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  • Nature Publishing Group  (4,717)
  • Annual Reviews
  • 2005-2009  (5,335)
  • 1990-1994
  • 1980-1984
  • 1960-1964
  • 2006  (5,335)
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  • 2005-2009  (5,335)
  • 1990-1994
  • 1980-1984
  • 1960-1964
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  • 1
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    Long nonlinear internal waves (2006)
    Annual Reviews
    Details
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © Annual Reviews, 2006. This article is posted here by permission of Annual Reviews for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 38 (2006): 395-425, doi:10.1146/annurev.fluid.38.050304.092129.
    Description: Over the past four decades, the combination of in situ and remote sensing observations has demonstrated that long nonlinear internal solitary-like waves are ubiquitous features of coastal oceans. The following provides an overview of the properties of steady internal solitary waves and the transient processes of wave generation and evolution, primarily from the point of view of weakly nonlinear theory, of which the Korteweg-de Vries equation is the most frequently used example. However, the oceanographically important processes of wave instability and breaking, generally inaccessible with these models, are also discussed. Furthermore, observations often show strongly nonlinear waves whose properties can only be explained with fully nonlinear models.
    Description: KRH acknowledges support from NSF and ONR and an Independent Study Award from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. WKM acknowledges support from NSF and ONR, which has made his work in this area possible, in close collaboration with former graduate students at Scripps Institution of Oceanography and MIT.
    Keywords: Solitary waves ; Nonlinear waves ; Stratified flow ; Physical Oceanography
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
    Type: Article
    Format: 1034976 bytes
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    LXRS AND FXR: The Yin and Yang of Cholesterol and Fat Metabolism (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 159-191 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Liver X receptors (LXRs) and farnesoid X receptor (FXR) are nuclear receptors that function as intracellular sensors for sterols and bile acids, respectively. In response to their ligands, these receptors induce transcriptional responses that maintain a balanced, finely tuned regulation of cholesterol and bile acid metabolism. LXRs also permit the efficient storage of carbohydrate- and fat-derived energy, whereas FXR activation results in an overall decrease in triglyceride levels and modulation of glucose metabolism. The elegant, dual interplay between these two receptor systems suggests that they coevolved to constitute a highly sensitive and efficient system for the maintenance of total body fat and cholesterol homeostasis. Emerging evidence suggests that the tissue-specific action of these receptors is also crucial for the proper function of the cardiovascular, immune, reproductive, endocrine pancreas, renal, and central nervous systems. Together, LXRs and FXR represent potential therapeutic targets for the treatment and prevention of numerous metabolic and lipid-related diseases.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.033104.152158
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    INVASION BIOLOGY OF THRIPS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 51 (2006), S. 67-89 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Thrips are among the stealthiest of insect invaders due to their small size and cryptic habits. Many invasive thrips are notorious for causing extensive crop damage, vectoring viral diseases, and permanently destabilizing IPM systems owing to irruptive outbreaks that require remediation with insecticides, leading to the development of insecticide resistance. Several challenges surface when attempting to manage incursive thrips species. Foremost among these is early recognition, followed by rapid and accurate identification of emergent pest species, elucidation of the region of origin, development of a management program, and the closing of conduits for global movement of thrips. In this review, we examine factors facilitating invasion by thrips, damage caused by these insects, pre- and post-invasion management tactics, and challenges looming on the horizon posed by invasive Thysanoptera, which continually challenge the development of sustainable management practices.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151044
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    EVOLUTION OF DEVELOPMENTAL STRATEGIES IN PARASITIC HYMENOPTERA (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 51 (2006), S. 233-258 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Parasitoid wasps have evolved a wide spectrum of developmental interactions with hosts. In this review we synthesize and interpret results from the phylogenetic, ecological, physiological, and molecular literature to identify factors that have influenced the evolution of parasitoid developmental strategies. We first discuss the origins and radiation of the parasitoid lifestyle in the Hymenoptera. We then summarize how parasitoid developmental strategies are affected by ecological interactions and assess the inventory of physiological and molecular traits parasitoids use to successfully exploit hosts. Last, we discuss how certain parasitoid virulence genes have evolved and how these changes potentially affect parasitoid-host interactions. The combination of phylogenetic data with comparative and functional genomics offers new avenues for understanding the evolution of biological diversity in this group of insects.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151029
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    PLANT CHEMISTRY AND NATURAL ENEMY FITNESS: Effects on Herbivore and Natural Enemy Interactions (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 51 (2006), S. 163-185 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Tremendous strides have been made regarding our understanding of how host plant chemistry influences the interactions between herbivores and their natural enemies. While most work has focused on plant chemistry effects on host location and acceptance by natural enemies, an increasing number of studies examine negative effects. The tritrophic role of plant chemistry is central to several aspects of trophic phenomena including top-down versus bottom-up control of herbivores, enemy-free space and host choice, and theories of plant defense. Furthermore, tritrophic effects of plant chemistry are important in assessing the degree of compatibility between biological control and plant resistance approaches to pest control. Additional research is needed to understand the physiological effects of plant chemistry on parasitoids. Explicit tests are required to determine whether natural enemies can act as selective forces on plant defense. Finally, further studies of natural systems are crucial to understanding the evolution of multitrophic relationships.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151110
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    PROSTAGLANDINS AND OTHER EICOSANOIDS IN INSECTS: Biological Significance (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 51 (2006), S. 25-44 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Prostaglandins and other eicosanoids are oxygenated metabolites of certain polyunsaturated fatty acids. These compounds are well known for their important actions in mammalian physiology and disease. Recent work has revealed the presence and biological actions of eicosanoids in insects and many other invertebrate animals. In insects, eicosanoids mediate cellular immunity to microbial and metazoan challenge. Notably, some infectious organisms secrete factors responsible for impairing host insect immune reactions by inhibiting biosynthesis of eicosanoids. Eicosanoids also act in insect reproductive biology, in ion transport physiology, and in fever response to infection as well as in protein exocytosis in tick salivary glands. Aside from ongoing actions in homeostasis, certain eicosanoid actions occur at crucial points in insect life histories, such as during infectious challenge and important events in reproduction.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151021
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    CONFLICT RESOLUTION IN INSECT SOCIETIES (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 51 (2006), S. 581-608 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Although best known for cooperation, insect societies also manifest many potential conflicts among individuals. These conflicts involve both direct reproduction by individuals and manipulation of the reproduction of colony members. Here we review five major areas of reproductive conflict in insect societies: (a) sex allocation, (b) queen rearing, (c) male rearing, (d) queen-worker caste fate, and (e) breeding conflicts among totipotent adults. For each area we discuss the basis for conflict (potential conflict), whether conflict is expressed (actual conflict), whose interests prevail (conflict outcome), and the factors that reduce colony-level costs of conflict (conflict resolution), such as factors that cause workers to work rather than to lay eggs. Reproductive conflicts are widespread, sometimes having dramatic effects on the colony. However, three key factors (kinship, coercion, and constraint) typically combine to limit the effects of reproductive conflict and often lead to complete resolution.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151003
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    THE COMPARATIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF FOOD DEPRIVATION: From Feast to Famine (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 223-251 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: The ability of animals to survive food deprivation is clearly of considerable survival value. Unsurprisingly, therefore, all animals exhibit adaptive biochemical and physiological responses to the lack of food. Many animals inhabit environments in which food availability fluctuates or encounters with appropriate food items are rare and unpredictable; these species offer interesting opportunities to study physiological adaptations to fasting and starvation. When deprived of food, animals employ various behavioral, physiological, and structural responses to reduce metabolism, which prolongs the period in which energy reserves can cover metabolism. Such behavioral responses can include a reduction in spontaneous activity and a lowering in body temperature, although in later stages of food deprivation in which starvation commences, activity may increase as food-searching is activated. In most animals, the gastrointestinal tract undergoes marked atrophy when digestive processes are curtailed; this structural response and others seem particularly pronounced in species that normally feed at intermittent intervals. Such animals, however, must be able to restore digestive functions soon after feeding, and these transitions appear to occur at low metabolic costs.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.040104.105739
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    ROLE OF FXYD PROTEINS IN ION TRANSPORT (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 431-459 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: The FXYD proteins are a family of seven homologous single transmembrane segment proteins (FXYD1Đ??7), expressed in a tissue-specific fashion. The FXYD proteins modulate the function of Na,K-ATPase, thus adapting kinetic properties of active Na+ and K+ transport to the specific needs of different cells. Six FXYD proteins ( 1Đ??5, 7 ) are known to interact with Na,K-ATPase and affect its kinetic properties in specific ways. Although effects of FXYD proteins on parameters such as K1/2Na+, K1/2K+, KmATP, and Vmax are modest, usually twofold, these effects may have important long-term consequences for homeostasis of cation balance. In this review we summarize basic features of FXYD proteins and present recent evidence for functional effects, structure-function relations and structural interactions with Na,K-ATPase. We then discuss possible physiological roles, based on in vitro observations and newly available knockout mice models. Finally, we also consider evidence that FXYD proteins affect functioning of other ion transport systems.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.040104.131852
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    PERMEATION AND SELECTIVITY OF TRP CHANNELS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 685-717 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Ion channels are pore-forming transmembrane proteins that allow ions to permeate biological membranes. Pore structure plays a crucial role in determining the ion permeation and selectivity properties of particular channels. In the past few decades, efforts have been undertaken to identify key elements of the pore regions of different classes of ion channels. In this review, we summarize current knowledge about permeation and selectivity of channel proteins from the transient receptor potential (TRP) superfamily. Whereas all TRP channels are permeable for cations, only two TRP channels are impermeable for Ca2+ (TRPM4, TRPM5), and two others are highly Ca2+ permeable (TRPV5, TRPV6). Despite the great advances in the TRP channel field during the past decade, only a limited number of reports have dealt with functional characterization of pore properties, biophysical aspects of cation permeation, or description of pore structures of TRP channels. This review gives an overview of available experimental and theoretical data and discusses the functional impact of pore-structure modifications on TRP channel properties.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.040204.101406
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  • 11
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    REGULATION OF NORMAL AND CYSTIC FIBROSIS AIRWAY SURFACE LIQUID VOLUME BY PHASIC SHEAR STRESS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 543-561 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: The physical removal of viruses and bacteria on the mucociliary escalator is an important aspect of the mammalian lung's innate defense mechanism. The volume of airway surface liquid (ASL) present in the respiratory tract is a critical determinant of both mucus hydration and the rate of mucus clearance from the lung. ASL volume is maintained by the predominantly ciliated epithelium via coordinated regulation of (a) absorption, by the epithelial Na+ channel, and (b) secretion, by the Ca2+ -activated Cl channel (CaCC) and CFTR. This review provides an update on our current understanding of how shear stress regulates ASL volume height in normal and cystic fibrosis (CF) airway epithelia through extracellular ATP- and adenosine (ADO)-mediated pathways that modulate ion transport and ASL volume homeostasis. We also discuss (a) how derangement of the ADO-CFTR pathway renders CF airways vulnerable to viral infections that deplete ASL volume and produce mucus stasis, and (b) potential shear stressĐ??dependent therapies for CF.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.072304.112754
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    STRESS TRANSMISSION IN THE LUNG: Pathways from Organ to Molecule (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 507-541 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Gas exchange, the primary function of the lung, can come about only with the application of physical forces on the macroscale and their transmission to the scale of small airway, small blood vessel, and alveolus, where they serve to distend and stabilize structures that would otherwise collapse. The pathway for force transmission then continues down to the level of cell, nucleus, and molecule; moreover, to lesser or greater degrees most cell types that are resident in the lung have the ability to generate contractile forces. At these smallest scales, physical forces serve to distend the cytoskeleton, drive cytoskeletal remodeling, expose cryptic binding domains, and ultimately modulate reaction rates and gene expression. Importantly, evidence has now accumulated suggesting that multiscale phenomena span these scales and govern integrative lung behavior.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.072304.114110
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  • 13
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    AN INTRODUCTION TO TRP CHANNELS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 619-647 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: The aim of this review is to provide a basic framework for understanding the function of mammalian transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, particularly as they have been elucidated in heterologous expression systems. Mammalian TRP channel proteins form six-transmembrane (6-TM) cation-permeable channels that may be grouped into six subfamilies on the basis of amino acid sequence homology (TRPC, TRPV, TRPM, TRPA, TRPP, and TRPML). Selected functional properties of TRP channels from each subfamily are summarized in this review. Although a single defining characteristic of TRP channel function has not yet emerged, TRP channels may be generally described as calcium-permeable cation channels with polymodal activation properties. By integrating multiple concomitant stimuli and coupling their activity to downstream cellular signal amplification via calcium permeation and membrane depolarization, TRP channels appear well adapted to function in cellular sensation. Our review of recent literature implicating TRP channels in neuronal growth cone steering suggests that TRPs may function more widely in cellular guidance and chemotaxis. The TRP channel gene family and its nomenclature, the encoded proteins and alternatively spliced variants, and the rapidly expanding pharmacology of TRP channels are summarized in online supplemental material.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.040204.100431
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  • 14
    Electronic Resource
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    INTERSTITIAL CELLS OF CAJAL AS PACEMAKERS IN THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 307-343 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: In the gastrointestinal tract, phasic contractions are caused by electrical activity termed slow waves. Slow waves are generated and actively propagated by interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC). The initiation of pacemaker activity in the ICC is caused by release of Ca2+ from inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptorĐ??operated stores, uptake of Ca2+ into mitochondria, and the development of unitary currents. Summation of unitary currents causes depolarization and activation of a dihydropyridine-resistant Ca2+ conductance that entrains pacemaker activity in a network of ICC, resulting in the active propagation of slow waves. Slow wave frequency is regulated by a variety of physiological agonists and conditions, and shifts in pacemaker dominance can occur in response to both neural and nonneural inputs. Loss of ICC in many human motility disorders suggests exciting new hypotheses for the etiology of these disorders.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.040504.094718
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  • 15
    Electronic Resource
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    INSECT ODOR AND TASTE RECEPTORS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 51 (2006), S. 113-135 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Insect odor and taste receptors are highly sensitive detectors of food, mates, and oviposition sites. Following the identification of the first insect odor and taste receptors in Drosophila melanogaster, these receptors were identified in a number of other insects, including the malaria vector mosquito Anopheles gambiae; the silk moth, Bombyx mori; and the tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens. The chemical specificities of many of the D. melanogaster receptors, as well as a few of the A. gambiae and B. mori receptors, have now been determined either by analysis of deletion mutants or by ectopic expression in in vivo or heterologous expression systems. Here we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the molecular and cellular basis of odor and taste coding in insects.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.051705.113646
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  • 16
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    BIZARRE INTERACTIONS AND ENDGAMES: Entomopathogenic Fungi and Their Arthropod Hosts (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 51 (2006), S. 331-357 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Invertebrate pathogens and their hosts are taxonomically diverse. Despite this, there is one unifying concept relevant to all such parasitic associations: Both pathogen and host adapt to maximize their own reproductive output and ultimate fitness. The strategies adopted by pathogens and hosts to achieve this goal are almost as diverse as the organisms themselves, but studies examining such relationships have traditionally concentrated only on aspects of host physiology. Here we review examples of host-altered behavior and consider these within a broad ecological and evolutionary context. Research on pathogen-induced and host-mediated behavioral changes demonstrates the range of altered behaviors exhibited by invertebrates including behaviorally induced fever, elevation seeking, reduced or increased activity, reduced response to semiochemicals, and changes in reproductive behavior. These interactions are sometimes quite bizarre, intricate, and of great scientific interest.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.150941
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  • 17
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    SIGNALING AND FUNCTION OF INSULIN-LIKE PEPTIDES IN INSECTS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 51 (2006), S. 1-24 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Insulin-like peptides (ILPs) exist in insects and are encoded by multigene families that are expressed in the brain and other tissues. Upon secretion, these peptides likely serve as hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors, but to date, few direct functions have been demonstrated. In Drosophila melanogaster, molecular genetic studies have revealed elements of a conserved insulin signaling pathway, and as in other animal models, it appears to play a key role in metabolism, growth, reproduction, and aging. This review offers (a) an integrated summary of the efforts to characterize the distribution of ILPs in insects and to define this pathway and its functions in Drosophila and (b) a few considerations for future studies of ILP endocrinology in insects.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151011
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  • 18
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    HUMAN FLAVIN-CONTAINING MONOOXYGENASES (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 65-100 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: This review summarizes recent information concerning the pharmacological and toxicological significance of the human flavin-containing monooxygenase (FMO, EC 1.14.13.8). The human FMO oxygenates nucleophilic heteroatom-containing chemicals and drugs and generally converts them into harmless, polar, readily excreted metabolites. Sometimes, however, FMO bioactivates chemicals into reactive materials that can cause toxicity. Most of the interindividual differences of FMO are due to genetic variability and allelic variation, and splicing variants may contribute to interindividual and interethnic variability observed for FMO-mediated metabolism. In contrast to cytochrome P450 (CYP), FMO is not easily induced nor readily inhibited, and potential adverse drug-drug interactions are minimized for drugs prominently metabolized by FMO. These properties may provide advantages in drug design and discovery, and by incorporating FMO detoxication pathways into drug candidates, more drug-like materials may be forthcoming. Although exhaustive examples are not available, physiological factors can influence FMO function, and this may have implications for the clinical significance of FMO and a role in human disease.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.46.120604.141043
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  • 19
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    THE PROTEASOME AND PROTEASOME INHIBITORS IN CANCER THERAPY (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 189-213 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: The proteasome, a multicatalytic proteinase complex, is responsible for the majority of intracellular protein degradation. Pharmacologic inhibitors of the proteasome possess in vitro and in vivo antitumor activity, and bortezomib, the first such agent to undergo clinical testing, has significant efficacy against multiple myeloma and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL). Preclinical studies demonstrate that proteasome inhibition potentiates the activity of other cancer therapeutics, in part by downregulating chemoresistance pathways. Early clinical studies of bortezomib-based combinations, showing encouraging activity, support this observation. Molecular characterization of resistance to proteasome inhibitors has revealed novel therapeutic targets for sensitizing malignancies to these agents, such as the heat shock pathway. Below, we review the pharmacologic, preclinical, and clinical data that have paved the way for the use of proteasome inhibitors for cancer therapy; outline strategies aimed at enhancing the efficacy of proteasome inhibitors; and review other potential targets in the ubiquitin proteasome pathway for the treatment of cancer.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.46.120604.141300
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  • 20
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    CO AS A CELLULAR SIGNALING MOLECULE (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 411-449 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Many biological functions of heme oxygenase (HO), such as cytoprotection against oxidative stress, vasodilation, neurotransmission in the central or peripheral nervous systems, and anti-inflammatory, anti-apoptotic, or anti-proliferative potential, have been attributed to its enzymatic byproduct carbon monoxide (CO), although roles for biliverdin/bilirubin and iron have also been proposed. In addition to these well-characterized effects, recent findings reveal that HO-derived CO may act as an oxygen sensor and circadian modulator of heme biosynthesis. In lymphocytes, CO may participate in regulatory T cell function. A number of the known signaling effects of CO depend on stimulation of soluble guanylate cyclase and/or activation of mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK). Furthermore, modulation of caveolin-1 status may serve as an essential component of certain aspects of CO action, such as growth control. In this review, we summarize recent findings of the beneficial or detrimental effects of endogenous CO with an emphasis on the signaling pathways and downstream targets that trigger the action of this gas.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.46.120604.141053
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  • 21
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    FUNCTION OF RETINOID NUCLEAR RECEPTORS: Lessons from Genetic and Pharmacological Dissections of the Retinoic Acid Signaling Pathway During Mouse Embryogenesis (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 451-480 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Retinoic acid (RA) is involved in vertebrate morphogenesis, growth, cellular differentiation, and tissue homeostasis. The use of in vitro systems initially led to the identification of nuclear receptor RXR/RAR heterodimers as possible transducers of the RA signal. To unveil the physiological functions of RARs and RXRs, genetic and pharmacological studies have been performed in the mouse. Together, their results demonstrate that (a) RXR/RAR heterodimers in which RXR is either transcriptionally active or silent are involved in the transduction of the RA signal during prenatal development, (b) specific RXRʼ̛/RAR heterodimers are required at many distinct stages during early embryogenesis and organogenesis, (c) the physiological role of RA and its receptors cannot be extrapolated from teratogenesis studies using retinoids in excess. Additional cell typeĐ??restricted and temporally controlled somatic mutagenesis is required to determine the functions of RARs and RXRs during postnatal life.
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    PEROXISOME PROLIFERATOR-ACTIVATED RECEPTORS: How Their Effects on Macrophages Can Lead to the Development of a New Drug Therapy Against Atherosclerosis (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 1-39 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) alpha (ʼ̛), beta/delta (?‚/??), and gamma (??) are members of the nuclear receptor superfamily, which also includes the estrogen, androgen, and glucocorticoid receptors. Recent evidence suggests that PPARs regulate genes involved in lipid metabolism, glucose homeostasis, and inflammation in various tissues; however, the mechanisms involved are not completely understood. Anti-diabetic drugs, called glitazones, can selectively activate PPAR??, and hypolipidemic drugs, called fibrates, can weakly activate PPARʼ̛. Both classes of drugs can decrease insulin resistance and dyslipidemias, which also makes them attractive for treating the metabolic syndrome. The metabolic syndrome exhibits a constellation of risk factors for atherosclerosis that include obesity, insulin resistance, dyslipidemias, and hypertension. Interestingly, all three PPARs are present in macrophages and can therefore have a profound effect on several disease processes, including atherosclerosis. Macrophages are key players in atherosclerotic lesion development. Currently, the first line of defense in reducing the risk of atherosclerosis is aimed at lowering low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and raising high-density lipoproteins (HDL), but a large percentage of patients on statins still succumb to coronary artery disease. However, with the development of drugs selectively activating PPARs, a new arsenal of drugs specifically targeting to the macrophage/foam cell may potentially have a profound impact on how we treat cardiovascular disease.
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    CANNABINOID RECEPTORS AS THERAPEUTIC TARGETS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 101-122 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: CB1 and CB2 cannabinoid receptors are the primary targets of endogenous cannabinoids (endocannabinoids). These G proteinĐ??coupled receptors play an important role in many processes, including metabolic regulation, craving, pain, anxiety, bone growth, and immune function. Cannabinoid receptors can be engaged directly by agonists or antagonists, or indirectly by manipulating endocannabinoid metabolism. In the past several years, it has become apparent from preclinical studies that therapies either directly or indirectly influencing cannabinoid receptors might be clinically useful. This review considers the components of the endocannabinoid system and discusses some of the most promising endocannabinoid-based therapies.
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    REGULATION OF PLATELET FUNCTIONS BY P2 RECEPTORS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 277-300 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: The main role of blood platelets is to ensure primary hemostasis, which is the maintenance of vessel integrity and cessation of bleeding upon injury. While playing a major part in acute arterial thrombosis, platelets are also involved in inflammation, atherosclerosis, and angiogenesis. ADP and ATP play a crucial role in platelet activation, and their receptors are potential targets for antithrombotic drugs. The ATP-gated cation channel P2X1 and the two G proteinĐ??coupled ADP receptors, P2Y1 and P2Y12, selectively contribute to platelet aggregation and formation of a thrombus. Owing to its central role in the growth and stabilization of a thrombus, the P2Y12 receptor is an established target of antithrombotic drugs such as clopidogrel. Studies in P2Y1 and P2X1 knockout mice and selective P2Y1 and P2X1 antagonists have shown that these receptors are also attractive targets for new antithrombotic compounds. The potential role of platelet P2 receptors in the involvement of platelets in inflammatory processes is also discussed.
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    MOLECULAR MECHANISM OF 7TM RECEPTOR ACTIVATIONĐ??A GLOBAL TOGGLE SWITCH MODEL (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 481-519 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: The multitude of chemically highly different agonists for 7TM receptors apparently do not share a common binding mode or active site but nevertheless act through induction of a common molecular activation mechanism. A global toggle switch model is proposed for this activation mechanism to reconcile the accumulated biophysical data supporting an outward rigid-body movement of the intracellular segments, as well as the recent data derived from activating metal ion sites and tethered ligands, which suggests an opposite, inward movement of the extracellular segments of the transmembrane helices. According to this model, a vertical see-saw movement of TM-VIĐ??and to some degree TM-VIIĐ??around a pivot corresponding to the highly conserved prolines will occur during receptor activation, which may involve the outer segment of TM-V in an as yet unclear fashion. Small-molecule agonists can stabilize such a proposed active conformation, where the extracellular segments of TM-VI and -VII are bent inward toward TM-III, by acting as molecular glue deep in the main ligand-binding pocket between the helices, whereas larger agonists, peptides, and proteins can stabilize a similar active conformation by acting as Velcro at the extracellular ends of the helices and the connecting loops.
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    THE REGULATION AND PHARMACOLOGY OF ENDOTHELIAL NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHASE (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 235-276 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Nitric oxide (NO) is a small, diffusible, lipophilic free radical gas that mediates significant and diverse signaling functions in nearly every organ system in the body. The endothelial isoform of nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) is a key source of NO found in the cardiovascular system. This review summarizes the pharmacology of NO and the cellular regulation of endothelial NOS (eNOS). The molecular intricacies of the chemistry of NO and the enzymology of NOSs are discussed, followed by a review of the biological activities of NO. This information is then used to develop a more global picture of the pharmacological control of NO synthesis by NOSs in both physiologic conditions and pathophysiologic states.
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    FUNCTIONAL IMAGING OF TUMOR PROTEOLYSIS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 301-315 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: The roles of proteases in cancer are now known to be much broader than simply degradation of extracellular matrix during tumor invasion and metastasis. Furthermore, proteases from tumor-associated cells (e.g., fibroblasts, inflammatory cells, endothelial cells) as well as tumor cells are recognized to contribute to pathways critical to neoplastic progression. Although elevated expression (transcripts and proteins) of proteases, and in some cases protease inhibitors, has been documented in many tumors, techniques to assess functional roles for proteases require that we measure protease activity and inhibition of that activity rather than levels of proteases, activators, and inhibitors. Novel techniques for functional imaging of protease activity, both in vitro and in vivo, are being developed as are imaging probes that will allow us to determine protease activity and in some cases to discriminate among protease activities. These should be useful clinically as surrogate endpoints for therapies that alter protease activities.
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    REGULATION OF PHOSPHOLIPASE C ISOZYMES BY RAS SUPERFAMILY GTPASES (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 355-379 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: The physiological effects of many extracellular stimuli are mediated by receptor-promoted activation of phospholipase C (PLC) and consequential activation of inositol lipid-signaling pathways. These signaling responses include the classically described conversion of PtdIns(4,5)P2 to the Ca2+-mobilizing second messenger Ins(1,4,5)P3 and the protein kinase CĐ??activating second messenger diacylglycerol as well as alterations in membrane association or activity of many proteins that harbor phosphoinositide binding domains. Here we discuss how the family of PLCs elaborates a minimal catalytic core typified by PLC-?? to confer multiple modes of regulation on their phospholipase activities. Although PLC-dependent signaling is prominently regulated by direct interactions with heterotrimeric G proteins or tyrosine kinases, the existence of at least 13 divergent PLC isozymes promises a diverse repertoire of regulatory mechanisms for this class of important signaling proteins. We focus here on the recently realized and extensive regulation of inositol lipid signaling by Ras superfamily GTPases directly acting on PLC isozymes and conclude by considering the biological and pharmacological ramifications of this regulation.
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    NUCLEAR AND MITOCHONDRIAL COMPARTMENTATION OF OXIDATIVE STRESS AND REDOX SIGNALING (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 215-234 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: New methods to measure thiol oxidation show that redox compartmentation functions as a mechanism for specificity in redox signaling and oxidative stress. Redox Western analysis and redox-sensitive green fluorescent proteins provide means to quantify thiol/disulfide redox changes in specific subcellular compartments. Analyses using these techniques show that the relative redox states from most reducing to most oxidizing are mitochondria 〉 nuclei 〉 cytoplasm 〉 endoplasmic reticulum 〉 extracellular space. Mitochondrial thiols are an important target of oxidant-induced apoptosis and necrosis and are especially vulnerable to oxidation because of the relatively alkaline pH. Maintenance of a relatively reduced nuclear redox state is critical for transcription factor binding in transcriptional activation in response to oxidative stress. The new methods are applicable to a broad range of experimental systems and their use will provide improved understanding of the pharmacologic and toxicologic actions of drugs and toxicants.
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    CYTOCHROME P450 AND XENOBIOTIC RECEPTOR HUMANIZED MICE * (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 41-64 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Most xenobiotics that enter the body are subjected to metabolism that functions primarily to facilitate their elimination. Metabolism of certain xenobiotics can also result in the production of electrophilic derivatives that can cause cell toxicity and transformation. Many xenobiotics can also activate receptors that in turn induce the expression of genes encoding xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes and xenobiotic transporters. However, there are marked species differences in the way mammals respond to xenobiotics, which are due in large part to molecular differences in receptors and xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes. This presents a problem in extrapolating data obtained with rodent model systems to humans. There are also polymorphisms in xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes that can impact drug therapy and cancer susceptibility. In an effort to generate more reliable in vivo systems to study and predict human response to xenobiotics, humanized mice are under development.
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    PHARMACOGENOMICS OF ACUTE LEUKEMIA (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 317-353 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Over the past four decades, treatment of acute leukemia in children has made remarkable progress, from this disease being lethal to now achieving cure rates of 80% for acute lymphoblastic leukemia and 45% for acute myeloid leukemia. This progress is largely owed to the optimization of existing treatment modalities rather than the discovery of new agents. However, the annual number of patients with leukemia who experience relapse after initial therapy remains greater than that of new cases of most childhood cancers. The aim of pharmacogenetics is to develop strategies to personalize medications and tailor treatment regimens to individual patients, with the goal of enhancing efficacy and safety through better understanding of the person's genetic makeup. In this review, we summarize recent pharmacogenomic studies related to the treatment of pediatric acute leukemia. These include work using candidate-gene approaches, as well as genome-wide studies using haplotype mapping and gene expression profiling. These strategies illustrate the promise of pharmacogenomics to further advance the treatment of human cancers, with childhood leukemia serving as a paradigm.
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    REGULATION OF DRUG-METABOLIZING ENZYMES AND TRANSPORTERS IN INFLAMMATION (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 123-149 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Inflammation and infection have long been known to downregulate the activity and expression of cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes involved in hepatic drug clearance. This can result in elevated plasma drug levels and increased adverse effects. Recent information on regulation of human CYP enzymes is presented, as are new developments in our understanding of the mechanisms of regulation. Experiments to study the effects of modulating CYP activities on the inflammatory response have yielded possible insights into the physiological consequences, if not the purpose, of the downregulation. Regulation of hepatic flavin monooxygenases, UDP-glucuronosyltransferases, sulfotransferases, glutathione S-transferases, as well as of hepatic transporters during the inflammatory response, exhibits similarities and differences with regulation of CYPs.
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    ACCESSORY PROTEINS FOR G PROTEINS: Partners in Signaling (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 151-187 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Accessory proteins involved in signal processing through heterotrimeric G proteins are generally defined as proteins distinct from G proteinĐ??coupled receptor (GPCR), G protein, or classical effectors that regulate the strength/efficiency/specificity of signal transfer upon receptor activation or position these entities in the right microenvironment, contributing to the formation of a functional signal transduction complex. A flurry of recent studies have implicated an additional class of accessory proteins for this system that provide signal input to heterotrimeric G proteins in the absence of a cell surface receptor, serve as alternative binding partners for G protein subunits, provide unexpected modes of G protein regulation, and have introduced additional functional roles for G proteins. This group of accessory proteins includes the recently discovered Activators of G protein Signaling (AGS) proteins identified in a functional screen for receptor-independent activators of G protein signaling as well as several proteins identified in protein interaction screens and genetic screens in model organisms. These accessory proteins may influence GDP dissociation and nucleotide exchange at the G subunit, alter subunit interactions within heterotrimeric G independent of nucleotide exchange, or form complexes with G or G independent of the typical G heterotrimer. AGS and related accessory proteins reveal unexpected diversity in G protein subunits as signal transducers within the cell.
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    ROLE OF ABCG2/BCRP IN BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 46 (2006), S. 381-410 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: The protein variously named ABCG2/BCRP/MXR/ABCP is a recently described ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporter originally identified by its ability to confer drug resistance that is independent of Mrp1 (multidrug-resistance protein 1) and Pgp (P-glycoprotein). Unlike Mrp1 and Pgp, ABCG2 is a half-transporter that must homodimerize to acquire transport activity. ABCG2 is found in a variety of stem cells and may protect them from exogenous and endogenous toxins. ABCG2 expression is upregulated under low-oxygen conditions, consistent with its high expression in tissues exposed to low-oxygen environments. ABCG2 interacts with heme and other porphyrins and protects cells and/or tissues from protoporphyrin accumulation under hypoxic conditions. Individuals who carry ABCG2 alleles that have impaired function may be more susceptible to porphyrin-induced toxicity. Abcg2 knock-out models have allowed in vivo studies of Abcg2 function in host and cellular defense. In combination with immunohistochemical analyses, these studies have revealed how ABCG2 influences the absorption, distribution, and excretion of drugs and cytotoxins.
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    50 & 100 Years Ago (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 556-556 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] 50 Years Ago On September 18 the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization of Australia held a conference in Melbourne to plan the country's myxomatosis campaign for the season... Reports from all the Australian states indicated that rabbit populations are ...
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    Hydrology Water from on high (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 562-563 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Hydrologists yearn above all to close Earth's water balance. This is essentially a housekeeping task: to measure precisely where and in what quantities Earth stores water, and how the water moves between those stores. Constant changes, both natural and anthropogenic, to the global water cycle make ...
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    Making the paper Jan Born (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444.2006, 7119, xiii-, (1 S.) 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Few doubt the benefits of a good night's sleep — and research has long suggested that it helps our memories to consolidate recently learned facts. On page 610, Jan Born and his colleagues at the University of Lübeck in Germany provide fresh insight into how this consolidation ...
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    Oncogene-induced senescence is part of the tumorigenesis barrier imposed by DNA damage checkpoints (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 633-637 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Recent studies have indicated the existence of tumorigenesis barriers that slow or inhibit the progression of preneoplastic lesions to neoplasia. One such barrier involves DNA replication stress, which leads to activation of the DNA damage checkpoint and thereby to apoptosis or cell cycle ...
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    Science in culture (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 550-550 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] The beauty of a rocket engine designed by Valentin Glushko lies in its functionality. ...How and when does a utilitarian piece of technology become an object of beauty? This question was triggered by an early rocket engine designed by Valentin Petrovich Glushko (1908–89) that is on ...
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    Conservation biology Rarity bites (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 555-556 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] It makes sense that, as a valued commodity becomes scarce, its cost rises. Indeed, tests of the economic theories of demand have shown that consumers greatly value the hedonic exclusivity of owning rare objects, such as coins or stamps. But is this desire restricted to the harmless venture of ...
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    Device physics A terahertz modulator (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 560-561 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Electromagnetic radiation with frequencies lying between the microwave region and the infrared — so-called terahertz radiation — holds great promise for imaging and sensing applications. It is non-ionizing, and therefore causes less damage to biological tissue than conventional, ...
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    Systems Biology Many things from one (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 561-562 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] The census bureau will tell you that the typical American family has 2.1 children, but there are no families (we hope) that precisely match this mean. Similarly, biologists have come to realize that population-based measurements can obscure critical information about cell-to-cell diversity. The use ...
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    Astrochemistry Complex organic matter in Titan's aerosols? (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444.2006, 7118, E6-, (1 S.) 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Arising from: G. Israël et al. Nature 438, 796–799 (2005); Israël et al. reply On 14 January 2005, the Huygens probe entered the atmosphere of Titan after a seven-year interplanetary flight as part of the Cassini ...
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    Smiles all round (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 401-402 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] When physicist Paul Rothemund of the California Institute of Technology created smiley faces by the billion out of self-assembling pieces of DNA (Nature 440, 297–302; 2006) — an achievement celebrated on the cover of this journal ...
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    Q&A Peter Korevaar (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 407-407 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] What are your main goals? We are a Protestant group. We want to do accurate and honest scientific work under the premise that God has created the world. Scientific naturalism as we know it doesn't allow for a creator who can interfere with the physical world. Evolution should be taught in ...
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    Britain plans tough limits to curb emissions (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 409-409 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] The UK government clearly aimed to make a statement about climate change last week. And it succeeded. At the Queen's official opening of parliament on 15 November, it promised legislation that will see the country's greenhouse-gas emissions slashed to 60% of 1990 levels by 2050. That is a ...
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    Universities urged to do more for poor nations (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 412-413 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] This month sees the fifth anniversary of the Doha declaration, an international agreement signed by the world's trade ministers that was aimed at broadening poor countries' access to medicines. But in the intervening five years, the main provisions in the declaration have not been used and access ...
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    Rank clocks (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 592-596 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Many objects and events, such as cities, firms and internet hubs, scale with size in the upper tails of their distributions. Despite intense interest in using power laws to characterize such distributions, most analyses have been concerned with observations at a single instant of time, with ...
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    Centriole assembly in Caenorhabditis elegans (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 619-623 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Centrioles are necessary for flagella and cilia formation, cytokinesis, cell-cycle control and centrosome organization/spindle assembly. They duplicate once per cell cycle, but the mechanisms underlying their duplication remain unclear. Here we show using electron tomography of staged C. ...
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    Stem-cell biology A move in the right direction (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 552-553 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] The potential of stem-cell technologies to revolutionize medical care is causing great excitement among biologists and the general public. Recent studies on embryonic and adult stem cells, coupled with advances in our understanding of how they can be coaxed into forming particular cell types and ...
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    French science after Chirac (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 401-401 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] “Time for a French revolution”, “A chance for change in France”, “France's research base needs a shaking”, “A squandered opportunity”, “France: too much analysis leads to paralysis?”. These headlines from Nature have punctuated more than a ...
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    A fresh start for Japan (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 402-402 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] For years Japan has been trying to reform the way it does science. Since 2001, almost all research institutions, including the entire university system, have been given far greater autonomy in an attempt to make them more competitive with each other and with rivals abroad. Generous funding has also ...
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    Molecular biology Triggering positive competition (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 435-436 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Proteins have specific structures designed for their tasks, the fold of each protein being dictated by its amino-acid sequence. Within the cell, protein folding occurs as the protein is being made by a multi-subunit complex called the ribosome. Before the protein is long enough to acquire its final ...
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    The science community must unite over Iraq (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 422-422 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Sir Members of the international scientific community are deeply disturbed by the systematic murder of several hundred academics in Iraq, the recent mass kidnapping at the Ministry of Higher Education's Research Directorate (see “Gunmen seize academics at Baghdad ...
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    Religious authorities overrule scientists in Iran (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 422-422 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Sir Your Editorial support for the recent rise in scientific productivity in Iran is admirable (“Revival in Iran” Nature 442, 719; 2006 doi:10.1038/442719b). However, I disagree with the comments made ...
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    A giant leap? (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 424-424 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Dark Side of the Moon stands, and falls, on its cunning soundbites. With a cheeky rhetorical flourish, Gerard DeGroot, a history professor at the University of St Andrews, UK, attacks the integrity of the American Moon-landing programme of the 1960s. Thankfully, he does not go so far as to ...
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    Science in culture: Burning Bush (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 426-426 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] ...Disastrous bushfires, which occur regularly in Australia during the scorching summer months, have scarred the country's collective psyche as well as its landscape. From colonial painter William Strutt's panoramic canvases of bushfires, such as the Black Thursday fires in 1851, to today's ...
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    Market watch (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 257-257 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] ...This week Wood Mackenzie, an Edinburgh-based research and consulting firm, reviews recent trends in biotechnology stocks. Boosted by a better investment sentiment and a clutch of eye-catching acquisitions, the Nasdaq biotechnology index is up 11.5% over the past eight weeks — but ...
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    Charmed, I'm sure (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 264-264 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Daniel Nelson was getting desperate. His graduate thesis at the University of Georgia, Athens, depended on his ability to isolate periodontain, an enzyme from the bacterium that causes gum disease. Yet after two years of trial and error, his protein preparation still contained too many ...
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    News in brief (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 255-255 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Foreign-student enrolment bucks declining US trend The total number of international undergraduate and graduate students enrolled at US universities held even this year. This marks the end of two consecutive years of decline, according to the most comprehensive survey of the ...
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    Genetic information Codes and enigmas (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 259-261 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] “Itwasknownthattheywerealittleacquaintedbutnotasyllableofrealinformationcouldemmaprocureastowhathetrulywas...” Reduce it to just a sequence of letters, and even a delicate phrase from Jane Austen's Emma becomes virtually impenetrable gobbledygook. So it was something of a ...
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    Answering critics can add fuel to controversy (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 265-265 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Sir Your Editorial “To build bridges, or to burn them” and News Feature “In the name of nature” raise important points about criticism of science and how scientists should best respond (Nature 443, 481; 2006 ...
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    50 & 100 Years Ago (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 277-277 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] 50 Years Ago It is not without significance that the opening by the Queen of Britain's first nuclear power station has almost coincided with the approval by a conference of eighty-two nations of the draft statute for the International Atomic Energy Agency... The urgent need is ...
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    Safe handling of nanotechnology (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 267-269 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] When the physicist and Nobel laureate Richard Feynman challenged the science community to think small in his 1959 lecture 'There's Plenty of Room at the Bottom', he planted the seeds of a new era in science and technology. Nanotechnology, which is about controlling matter at near-atomic scales to ...
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    Key Collaboration (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444.2006, 7117, xiii-, (1 S.) 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] The seeds for the collaboration behind the paper on page 354 of this issue were sown some 20 years ago, while Miquel Canals was doing his PhD at the University of Perpignan in France. Back then he was studying the Gulf of Lions in the northwest Mediterranean Sea, mapping the region with what ...
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    Materials Carbon nanotubes in an ancient Damascus sabre (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 286-286 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] The steel of Damascus blades, which were first encountered by the Crusaders when fighting against Muslims, had features not found in European steels — a characteristic wavy banding pattern known as damask, extraordinary mechanical properties, and an exceptionally sharp cutting edge. Here ...
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    Research highlights (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 246-247 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Biomechanics: Jeepers creepers Phys. Rev. Lett. 97, 184302 (2006) How do climbing plants grasp the poles up which they wind? And why do some twine around thin poles but not thick ones? Researchers going back to Charles Darwin have puzzled over these questions. Now ...
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    Q&A: Bart Gordon (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 251-251 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Leadership is also shifting in Washington DC, where the 7 November elections ushered in a complete changeover. Starting in January, Democrats will replace Republicans as the majority party in both houses of Congress. As such they will lead all committees, the working groups that regulate the ...
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    Gunmen seize academics at Baghdad ministry (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 252-253 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] As Nature went to press, agencies were struggling to confirm details of what may be one of the worst mass kidnappings since the Iraq conflict began in March 2003. At around 9:30 a.m. local time on 14 November, gunmen are reported to have abducted up to 150 academics, staff and visitors from an ...
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    US scorn for treaties hasn't improved nuclear security (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 146-146 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Sir Your Editorial “A global folly” (Nature 443, 605; 2006 doi:10.1038/443605a) states that scientists working on disarmament and anti-proliferation issues “have looked on aghast as ...
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    Smell images and the flavour system in the human brain (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 316-321 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Flavour perception is one of the most complex of human behaviours. It involves almost all of the senses, particularly the sense of smell, which is involved through odour images generated in the olfactory pathway. In the human brain, the perceptual systems are closely linked to systems for learning, ...
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    Neanderthal genome sees first light (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 254-254 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Two research teams publish the first detailed glimpse of a Neanderthal genome this week, starting the race to unravel the genetic structure of modern man's closest relative. Articles in Nature and Science offer complementary yet contrasting views of nuclear DNA extracted from the same bone of a ...
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    Waste management One man's trash... (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 262-263 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] ...Michiaki Shigehiro has a rare problem. “I've struggled to find enough garbage,” he says, in dead seriousness. He already sees a lot of waste, on average 100 tonnes per day, but he'd be far happier with twice as much. Shigehiro is general business manager of EcoValley Utashinai, a ...
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    Criticism: what to do about science's bad public image? (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 265-265 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Sir Although you are right to state in your News Feature “In the name of nature” (Nature 443, 498–501; 2006) that environmental activists such as those who fire-bombed a research facility in Olympia, ...
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    Neurobiology Right timing for retina repair (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 156-157 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Each year many people lose their sight through disease of the retina. Millions are affected by macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa alone. In these diseases, the cone and rod photoreceptors — the cells that convert light into neural signals — degenerate. And once these cells ...
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    Making the paper Marc Sommer (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444.2006, 7117, xiii-, (1 S.) 
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    Notes: [Auszug] As we look at the world around us, our eyes are constantly on the move. But, somehow, what we see is not a series of disjointed, disconnected still pictures but a seamless film. How our brain manages to compensate for our rapid eye movements has puzzled neuroscientists for many years. On page ...
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    A global call to arms (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 2-2 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] It is fitting that Nicholas Stern, a British civil servant and former chief economist at the World Bank, should have presented his report on the economics of climate change at the Royal Society in London. For it was in a speech to the Royal Society 18 years ago, that Margaret Thatcher, then ...
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    Enough biodefence (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 2-2 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Five years ago, in the aftermath of the attack on the World Trade Center, anthrax was found in the mail in several locations in the United States. The discovery heightened fears that the country was vulnerable to bioterrorist attack. Subsequently, the federal government has, according to the Center ...
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    Sidelines (2006)
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    Nature 444 (2006), S. 8-8 
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    Notes: [Auszug] On the Record “Queen Elizabeth has 10 times the lifespan of workers and lays up to 2,000 eggs a day.” Did an over-enthusiastic spell-check cause a Reuters story on the honeybee genome, published in Nature last week, to go somewhat beyond the scientists' ...
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    Physiology Freaks of nature? (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 1000-1001 
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    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Trek 125 kilometres, and cycle 250 more. Kayak 131, rappel through canyons for another 97, and swim 13 in churning whitewater. Throw in some horseback riding and rock climbing; spread it all over six days in the blistering Utah heat; and never stop to sleep. That's the punishing formula for the ...
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    Life: perhaps we should take the porridge theory with a pinch of salt (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 1002-1002 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Sir In his Book Review of The Goldilocks Enigma (“Life in the universal porridge” Nature 444, 423–424; 2006), Jim Al-Khalili discusses Paul Davies' answers to the question “Why is the Universe just ...
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    Life: porridge would be just right for each universe (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 1002-1002 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Sir Jim Al-Khalili's Book Review of Paul Davies' The Goldilocks Enigma (“Life in the universal porridge” Nature 444, 423–424; 2006) explains with great clarity why the anthropic principle is an ...
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    Biography of Crick aims to inspire a wider audience (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 1002-1002 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Sir We do hope that your readers are not put off reading Matt Ridley's biography Francis Crick: Discoverer of the Genetic Code (HarperCollins, 2006) by Horace Judson's review (Nature 443, 917–918; 2006). Ridley's ...
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    Shellfish view of omega-3 and sustainable fisheries (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 1002-1002 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Sir SIR — The mackerel pictured in A. K. Duttaroy's review of Susan Allport's book Queen of Fats (Nature 444, 425; doi:10.1038/444425a2006) are indeed a source of omega-3s, but others are just as good and more ...
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    Measures for measures (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 1003-1004 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Although quantifying the quality of individual scientists is difficult, the general view is that it is better to publish more than less and that the citation count of a paper (relative to citation habits in its field) is a useful measure of its quality. How citation counts are weighed and analysed ...
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    The ambiguity is the essence (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 1005-1006 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] ...“What do you think of tastes — do they exist without the mind or no?” asks Philonous in philosopher George Berkeley's 1713 treatise Dialogues Between Hylas and Philonous. The materialist Hylas replies: “Can any man in his sense doubt whether sugar is sweet, or wormwood ...
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    The beginning of wisdom (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 1006-1007 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] ...Pluto carries much the same sentimental, emotional and historical overload as Father Christmas. Even the name for this frozen dwarf, suggested in 1930 by 11-year-old Venetia Burney in Oxford, UK, is evocative, having mythological connections. And one of man's best friends appears as Disney's ...
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    Proterozoic low orbital obliquity and axial-dipolar geomagnetic field from evaporite palaeolatitudes (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 51-55 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Palaeomagnetism of climatically sensitive sedimentary rock types, such as glacial deposits and evaporites, can test the uniformitarianism of ancient geomagnetic fields and palaeoclimate zones. Proterozoic glacial deposits laid down in near-equatorial palaeomagnetic latitudes can be explained by ...
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    Long-term motor cortex plasticity induced by an electronic neural implant (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 56-60 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] It has been proposed that the efficacy of neuronal connections is strengthened when there is a persistent causal relationship between presynaptic and postsynaptic activity. Such activity-dependent plasticity may underlie the reorganization of cortical representations during learning, although ...
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    Hwang takes the stand at fraud trial (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 12-13 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Seoul ...Woo Suk Hwang has taken the stand in court in his defence for the first time. The once-lauded cloning expert was confident and at times defiant as he struck back at the prosecution's claims that he embezzled money, committed fraud and broke a bioethics law, at one ...
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    Neurobiology Auditory fidelity (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 1013-1014 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Mammals react to sounds with exquisite temporal fidelity, a feat that is initiated by precise calcium-dependent signalling in the hair cells of the inner ear. Calcium is a common signalling molecule in the nervous system and elsewhere. Writing in Cell, Roux et al. describe how they have identified ...
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    Another one bites the dust (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 123-123 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Switzerland's flagship university, the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH) in Zurich, is arguably the strongest in mainland Europe. The government already provides one of the highest per-capita expenditures on research in the world, and is set to increase funding by a further 30% ...
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    Ageing Too fast by mistake (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 1015-1017 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Contrary to general expectation, human life expectancy in developed countries has not bumped into a ceiling, but continues to increase by around two years per decade — or five hours per day. The reason previous forecasts proved wrong is simple. It used to be assumed that the ageing process ...
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    Geochemistry How well can Pb isotopes date core formation? (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444.2006, 7115, E1-, (2 S.) 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Arising from: B. J. Wood & A. N. Halliday Nature 437, 1345–1348 (2005); Wood & Halliday reply Timescale and the physics of planetary core formation are essential constraints for models of Earth's accretion and early ...
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    Reducing the burden of childhood malaria in Africa: the role of improved (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 39-48 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Preface In sub-Saharan Africa, malaria accounts for 〉1 million deaths annually in children aged 〈5 years. To combat this rapidly progressing disease, antimalarial drugs are often administered presumptively to children with fever, resulting in massive overtreatment, ...
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    Something to see (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 443 (2006), S. 1017-1021 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Confocal microscopy is now a well-established technique for the three-dimensional imaging of cellular structures. But despite its success, the technique has its limitations when imaging live cells. The scanning process can greatly reduce imaging speed, for example, and the powerful lasers involved ...
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    Cancer biology Second step to retinal tumours (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 45-46 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Most cancers arise through a two-step process in which an initiating mutation requires further tumour-promoting mutations to instigate the full-blown disease. Retinoblastoma is a childhood cancer of the retina that is one of the few tumour types for which the initiating genetic lesion is known ...
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    Research highlights (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 4-5 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Evolutionary biology: Darwinian serenade ... Proc. R. Soc. Lond. B doi:10.1098/rsbp.2006.3736 (2006) A population of Amazonian frogs that woos with calls (Physalaemus petersi, pictured) seems to be splitting into several species as the females' preferences for different ...
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    Enforced altruism in insect societies (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 50-50 
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    ISSN: 1476-4687
    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] Cooperation among workers and their seeming altruism result from strict policing by nestmates. Workers of many species of ant, bee and wasp do not lay eggs, despite having functional ovaries, but the selective causes of this extreme form of altruism are unclear. Here we show that workers ...
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    A concrete example (2006)
    [s.l.] : Nature Publishing Group
    Nature 444 (2006), S. 122-122 
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    Source: Nature Archives 1869 - 2009
    Topics: Biology , Chemistry and Pharmacology , Medicine , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
    Notes: [Auszug] “You paid what? I have a chunk of the Berlin Wall at home that's at least as 'artistic' as this,” sputtered Bill. “Did you leave your brain behind when you abandoned physics for finance? Putting a paving stone on a pedestal and calling it a work of art doesn't make it so, Dave. ...
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