeripherieHazelwood, Arthur: African Integration and DisintegrationHeller, Walter W.: New Dimensions of Political Economy.Horvat, Branko : Towards a Theory of Planned Economy.Šik, Ota: K problematice socialistických zbožnich vztahûStÁdnik, Miloš: O koncepci národniho dûchodu v Mad'arskuIdem, Několik statistických i nestatistických pohledû na hospodářské reformy v JugosláviiIdem, The Conception of National Income in Czechoslovakia.JÜrgensen, Harald (Hrsg.): Entzifferung - Bevölkerung als Gesellschaft in Raum und zeitKaldor, Nicholas: Strategic Factors in Economic Development.Kirby, E. Stuart: Economic Development in East Asia.Klinov-Malul, Ruth: The Profitability of Investment in Education in Israel.Nove, Alec und Newth, I. A.: The Soviet Middle East.Ohlin, Bertil: Interregional and International TradePeacock, A. T., and Wiseman, J.: The Growth of Public Expenditure in the United Kingdom.Pickering, J. F.: Resale Price Maintenance in Practice.Preiser, Erich : Wirtschaftspolitik heuteSchachtschabel, Hans G.: Wirtschqftspolitische Konzeptionen.Shaffer, Harry G. (Hrsg.): The Soviet System in Theory and PracticeSimha, S. L. N.: Essays on Finance.Snider, Delbert A.: Introduction to International EconomicsTrappeniers, Felix : Les Avantages comparatifs dans le Marché commun.Youngson, A. J.: Overhead Capital.Zauberman, A.: Aspects of Planometrics

Notes: Balopoulos, E. T.: Fiscal Policy Models of the British Economy. Amsterdam 1967.Beeby, C. E.: The Quality of Education in Developing Countries. Cambridge, Mass., 1966.Boot, John C. G.: Mathematical Reasoning in Economics and Management Science: Twelve Topics. Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1967.Campolongo, Alberto: Incomes Policy. Milano 1966.Chandrasekhar, S.: American Aid and India's Economic Development. New York 1965.Chayanov, A. V.: The Theory of Peasant Economy. Homewood, Ill., 1966.Denizet, Jean: Monnaie et Financement. Essai de thÉorie dans un cadre de comptabilitÉÉconomique. PrÉface de ValÉry Giscard d'Estaing (SÉrie Statistiques et Programmes Economiques, vol. 12). Collection publiÉe sous la direction de Henri Hierche. Paris 1967. Dunod. 284 S. NF 35.-Dietze, Constantin von: Grundzüge der Agrarpolitik. Hamburg und Berlin 1967.Donnithorne, Audrey: China's Economic System. London 1967.Dudler, Hermann-Josef: Diskont- und Terminkurs-Politik (Veröffentlichungen des Instituts für Bankwirtschaft und Bankrecht an der Universität Köln. Vol. XVII). Frankfurt 1966.Eisner, Robert: Some Factors in Growth Reconsidered (Lecture Series, No. 21). Athens 1966.Feldstein, Martin S.: Economic Analysis for Health Service Efficiency. Econometric Studies of the British National Health Service. North Holland Publishing Company. Amsterdam 1967.Fox, Karl A.; Sengupta, Jati K.; Thorbecke, Erik: The Theory of Quantitative Economic Policy with Applications to Economic Growth and Stabilization (Studies in Mathematical and Managerial Economics, Vol. 5). Amsterdam 1966.Glaser, William A., and Sills David L. (Eds.): The Government of Associations. Totowa, N.J., 1966.Guttentag, Jack M., and Herman, Edward S.: Banking Structure and Performance. New York 1967.Hedtkamp, Günter: Planification in Frankreich, Grundlagen, Technik und Erfahrungen (FIW-Schriftenreihe, Heft 31). Köln-Berlin Bonn-München 1966.Hildebrand, George H.: Poverty, Income Maintenance, and the Negative Income Tax (Paperback No. 1). Ithaca 1967.Husain, I. Z.: Economic Factors in Economic Growth. Bombay 1967.Krengel, Rolf und Mertens, Dieter: Fixed Capital Stock and future Investment Requirements in Greek Manufacturing. (Research Monograph Series.) Athens 1966.Lacour, Claude: Revenus agricoles et croissances rÉgionales en France (Travaux de comptabilitÉÉconomique rÉgionale. Collection de l'Institut d'Économie rÉgionale du Sud-Ouest). Bordeaux 1966.Lerner, Daniel, and Schramm, Wilbur (Eds.): Communication and Change in the Developing Countries. Honolulu 1967.Maghlup, Fritz: The Need for Monetary Reserves. (Reprints in International Finance, Princeton University.)Mauersberg, Hans: Deutsche Industrien im Zeitgeschehen eines Jahrhunderts. Stuttgart 1966.MossÉ, Robert: Les problèmes monÉtaires internationaux. Paris 1967.Müller-Gröling, Hubertus: Maximierung des sozialen Gesamtnutzens und Einkommensgleichheit. Köln, Berlin, Bonn, München 1965.Myers, Charles A. (Ed.): The Impact of Computers on Management. The M.I.T. Press. Cambridge, Mass., and London 1967.O.E.C.D.: Emigrant Workers Returning to their Home Country. International Management Seminar, Athens 18th–21st October 1966. Final Report and Supplement. Paris 1967. Osteuropa-Handbuch: Sowjetunion, Das Wirtschaftssystem. In Zusammenarbeit mit zahlreichen Fachgelehrten herausgegeben von Werner Markert (Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Osteuropaforschung). Köln, Graz 1965. Osteuropa-Handbuch: Sowjetunion, Verträge und Abkommen. Verzeichnis der Quellen und Nachweise 1917–1962. Unter Mitwirkung von Jörg K. Hoensch und Helmut König herausgegeben von Werner Markert und Dietrich Geyer (Arbeitsgemeinschaft für Osteuropaforschung). Köln Graz 1967.Peffekoven, Rolf: Zölle und Lohnquote. Berlin 1966.Phelps, Edmund S.: Golden Rules of Economic Growth. Studies of Efficient and Optimal Investment. (Incl. Bibliography on the Golden Rule of Accumulation 1961–65.) Amsterdam 1967.Rudra, Ashok: Relative Rates of Growth — Agriculture and Industry. University of Bombay, 1967.Shannon, Ian: Gold and the American Balance of Payments. Chicago 1966.Sohmen, Egon: The Theory of Forward Exchange (Princeton Studies in International Finance, No. 17). Princeton 1966.Vogel, RenÉ: La politique commerciale suisse. Montreux 1966.Warner, Lloyd W. et al.: The Emergent American Society — Large-Scale Organizations (Volume I). New Haven and London 1967.Yotopoulos, Pan A.: Economic Analysis and Economic Policy (Training Seminar). Center of Planning and Economic Research.

Notes: The economic development of underdeveloped regions involves essentially the same question as that applicable to the development of any region or country using a private enterprise system: how and to what extent should government alter the market process? The belief that governments of underdeveloped regions should not be oblivious to the growth process is well accepted, relating broadly to the argument that if the private sector could have stimulated growth without help from government, it would have done so already. Our analysis shows that the growth theories which seek to bring government into the picture are tending to violate classical economic principles. Moreover, they often ignore the differences that exist between regions. Even the pump priming basis for developing depressed areas—which emphasizes the agglomerating economies that result from initial development—is revealed to lack proper roots in fundamental theory. This paper finally contends that the main role of government in economic development is to facilitate economic activity, such as by eliminating predatory business practices, simplifying the tax base, establishing institutions conducive to entrepreneurship, and perhaps even influencing the saving-income proportions of the region.

Notes: The price- and income-elasticities of imports and primarily rates of growth and relative price-level changes in the countries involved are the most important determinants of the external situation of a country. Growth and price trends are at the same time important target variables of internal policy. Balance on current account is only achievable if these determinants are related in a certain way both abroad and at home. If the proportions required are not to be realized, conflicts arise between external and internal balance. International co-ordination of growth policies may diminish the danger of such conflicts situations. When a larger number of economic objectives can be managed simultaneously there is also a bigger number of constellations which are compatible with external balance. If on the other hand conditions of growth are very different it is usually not possible to bring in accordance internal and external goals.

Notes: In the social sciences specialization is just as unavoidable as in other branches of science but requires a counterweight in the form of collaboration between economics, sociology and political science, and between all these and history. Each social structure, a shop, an office, a club, has at the same time economic, political and sociological significance, and is also rooted in the past. Economic activity especially is embedded in non-economic contexts not only in primitive or proto-capitalistic societies - as Karl Polanyi has stated - but always and everywhere, and most economic activities are enveloped by economic contexts.Therefore, if one wants to understand the full meaning of social reality one has to look at it from the point of view of all the social sciences. Today this is often done in regional studies and in city planning. But this spotty kind of interdisciplinary collaboration is insufficient, especially because it does not lay the groundwork for an education in integrated social science. Such science would systematically study all the typical processes, in whatever part of society, which the individual disciplines analyze each from its own viewpoint. This unified kind of social science will exist only when in the scholarly world synthesis is recognized as an endeavor just as valuable and meritorious as specialized research. Recognition for synthesis in social science will also bring two practical problems closer to solution: How good teaching can receive more credit, since the synthesizing approach is essential for the teacher, and how we can loosen up the negative attitude which many of our students display toward scholarly effort because they feel that it is too hyper-specialized to have much relevance to life problems.

Notes: This paper deals with some problems of long-term planning in developed countries. It is suggested that planning on the industry level can best be applied in national economies that are more or less closed to foreign influences. While information on interindustry relationships can be utilized to derive a feasible pattern of production associated with a growth target in a closed economy, disappointed expectations in regard to exports and unforeseen changes in imports will give rise to discrepancies between plans and realization if the foreign sector is of importance.Moreover, in participating in the international trade network, governments forego the use of a number of policy instruments that could be employed in a closed economy to ensure the fulfilment of plans on the national economy, industry, and firm level. Accordingly, since governments can hardly guarantee the correctness of the forecasts, and entrepreneurs look beyond national frontiers for markets, doubts arise about the desirability of government intervention since ultimately the enterprises’ profits will be affected.On the other hand, long-term planning has a useful function in the public and the semi-public sectors. It would ensure rationality and consistency in decisions on the public sector where prices do not provide a yardstick for choosing among alternative uses of resources. Further, a consicious long-term policy would be desirable in the semi-public sectors - agriculture, transport and energy — where ad hoc interventions, taken often in response to special interests, give rise to inefficiencies.

Notes: By the classical economic theory output is considered as a result of exchanges. Market prices and produced quantities are determined by the point of intersection between offer and demand curves, both varying with shifts in prices; equilibrium is reached without any optimality criterion of business behaviour. In reality, however, output depends on business behaviour; business decisions are based upon such a criterion. The level of demand is set up by prices and income. The marginal utility theory of money makes it possible, to refer the structure of prices to the structure of income.The present paper deals with some of the criteria of optimal business behaviour:(1) Maximization of output. The application of this criterion under the assumption of given prices yields results, partly rational, partly logical but non-justified under economic aspects, partly simply paradoxical.(2) Minimization of costs (maximization of benefits). This criterion—classical when problems of social welfare are considered—seems in this context to lead to paradoxical results, too.(3) Profit-Maximization. In the limited case of perfect monopoly this criterion may be malthusianistic; in oligopoly cases it might be, however, that technical and economic progress is stimulated by its application on business decisions.(4) The social benefit criterion refers to the theory of consumers’ surplus; it may be applied under increasing benefits.

Notes: Since the early 1950's most of the European economies have been growing at an unprecedented high rate associated with a situation of full employment. These two phenomena are at the root of the profound changes which are occurring in European agriculture and which have led on the one hand to a production capacity greater than the potential increase in effective demand for food and on the other hand to rapidly growing income aspirations by farmers.Policies applied so far have been applied uniformly to the entire agricultural sector and have thus been unable to provide satisfactory solutions to these problems. It is necessary to develop more selective policies which should be adapted to the particular problems of each broad group of farmers: (a) policies for those whose economic future in agriculture is doubtful and who should be assisted to transfer to other occupations or to retire; (b) policies for those whose economic future in agriculture might be secured if their size of business was increased and their management improved; and (c) policies for the ‘commercial’ sector of agriculture. The answer to agriculture's problems could be found in the combination of a structural and of a price policy.

Notes: This paper was concerned with giving a fuller discussion of the factor-price equalisation theorem in a three-commodity two-factor model and with giving a different ‘proof of it. The Appendix considered a more tentative issue: the factor-price equalisation theorem in a three-factor two-commodity model. It was suggested that in certain conditions it would be seen that factor-price equalisation was possible.

Notes: This paper examines the problem of selection of variables which are to be considered important when theories or hypotheses concerning social and economic behavior are formulated. It is argued that while considerable precision is utilized in deriving conclusions from economic models, the degree of precision used in selecting the variables included in the model is very much less.The problems involved in constructing a theory of hypothesis building are discussed. The meaning of analyses where ‘casual empiricism’ has been used to select decision variables is examined and criticized. Possible approaches to the problem of interpretation of analytical results in such cases are outlined.The paper does not contain a proposal for a theory of theory construction, but merely calls attention to some of the problems involved in formulation of hypotheses in positive social sciences such as economics.

Notes: Bagiotti, Tullio. Il ProfittoBaumol, William J. Welfare Economics and the Theory of the State. With a New Introduction: Welfare and the State Revisited.Boarman, Patrick M. Germanys Economic Dilemma: Inflation and the Balance of Payments.Boot, John C. G. Quadratic ProgrammingBrennan, Michael J. (Ed.). Patterns of Market BehaviorCarr, Charles R., and Home, Charles W. Quantitative Decision Procedures in Management and Economics. de Ferron, Olivier. Le problème des transports et le Marché communGoode, Richard. The Individual Income TaxHicks, Ursula K. Development Finance: Planning and Control.Hildebrand, George H., and Liu, Ta-chung. Manufacturing Production Functions in the United States, 1957Horowitz, Irving Louis (Ed.). The New SociologyKaser, Michael. ComeconKatzarov, Konstantin. The Theory of Nationalization.Kneese, Allen V. The Economics of Regional Water Quality Management.Myint, Hla. The Economics of the Developing Countries.Pautard, Jean. Les disparités régionales dans la croissance de l'agriculture françaisePearce, I. F. A Contribution to Demand Analysts.Rae, John. Life of Adam Smith.Robinson, E. A. G. (Ed.). Problems in Economic Development.von Rogister, Maximilian. Indien ist anders.Roskamp, Karl W. Capital Formation in West GermanyiStammer, Otto (Hrsg.). Max Weber und die Soziologie heute.Whitman, Marina von Neumann. Government Risk-Sharing in Foreign Investment.

Notes: The object of this paper is two-fold. First, an attempt has been made to show that under certain specific circumstances a livestock production system can be raised to a higher level of output by slaughtering some of the animals. Second, it has been then shown that given a free say to exchange and clearly defined preference scales of the consuming coalitions, this policy is strongly Pareto-wise optimal. Finally the attention is drawn to the relevance of the policy to the problem of scarcity of food in India. It is suggested that India could do well by slaughtering of its animal population.

Notes: This paper reviews the methods and findings of several studies that have been undertaken recently to estimate the interest sensitivity of short-term capital movements. The paper concentrates on the studies of Philip Bell, Peter Kenen, and Jerome Stein, with references to studies by Benjamin Cohen and Robert Gemmill.From the standpoint of balance-of-payments policy, the question of the interest elasticity of short-term capital movements takes on considerable importance. However, the studies conducted thus far do not give a clear-cut answer to this question. Bell finds that, in general, interest rates have only a minor effect on capital flows, whereas Kenen finds them to be highly significant. Stein's work points out drawbacks to the Bell and Kenen studies and proposes remedies.

Notes: Without entering the controversy on the importance of human capital in relation to technological progress, an economist faces a challenging technical problem: how to measure or quantify in monetary terms the significant value of specific skills, both for the individual and for the social entity. This paper attempts to contribute to this objective on two levels: one is to develop an acceptable methodology for evaluation of the incremental contribution of skills; secondly, the paper summarizes preliminary results of a case study on the transfer of skills acquired during military training to the civilian sector in Japan during the post-World War II period.Implications of the study suggest a critical review of by-product contributions of military expenditures. In spite of pejorative evaluations of the military establishment on moral grounds by a segment of public opinion, military training remains a prevasive mechanism for mass development of skills in all nations, particularly in less-developed and socialist countries.The potentiality of tapping the experience and the know-how of military establishments for development of skills transferable for application in a progressively technical society opens opportunity for further scientific exploration and operational exploitation.

Notes: Much of the recent literature on the adequacy of international reserves states that there should be enough reserves in the world so that countries can avoid undesirable and painful adjustment to balance of payments disequilibrium. But this undesirable adjustment, namely deflation and unemployment, is the only adjustment mechanism that exists under a system of fixed exchange rates. It follows from this that no amount of international reserves, short of infinity, can ever be enough. Furthermore, the existing system is one in which there is a built-in bias toward disequilibrium. If countries differ in their willingness to permit some inflation in exchange for full or nearly full employment, the inflation prone countries will tend to incur deficits. They will avoid adjustment—that is, domestic contraction, as long as they have any reserves above what they consider to be minimally acceptable levels. The inflation-avoiding countries, which will tend to be in surplus, will prefer to accumulate reserves rather than permit inflation. In such a world there is likely always to be a ‘shortage' of reserves, whatever the actual level of reserves may be.

Notes: Having defined the terms of trade, the author deals with the restrictions resulting from their use, for instance, in their statistical application, and, he gives a survey of the theories on the subject.He goes on to examine the various views on the terms of trade between primary commodities and manufactures and on those between developed and developing countries. However, generalizations on the matter are difficult. The widely di-vergent opinions are due in great part to uncomplete and defective statistical material. The trend of the terms of trade between primary commodities and manufactures and between developed and developing countries (which is not necessary the same) has but little significance. It is therefore to be regretted that economic policy recommendations are based on the assumption that the terms of trade will deteriorate. This is in fact what happened in numerous papers prepared for the two UNCTAD-conferences. There is no relationship between the terms of trade and economic development.The author concludes that the use of the terms of trade is to be avoided, except, in the last resort, for the study of a specified country and for a period not longer than some years. Moreover, an appropriate comment, for instance, on the productivity trends and the quantities traded, is necessary. The developing countries have, therefore, no interest in giving priority to the terms of trade.

Notes: The nature of a statistical relationship between wage changes and unemployment rates or its very existence in the United States has stimulated studies with contradictory conclusions. This study concludes that (1) a classic ‘Phillips curve’ can be constructed for the U. S. in the postwar period; (2) recent U. S. inflation has reflected the effects of a ‘Phillips curve’ analysis, more so than only secular updrift; (3) a single variable approach (utilizing the skilled labor force unemployment rate) is more successful in explaining wage and price changes during this period than the multiple variable models which are contradictory in theoretical specification and anyway have not performed successfully in recent years; and (4) that the U. S.‘Phillips curve’ has shifted to the left during the 1960's, making the economy less inflation-prone than has been previously thought.

Notes: In The Structure of Scientific Revolutions T. S. Kuhn argues that the history of the natural sciences has been marked by periodic crises, when the dominant ‘paradigm’ is challenged, rejected, and displaced by a new paradigm. Since the paradigm's functions are both regulative and cognitive, this process has sociological as well as purely epistcmological aspects.With the exception of the Keynesian revolution of the 1930's, there have been no phases of paradigm change in economics quite like those in the natural sciences. This is due mainly to the nature of economic paradigms (or ‘basic’ theories) which are less precise and less liable to falsification. ‘Critical anomalies’ and ‘crucial experiments’ do not arise in economics, as in the natural sciences; and yet the process of paradigm change may serve as an ideal type, which can be used to clarify the interrelationships between the terminological, conceptual, personal, and professional elements involved in the development of economic ideas, especially in such episodes as the emergence of classical (Ricardian) economics, the Methodenslreit, or the marginal utility revolution.

Notes: After World War II the economic, technological and social conditions of modern society have changed fundamentally. These evolutionary changes not only influenced the range of the activity of the State, i. e. the empirical and theoretical object of public finance since its foundation as a branch of Political Economy; it also shows a strong effect on the basic parts of modern public finance, on the normative and positive theory of public economy and on the approach of decision making process in the public sector. On the other hand, new methods and perception of this field essentially contributed to throwing new lights on fiscal functions and objectives of modern government and to solve the central problems. Yet this is only an initial step in applying the results of fiscal theory to the interdependent market and public economy.After a period of stagnation a process of theoretical foundation and economizing of this field has begun, preliminarily resulting in an amalgamation of fiscal and economic theory and in an incorporation of fiscal into economic policy. This merger logically raised the question how far this branch is to be considered a proper field of the tripartite Political Economy which—as is wellknown—is still taken as a basis of our academic institutions as well as of many textbooks. Along with the methods of research and theorizing the questions and thus the problems of this branch have changed to a degree that its traditional framework and even its name have become questionable. The label ‘public finance’ today does not cover essential parts or aspects of the objects in theory and practice sufficiently. We are interested in the principles of public economy (not primarily of public finance) and the interrelations to the market economy, the problems thus ranging from activating and allocating a nation's resources to distributing income and wealth and, to stabilizing internal and external growth. The central aim of modern public finance is to make transparent the circular flow and the interdependence within public sector and between market and public economy by budget- and market theory in order to obtain results which can be successfully applied to a rational economic and general policy. The idea of an autonomous theory of public finance has indeed been overcome, although the peculiarity of political decision making renders a comprehensive theory of a nation's economy more difficult in which government activity is subdued to economic principles.

Notes: The essay examines the influence of capital imports on the structure of a developing economy. A significant and persistent capital import will result in a relatively low foreign exchange rate. Consequently, the share of internationally tradable goods and services in national product tends to be low. This will be reflected in a higher share of services and in a smaller share of agriculture and manufacturing in national product and in the labour force of an import surplus economy as compared with a balancing economy with the same internal resources. International comparisons show larger differences in productivity for tradable goods and services than for non-tradable goods and services. Considerable gains can, therefore, be obtained in low-productivity countries by enlarging the production of non-tradables and by limiting the production of tradables to those with a high comparative advantage. Thus, the average capital/product ratio tends to be smaller and average product per employed person larger, when there are significant and persistent import surpluses as compared with a situation in which international accounts are balanced. This, together with the larger investments made possible by capital imports, will increase the growth rate.But the import surplus economy becomes structurally dependent on capital imports. To be able to balance its international accounts it must adjust its structures, i.e. increase the share of tradable goods and services in national product so that it can replace import surplus by larger exports and by import substitutes and increase domestic savings. To achieve this a deliberate government policy is necessary.