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  • Articles  (119)
  • Annual Reviews  (119)
  • Wiley-Blackwell
  • 2005-2009  (119)
  • 1990-1994
  • 1980-1984
  • 2005  (119)
  • Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition  (95)
  • Technology  (24)
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  • Articles  (119)
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  • 2005-2009  (119)
  • 1990-1994
  • 1980-1984
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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    QUANTUM DOTS AS CELLULAR PROBES (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), S. 55-76 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Robust and bright light emitters, semiconductor nanocrystals [quantum dots (QDs)] have been adopted as a new class of fluorescent labels. Six years after the first experiments of their uses in biological applications, there have been dramatic improvements in understanding surface chemistry, biocompatibility, and targeting specificity. Many studies have shown the great potential of using quantum dots as new probes in vitro and in vivo. This review summarizes the recent advances of quantum dot usage at the cellular level, including immunolabeling, cell tracking, in situ hybridization, FRET, in vivo imaging, and other related technologies. Limitations and potential future uses of quantum dot probes are also discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.7.060804.100432
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    INSTRUMENTATION ASPECTS OF ANIMAL PET (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), S. 255-285 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Biological research has been accelerated by the development of noninvasive imaging techniques and by use of genetically engineered mice to model human diseases and normal development. Because these mice can be expensive, noninvasive imaging techniques, such as high-resolution positron emission tomography (PET), that permit longitudinal studies of the same animals are very attractive. Such studies reduce the number of animals used, reduce intersubject variability, and improve the accuracy of biological models. PET provides quantitative measurements of the spatiotemporal distribution of radiotracers and is an extremely powerful tool in using molecular imaging to study biology, to monitor disease intervention, and to establish pharmacokinetics for new drugs. The design of animal PET scanners has improved significantly in the past decade and can provide adequate image resolution and sensitivity to study transgenic mice. This article reviews the fundamental and technical challenges of small-animal PET imaging, with a particular focus on the latest developments and future directions of detector technologies and system design.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.6.040803.140021
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    DETERMINISTIC AND STOCHASTIC ELEMENTS OF AXONAL GUIDANCE (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), S. 187-221 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: An enormous literature has been developed on investigations of the growth and guidance of axons during development and after injury. In this review, we provide a guide to this literature as a resource for biomedical investigators. We first review briefly the molecular biology that is known to regulate migration of the growth cone and branching of axonal arbors. We then outline some important fundamental considerations that are important to the modeling of the phenomenology of these guidance effects and of what is known of their underlying internal mechanisms. We conclude by providing some thoughts on the outlook for future biomedical modeling in the field.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.7.060804.100446
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    BIOCHEMISTRY AND BIOMECHANICS OF CELL MOTILITY (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), S. 105-150 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Cell motility is an essential cellular process for a variety of biological events. The process of cell migration requires the integration and coordination of complex biochemical and biomechanical signals. The protrusion force at the leading edge of a cell is generated by the cytoskeleton, and this force generation is controlled by multiple signaling cascades. The formation of new adhesions at the front and the release of adhesions at the rear involve the outside-in and inside-out signaling mediated by integrins and other adhesion receptors. The traction force generated by the cell on the extracellular matrix (ECM) regulates cell-ECM adhesions, and the counter force exerted by ECM on the cell drives the migration. The polarity of cell migration can be amplified and maintained by the feedback loop between the cytoskeleton and cell-ECM adhesions. Cell migration in three-dimensional ECM has characteristics distinct from that on two-dimensional ECM. The migration of cells is initiated and modulated by external chemical and mechanical factors, such as chemoattractants and the mechanical forces acting on the cells and ECM, as well as the surface density, distribution, topography, and rigidity of the ECM.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.7.060804.100340
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    FUNCTIONAL ELECTRICAL STIMULATION FOR NEUROMUSCULAR APPLICATIONS * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), S. 327-360 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Paralyzed or paretic muscles can be made to contract by applying electrical currents to the intact peripheral motor nerves innervating them. When electrically elicited muscle contractions are coordinated in a manner that provides function, the technique is termed functional electrical stimulation (FES). In more than 40 years of FES research, principles for safe stimulation of neuromuscular tissue have been established, and methods for modulating the strength of electrically induced muscle contractions have been discovered. FES systems have been developed for restoring function in the upper extremity, lower extremity, bladder and bowel, and respiratory system. Some of these neuroprostheses have become commercialized products, and others are available in clinical research settings. Technological developments are expected to produce new systems that have no external components, are expandable to multiple applications, are upgradable to new advances, and are controlled by a combination of signals, including biopotential signals from nerve, muscle, and the brain.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.6.040803.140103
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    RESISTANCE OF COTTON TOWARDS XANTHOMONAS CAMPESTRIS PV. MALVACEARUM (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 63-82 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Interactions between Gossypium spp. and the bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum are understood in the context of the gene-for-gene concept. Reviewed here are the genetic basis for cotton resistance, with reference to resistance genes, resistance gene analogs, and bacterial avirulence genes, together with the physiological mechanisms involved in the hypersensitive response to the pathogen, including production of signaling hormones, synthesis of antimicrobial molecules and alteration of host cell structures. This host-pathogen interaction represents the most complex resistance gene/avr gene system yet known and is one of the few in which phytoalexins are known to be specifically localized in HR cells at anti-microbial concentrations.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.140251
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    ENERGY INTAKE, MEAL FREQUENCY, AND HEALTH: A Neurobiological Perspective * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 237-260 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The size and frequency of meals are fundamental aspects of nutrition that can have profound effects on the health and longevity of laboratory animals. In humans, excessive energy intake is associated with increased incidence of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and certain cancers and is a major cause of disability and death in industrialized countries. On the other hand, the influence of meal frequency on human health and longevity is unclear. Both caloric (energy) restriction (CR) and reduced meal frequency/intermittent fasting can suppress the development of various diseases and can increase life span in rodents by mechanisms involving reduced oxidative damage and increased stress resistance. Many of the beneficial effects of CR and fasting appear to be mediated by the nervous system. For example, intermittent fasting results in increased production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which increases the resistance of neurons in the brain to dysfunction and degeneration in animal models of neurodegenerative disorders; BDNF signaling may also mediate beneficial effects of intermittent fasting on glucose regulation and cardiovascular function. A better understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms by which meal size and frequency affect human health may lead to novel approaches for disease prevention and treatment.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092526
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
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    THE COW AS A MODEL TO STUDY FOOD INTAKE REGULATION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 523-547 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Animal models have been invaluable for studying aspects of food intake regulation that for various reasons cannot be observed in humans. The dairy cow is a unique animal model because of an unrivaled energy requirement; its great drive to eat results in feeding behavior responses to treatments within the physiological range. Cows' docile nature and large size make them ideal for measuring temporal treatment effects because digestion and absorption kinetics and responses in endocrine systems, gene expression, metabolite pools and fluxes, and feeding behavior can be measured simultaneously. Thus, cows are important models to investigate interactions of short-term signals regulating food intake. Furthermore, different physiological states throughout the lactation cycle provide powerful models to study how short- and long-term signals interact to affect long-term energy status. The use of the cow as a model can lead to breakthroughs in understanding the complex interactions of signals regulating food intake.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092704
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    REGULATION OF PHOSPHORUS HOMEOSTASIS BY THE TYPE IIA NA/PHOSPHATE COTRANSPORTER (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 197-214 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The type IIa Na/phosphate (Pi) cotransporter (Npt2a) is expressed in the brush border membrane (BBM) of renal proximal tubular cells where the bulk of filtered Pi is reabsorbed. Disruption of the Npt2a gene in mice elicits hypophosphatemia, renal Pi wasting, and an 80% decrease in renal BBM Na/Pi cotransport, and led to the demonstration that Npt2a is the target for hormonal and dietary regulation of renal Pi reabsorption. Regulation is achieved by changes in BBM abundance of Npt2a protein and requires the interaction of Npt2a with various scaffolding and regulatory proteins. Molecular studies in patients with renal Pi wasting resulted in the identification of novel regulators of Pi homeostasis: fibroblast growth factor-23 (FGF-23) and a phosphate-regulating gene with homologies to endopeptidases on the X chromosome (PHEX). In mouse models, increased FGF-23 production or loss of Phex function causes hypophosphatemia and decreased renal Pi reabsorption, secondary to decreased BBM Npt2a protein abundance. Thus, Npt2a plays a major role in the maintenance of Pi homeostasis in both health and disease.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092642
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
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    ANNUAL LIPID CYCLES IN HIBERNATORS: Integration of Physiology and Behavior (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 469-497 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Mammalian hibernation is a temporary suspension of euthermia allowing endotherms to undergo reversible hypothermia and generate a marked savings in energy expenditure. In most fat-storing hibernator species, seasonal changes in food intake, triacylglycerol deposition, metabolism, and reproductive development are controlled by a circannual clock. In ground-dwelling sciurid rodents (ground squirrels and marmots), for example, energy intake increases during a summer body mass gain phase, and toward the end of this phase metabolic rate also begins to decrease, resulting in a profound increase in lipid deposition as fat. Increased activity of lipogenic hormones and enzymes correspond with this increase. The hibernation mass loss phase begins after the body mass peak in the fall and ends in spring. During this phase, stored lipids are slowly utilized in a programmed manner by undergoing deep torpor or hibernation during which the hypothalamic setpoint for body temperature is typically reduced to just above 0ʻ́C. Throughout the hibernation season, bouts of deep torpor are punctuated by periodic arousals in which brown adipose tissue thermogenesis plays a critical role. Lipid oxidation nearly exclusively fuels deep torpor and most of the rewarming process. The fatty acid composition of stored lipids can affect the depth and duration of deep torpor, and saturated fatty acids may be preferentially used during hibernation, whereas polyunsaturated fatty acids may be preferentially retained. Female and underweight male hibernators terminate hibernation in spring when aboveground food becomes available; in contrast, heavier males with sufficient lipid reserves spontaneously terminate hibernation several weeks before females and independent of food availability. Mating occurs shortly after emergence from hibernation, and the lipid cycle begins again with the completion of reproduction. Lipid deposition and mobilization, temperature regulation, reproduction, and circannual timing are intimately interdependent. The unique manner in which they are controlled during the annual cycle, especially lipid reserves, makes hibernators valuable and promising models for research into the mechanisms underlying these processes in all mammals.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092514
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  • 11
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    RETINAL PROSTHESIS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), S. 361-401 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Retinal prostheses represent the best near-term hope for individuals with incurable, blinding diseases of the outer retina. On the basis of the electrical activation of nerves, prototype retinal prostheses have been tested in blind humans and have demonstrated the capability to elicit the sensation of light and to give test subjects the ability to detect motion. To improve the visual function in implant recipients, a more sophisticated device is required. Simulations suggest that 600Đ??1000 pixels will be required to provide visual function such as face recognition and reading. State-of-the-art implantable stimulator technology cannot produce such a device, which mandates the advancement of the state of the art in areas such as analog microelectronics, wireless power and data transfer, packaging, and stimulating electrodes.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.7.060804.100435
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    BLOOD-ON-A-CHIP (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), S. 77-103 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Accurate, fast, and affordable analysis of the cellular component of blood is of prime interest for medicine and research. Yet, most often sample preparation procedures for blood analysis involve handling steps prone to introducing artifacts, whereas analysis methods commonly require skilled technicians and well-equipped, expensive laboratories. Developing more gentle protocols and affordable instruments for specific blood analysis tasks is becoming possible through the recent progress in the area of microfluidics and lab-on-a-chip-type devices. Precise control over the cell microenvironment during separation procedures and the ability to scale down the analysis to very small volumes of blood are among the most attractive capabilities of the new approaches. Here we review some of the emerging principles for manipulating blood cells at microscale and promising high-throughput approaches to blood cell separation using microdevices. Examples of specific single-purpose devices are described together with integration strategies for blood cell separation and analysis modules.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.7.011205.135108
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  • 13
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    DNA MECHANICS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), S. 21-53 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: We review the history of DNA mechanics and its analysis. We evaluate several methods to analyze the structures of superhelical DNA molecules, each predicated on the assumption that DNA can be modeled with reasonable accuracy as an extended, linearly elastic polymer. Three main approaches are considered: mechanical equilibrium methods, which seek to compute minimum energy conformations of topologically constrained molecules; statistical mechanical methods, which seek to compute the Boltzmann distribution of equilibrium conformations that arise in a finite temperature environment; and dynamic methods, which seek to compute deterministic trajectories of the helix axis by solving equations of motion. When these methods include forces of self-contact, which prevent strand passage and preserve the topological constraint, each predicts plectonemically interwound structures. On the other hand, the extent to which these mechanical methods reliably predict energetic and thermodynamic properties of superhelical molecules is limited, in part because of their inability to account explicitly for interactions involving solvent. Monte Carlo methods predict the entropy associated with supercoiling to be negative, in conflict with a body of experimental evidence that finds it is large and positive, as would be the case if superhelical deformations significantly disrupt the ordering of ambient solvent molecules. This suggests that the large-scale conformational properties predicted by elastomechanical models are not the only ones determining the energetics and thermodynamics of supercoiling. Moreover, because all such models that preserve the topological constraint correctly predict plectonemic interwinding, despite these and other limitations, this constraint evidently dominates energetic and thermodynamic factors in determining supercoil geometry. Therefore, agreement between predicted structures and structures obtained experimentally, for example, by electron microscopy, does not in itself provide evidence for the correctness or completeness of any given model of DNA mechanics.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.6.062403.132016
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  • 14
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    MOLECULAR MECHANICS AND DYNAMICS OF LEUKOCYTE RECRUITMENT DURING INFLAMMATION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), S. 151-185 
    Details
    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Discovery of new genes and proteins directly supporting leukocyte adhesion is waning, whereas there is heightened interest in the cell mechanics and receptor dynamics that lead from transient tethering via selectins to affinity shifts and adhesion strengthening through integrins. New optical tools enable real-time imaging of leukocyte rolling and arrest in parallel plate flow channels (PPFCs), and detection of single-molecule force spectroscopy provides an inner view of the intercellular adhesive contact region. Leukocyte recruitment during acute inflammation is triggered by ligation of G proteinĐ??coupled chemotactic receptors (GPCRs) and clustering of selectins. This, in turn, activates ?‚2-integrin (CD18), which facilitates cell capture and arrest in shear flow. This review provides a conceptual model for the molecular events supporting leukocyte recruitment.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.7.060804.100423
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  • 15
    Electronic Resource
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    IN VIVO MAGNETIC RESONANCE SPECTROSCOPY IN CANCER (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), S. 287-326 
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    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) has been used for more than two decades to interrogate metabolite distributions in living cells and tissues. Techniques have been developed that allow multiple spectra to be obtained simultaneously with individual volume elements as small as 1 uL of tissue (i.e., 1 ?? 1 ?? 1 mm3). The most common modern applications of in vivo MRS use endogenous signals from 1H, 31P, or 23Na. Important contributions have also been made using exogenous compounds containing 19F, 13C, or 17O. MRS has been used to investigate cardiac and skeletal muscle energetics, neurobiology, and cancer. This review focuses on the latter applications, with specific reference to the measurement of tissue choline, which has proven to be a tumor biomarker that is significantly affected by anticancer therapies.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.7.060804.100411
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  • 16
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    WERNER GOLDSMITH: Life and Work (1924Đ??2003) (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), S. 1-20 
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    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Werner Goldsmith, one of the foremost authorities on the mechanics of impact and the biomechanics of head and neck injuries, died peacefully at home in Oakland, California, on August 23, 2003, at age 79 after a short, courageous battle with leukemia, ending a long and very distinguished career in mechanics, dynamics, and biomechanics, and an almost six-decades-long association with the University of California, Berkeley. He was one of the pioneering, eminent solid and fluid mechanicians who made an early transition to biomechanics, and in rising to equal distinction in their new fields, added great credibility to biomechanics as a discipline in its own right. He was also a distinguished and influential figure in bioengineering education at his own institution, and, more broadly, in the United States and abroad. An emeritus professor for over a decade, he continued to be active in research and teaching until the very last days of his life.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.7.060804.100348
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  • 17
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    STRUCTURE AND MECHANICS OF HEALING MYOCARDIAL INFARCTS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biomedical Engineering 7 (2005), S. 223-253 
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    ISSN: 1523-9829
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Technology , Medicine
    Notes: Therapies for myocardial infarction have historically been developed by trial and error, rather than from an understanding of the structure and function of the healing infarct. With exciting new bioengineering therapies for myocardial infarction on the horizon, we have reviewed the time course of structural and mechanical changes in the healing infarct in an attempt to identify key structural determinants of mechanics at several stages of healing. Based on temporal correlation, we hypothesize that normal passive material properties dominate the mechanics during acute ischemia, edema during the subsequent necrotic phase, large collagen fiber structure during the fibrotic phase, and cross-linking of collagen during the long-term remodeling phase. We hope these hypotheses will stimulate further research on infarct mechanics, particularly studies that integrate material testing, in vivo mechanics, and quantitative structural analysis.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.bioeng.7.060804.100453
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  • 18
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    BEING AT THE RIGHT PLACE, AT THE RIGHT TIME, FOR THE RIGHT REASONSĐ??PLANT PATHOLOGY (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 1-24 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: This article relates some personal history and influences leading to becoming a plant pathologist. Next a summary of my research experiences on rice and barley diseases and the effect of regulatory changes on efforts to manage rice diseases in California. I conclude with an invitation to consider the opportunities and obligations of plant pathologists to return to the field and for individual introspection regarding attitudes and behavior toward colleagues and factors affecting our profession.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.140209
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  • 19
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    REPLICATION OF ALFAMO- AND ILARVIRUSES: Role of the Coat Protein (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 39-62 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: In the family Bromoviridae, a mixture of the three genomic RNAs of bromo-, cucumo-, and oleaviruses is infectious as such, whereas the RNAs of alfamo- and ilarviruses require binding of a few molecules of coat protein (CP) to the 3' end to initiate infection. Most studies on the early function of CP have been done on the alfamovirus Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV). The 3' 112 nucleotides of AMV RNAs can adopt two different conformations. One conformer consists of a tRNA-like structure that, together with an upstream hairpin, is required for minus-strand promoter activity. The other conformer consists of four hairpins interspersed by AUGC-sequences and represents a strong binding site for CP. Binding of CP to this conformer enhances the translational efficiency of viral RNAs in vivo 40-fold and blocks viral minus-strand RNA synthesis in vitro. AMV CP is proposed to initiate infection by mimicking the function of the poly(A)-binding protein.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.101804.120505
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  • 20
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    PRINCIPLES OF PLANT HEALTH MANAGEMENT FOR ORNAMENTAL PLANTS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 141-169 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Economic, environmental, and technological influences complicate the task of achieving disease-free products in the ornamentals industry. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a cornerstone of floriculture and nursery crop production: strategies include sanitation, clean stock, host resistance, and control through biological, cultural, environmental, chemical, and regulatory means. Sanitation measures and cultural controls must keep pace with new production technologies. Clean stock programs are used for many crops that are propagated vegetatively. Breeding, selection, and biotechnology provide crops resistant to pathogens. Offshore production for economic competitiveness can introduce pathogens that make regulatory programs necessary. New biocontrol and chemical products continue to improve control while meeting the requirement for minimal environmental impact. Continual introduction of new crops and new production technologies creates new opportunities for pathogens to exploit, such that new disease management tactics must be discovered and old ones rediscovered to achieve optimum health management for ornamentals.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.140007
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  • 21
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    LIPIDS, LIPASES, AND LIPID-MODIFYING ENZYMES IN PLANT DISEASE RESISTANCE (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 229-260 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Lipids and lipid metabolites influence pathogenesis and resistance mechanisms associated with plant-microbe interactions. Some microorganisms sense their presence on a host by perceiving plant surface waxes, whereas others produce toxins that target plant lipid metabolism. In contrast, plants have evolved to recognize microbial lipopolysaccharides (LPSs), sphingolipids, and lipid-binding proteins as elicitors of defense response. Recent studies have demonstrated that the plasma membrane provides a surface on which some plant resistance (R) proteins perceive pathogen-derived effectors and thus confer race-specific resistance. Plant cell membranes also serve as reservoirs from which biologically active lipids and precursors of oxidized lipids are released. Some of these oxylipins, for example jasmonic acid (JA), are important signal molecules in plant defense. Arabidopsis thaliana is an excellent model plant to elucidate the biosynthesis and metabolism of lipids and lipid metabolites, and the characterization of signaling mechanisms involved in the modulation of plant defense responses by phytolipids. This review focuses on recent studies that highlight the involvement of lipids and lipid metabolites, and enzymes involved in lipid metabolism and modification in plant disease resistance.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.135951
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    COMMERCIALIZATION AND IMPLEMENTATION OF BIOCONTROL 1 (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 337-359 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Although the number of biocontrol products is increasing, these products still represent only about 1% of agricultural chemical sales. Yet these are important contributions because biocontrol agents offer disease management alternatives with different mechanisms of action than chemical pesticides. Trends in research include the increased use of biorational screening processes to identify microorganisms with potential for biocontrol, increased testing under semicommercial and commercial production conditions, increased emphasis on combining biocontrol strains with each other and with other control methods, integrating biocontrol into an overall system.
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    MOLECULAR INTERACTIONS BETWEEN TOMATO AND THE LEAF MOLD PATHOGEN CLADOSPORIUM FULVUM (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 395-436 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: The interaction between tomato and the leaf mold pathogen Cladosporium fulvum is controlled in a gene-for-gene manner. This interaction has provided useful insights to the molecular basis of recognition specificity in plant disease resistance (R) proteins, disease resistance (R) gene evolution, R-protein mediated signaling, and cellular responses to pathogen attack. Tomato Cf genes encode type I membrane-associated receptor-like proteins (RLPs) comprised predominantly of extracellular leucine-rich repeats (eLRRs) and which are anchored in the plasma membrane. Cf proteins recognize fungal avirulence (Avr) peptides secreted into the leaf apoplast during infection. A direct interaction of Cf proteins with their cognate Avr proteins has not been demonstrated and the molecular mechanism of Avr protein perception is not known. Following ligand perception Cf proteins trigger a hypersensitive response (HR) and the arrest of pathogen development. Cf proteins lack an obvious signaling domain, suggesting that defense response activation is mediated through interactions with other partners. Avr protein perception results in the rapid accumulation of active oxygen species (AOS), changes in cellular ion fluxes, activation of protein kinase cascades, changes in gene expression and, possibly, targeted protein degradation. Here we review our current understanding of Cf-mediated responses in resistance to C. fulvum.
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    SIGNAL CROSSTALK AND INDUCED RESISTANCE: Straddling the Line Between Cost and Benefit (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 545-580 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: This review discusses recent progress in our understanding of signaling in induced plant resistance and susceptibility to pathogens and insect herbivores, with a focus on the connections and crosstalk among phytohormone signaling networks that regulate responses to these and other stresses. Multiple stresses, often simultaneous, reduce growth and yield in plants. However, prior challenge by a pathogen or insect herbivore also can induce resistance to subsequent challenge. This resistance, or failure of susceptibility, must be orchestrated within a larger physiological context that is strongly influenced by other biotic agents and by abiotic stresses such as inadequate light, temperature extremes, drought, nutrient limitation, and soil salinity. Continued research in this area is predicated on the notion that effective utilization of induced resistance in crop protection will require a functional understanding of the physiological consequences of the "induced" state of the plant, coupled with the knowledge of the specificity and compatibility of the signaling systems leading to this state. This information may guide related strategies to improve crop performance in suboptimal environments, and define the limits of induced resistance in certain agricultural contexts.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.41.052002.095505
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    THE BIOLOGY OF PHYTOPHTHORA INFESTANS AT ITS CENTER OF ORIGIN * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 171-190 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: The central highlands of Mexico are considered to be a center of genetic diversity for both the potato late blight pathogen and for tuber-bearing Solanum spp. Recent work conducted in Mexico and South America sheds new light on the biology and evolution of Phytophthora infestans and other related Phytophthora pathogens. It now appears that Mexican Solanum species, which coevolved with P. infestans and were previously known for providing a source of R-genes, also provide a source of quantitative, rate-reducing resistance that is highly effective, stable, and durable. It is now apparent that Mexico is the center of origin not only of the potato late blight pathogen P. infestans, but also of several related Phytophthora species including P. mirabilis, P. ipomoeae, and possibly P. phaseoli. We close with the hypothesis that these Phytophthora species evolved sympatrically from one ancestral host through adaptive radiation onto their respective four host families.
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    PATHOGEN TESTING AND CERTIFICATION OF VITIS AND PRUNUS SPECIES * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 261-278 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Strategies to screen horticultural crops for graft-transmissible agents, particularly viruses and phytoplasmas, have advanced substantially over the past decade. Tests used for Vitis and Prunus are reviewed in detail, including both biological indexing procedures and laboratory-based assays. Despite advances in laboratory molecular-based detection techniques, a strong case is presented for the continued use of slower biological tests in programs requiring high levels of confidence in detection of pathogens that must be excluded from valuable germplasm.
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    PEDIATRIC OBESITY AND INSULIN RESISTANCE: Chronic Disease Risk and Implications for Treatment and Prevention Beyond Body Weight Modification (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 435-468 
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    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The study of childhood obesity has continued to grow exponentially in the past decade. This has been driven in part by the increasing prevalence of this problem and the widespread potential effects of increased obesity in childhood on lifelong chronic disease risk. The focus of this review is on recent findings regarding the link between obesity and disease risk during childhood and adolescence. We describe recent reports relating to type 2 diabetes in youth ( 2 ), prediabetes ( 69, 166 ), metabolic syndrome ( 33, 35 ), polycystic ovarian syndrome ( 77 ), and nonalcoholic fatty liver disease ( 58, 146 ), and the mediating role of insulin resistance in these conditions. In addition, we review the implications of this research for the design of more effective treatment and prevention strategies that focus more on the improvement of obesity-related metabolic abnormalities and chronic disease risk reduction than on the conventional energy balance approach that focuses on weight management.
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    REDOX REGULATION BY INTRINSIC SPECIES AND EXTRINSIC NUTRIENTS IN NORMAL AND CANCER CELLS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 261-295 
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    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Cells in multicellular organisms are exposed to both endogenous oxidative stresses generated metabolically and to oxidative stresses that originate from neighboring cells and from other tissues. To protect themselves from oxidative stress, cells are equipped with reducing buffer systems (glutathione/GSH and thioredoxin/thioredoxin reductase) and have developed several enzymatic mechanisms against oxidants that include catalase, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase. Other major extrinsic defenses (from the diet) include ascorbic acid, ?‚-carotene and other carotenoids, and selenium. Recent evidence indicates that in addition to their antioxidant function, several of these redox species and systems are involved in regulation of biological processes, including cellular signaling, transcription factor activity, and apoptosis in normal and cancer cells. The survival and overall well-being of the cell is dependent upon the balance between the activity and the intracellular levels of these antioxidants as well as their interaction with various regulatory factors, including Ref-1, nuclear factor-?”B, and activating protein-1.
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    POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID REGULATION OF GENES OF LIPID METABOLISM (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 317-340 
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    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Apart from being an important macronutrient, dietary fat has recently gained much prominence for its role in regulating gene expression. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) affect gene expression through various mechanisms including, but not limited to, changes in membrane composition, intracellular calcium levels, and eicosanoid production. Furthermore, PUFAs and their various metabolites can act at the level of the nucleus, in conjunction with nuclear receptors and transcription factors, to affect the transcription of a variety of genes. Several of these transcription mediators have been identified and include the nuclear receptors peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR), hepatocyte nuclear factor (HNF)-4ʼ̛, and liver X receptor (LXR) and the transcription factors sterol-regulatory element binding protein (SREBP) and nuclear factor-?”B (NF?”B). Their interaction with PUFAs has been shown to be critical to the regulation of several key genes of lipid metabolism. Working out the mechanisms by which these interactions and consequent effects occur is proving to be complicated but is invaluable to our understanding of the role that dietary fat can play in disease management and prevention.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.051804.101917
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    REGULATION OF VITAMIN C TRANSPORT (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 105-125 
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    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Ascorbic acid and dehydroascorbic acid (DHAA, oxidized vitamin C) are dietary sources of vitamin C in humans. Both nutrients are absorbed from the lumen of the intestine and renal tubules by, respectively, enterocytes and renal epithelial cells. Subsequently vitamin C circulates in the blood and enters all of the other cells of the body. Concerning flux across the plasma membrane, simple diffusion of ascorbic acid plays only a small or negligible role. More important are specific mechanisms of transport and metabolism that concentrate vitamin C intracellularly to enhance its function as an enzyme cofactor and antioxidant. The known transport mechanisms are facilitated diffusion of DHAA through glucose-sensitive and -insensitive transporters, facilitated diffusion of ascorbate through channels, exocytosis of ascorbate in secretory vesicles, and secondary active transport of ascorbate through the sodium-dependent vitamin C transporters SVCT1 and SVCT2 proteins that are encoded by the genes Slc23a1 and Slc23a2, respectively. Evidence is reviewed indicating that these transport pathways are regulated under physiological conditions and altered by aging and disease.
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    MECHANISMS OF DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION OF DIETARY VITAMIN A * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 87-103 
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    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Mechanisms involved in the digestion and absorption of dietary vitamin A require the participation of several proteins. Dietary retinyl esters are hydrolyzed in the intestine by the pancreatic enzyme, pancreatic triglyceride lipase, and intestinal brush border enzyme, phospholipase B. Unesterified retinol taken up by the enterocyte is complexed with cellular retinol-binding protein type 2 and the complex serves as a substrate for reesterification of the retinol by the enzyme lecithin:retinol acyltransferase (LRAT). The retinyl esters are then incorporated into chylomicrons, intestinal lipoproteins containing other dietary lipids, such as triglycerides, phospholipids, and free and esterified cholesterol, and apolipoprotein B. Chylomicrons containing newly absorbed retinyl esters are then secreted into the lymph. Although under normal dietary conditions much of the dietary vitamin A is absorbed via the chylomicron/lymphatic route, it is also clear that under some circumstances there is substantial absorption of unesterified retinol via the portal route. Evidence supports the idea that the cellular uptake and efflux of unesterified retinol by enterocytes is mediated by lipid transporters, but the exact number, identity, and role of these proteins is not known and is an active area of research.
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    DROSOPHILA NUTRIGENOMICS CAN PROVIDE CLUES TO HUMAN GENE-NUTRIENT INTERACTIONS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 499-522 
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    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Nutrigenomics refers to the complex effects of the nutritional environment on the genome, epigenome, and proteome of an organism. The diverse tissue- and organ-specific effects of diet include gene expression patterns, organization of the chromatin, and protein post-translational modifications. Long-term effects of diet range from obesity and associated diseases such as diabetes and cardiovascular disease to increased or decreased longevity. Furthermore, the diet of the mother can potentially have long-term health impacts on the children, possibly through inherited diet-induced chromatin alterations. Drosophila is a unique and ideal model organism for conducting nutrigenomics research for numerous reasons. Drosophila, yeast, and Caenorhabditis elegans all have sophisticated genetics as well as sequenced genomes, and researchers working with all three organisms have made valuable discoveries in nutrigenomics. However, unlike yeast and C. elegans, Drosophila has adipose-like tissues and a lipid transport system, making it a closer model to humans. This review summarizes what has already been learned in Drosophila nutrigenomics (with an emphasis on lipids and sterols), critically evaluates the data, and discusses fruitful areas for future research.
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    UPTAKE, LOCALIZATION, AND NONCARBOXYLASE ROLES OF BIOTIN * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 175-196 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Evidence is emerging that biotin participates in processes other than classical carboxylation reactions. Specifically, novel roles for biotin in cell signaling, gene expression, and chromatin structure have been identified in recent years. Human cells accumulate biotin by using both the sodium-dependent multivitamin transporter and monocarboxylate transporter 1. These transporters and other biotin-binding proteins partition biotin to compartments involved in biotin signaling: cytoplasm, mitochondria, and nuclei. The activity of cell signals such as biotinyl-AMP, Sp1 and Sp3, nuclear factor (NF)-?”B, and receptor tyrosine kinases depends on biotin supply. Consistent with a role for biotin and its catabolites in modulating these cell signals, greater than 2000 biotin-dependent genes have been identified in various human tissues. Many biotin-dependent gene products play roles in signal transduction and localize to the cell nucleus, consistent with a role for biotin in cell signaling. Posttranscriptional events related to ribosomal activity and protein folding may further contribute to effects of biotin on gene expression. Finally, research has shown that biotinidase and holocarboxylase synthetase mediate covalent binding of biotin to histones (DNA-binding proteins), affecting chromatin structure; at least seven biotinylation sites have been identified in human histones. Biotinylation of histones appears to play a role in cell proliferation, gene silencing, and the cellular response to DNA repair. Roles for biotin in cell signaling and chromatin structure are consistent with the notion that biotin has a unique significance in cell biology.
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    HEMIPTERANS AS PLANT PATHOGENS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 491-521 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Integration of the tools of genetics, genomics, and biochemistry has provided new approaches for identifying genes responding to herbivory. As a result, a picture of the complexity of plant-defense signaling to different herbivore feeding guilds is emerging. Plant responses to hemipteran insects have substantial overlap with responses mounted against microbial pathogens, as seen in changes in RNA profiles and emission of volatiles. Responses to known defense signals and characterization of the signaling pathways controlled by the first cloned insect R gene (Mi-1) indicate that perception and signal transduction leading to resistance may be similar to plant-pathogen interactions. Additionally, novel signaling pathways are emerging as important components of plant defense to insects. The availability of new tools and approaches will further enhance our understanding of the nature of defense in plant-hemipteran interactions.
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    PLANT DISEASE: A Threat to Global Food Security (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 83-116 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: A vast number of plant pathogens from viroids of a few hundred nucleotides to higher plants cause diseases in our crops. Their effects range from mild symptoms to catastrophes in which large areas planted to food crops are destroyed. Catastrophic plant disease exacerbates the current deficit of food supply in which at least 800 million people are inadequately fed. Plant pathogens are difficult to control because their populations are variable in time, space, and genotype. Most insidiously, they evolve, often overcoming the resistance that may have been the hard-won achievement of the plant breeder. In order to combat the losses they cause, it is necessary to define the problem and seek remedies. At the biological level, the requirements are for the speedy and accurate identification of the causal organism, accurate estimates of the severity of disease and its effect on yield, and identification of its virulence mechanisms. Disease may then be minimized by the reduction of the pathogen's inoculum, inhibition of its virulence mechanisms, and promotion of genetic diversity in the crop. Conventional plant breeding for resistance has an important role to play that can now be facilitated by marker-assisted selection. There is also a role for transgenic modification with genes that confer resistance. At the political level, there is a need to acknowledge that plant diseases threaten our food supplies and to devote adequate resources to their control.
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    PLANT PATHOLOGY AND RNAi: A Brief History (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 191-204 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: This article describes the discovery of RNA-activated sequence-specific RNA degradation, a phenomenon now referred to as RNA silencing or RNA interference (RNAi). From 1992 to 1996, a series of articles were published on virus resistant transgenic plants expressing either translatable or nontranslatable versions of the coat protein gene of Tobacco etch virus (TEV). Certain transgenic plant lines were resistant to TEV but not to closely related viruses. In these plants a surprising correlation was observed: Transgenic plant lines with the highest degree of TEV resistance had actively transcribed transgenes but low steady-state levels of transgene RNA. Molecular analysis of these transgenic plants demonstrated the existence of a cellular-based, sequence-specific, posttranscriptional RNA-degradation system that was programmed by the transgene-encoded RNA sequence. This RNA-degradation activity specifically targeted both the transgene RNA and TEV (viral) RNA for degradation and was the first description of RNA-mediated gene silencing.
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    MECHANISMS OF FUNGAL SPECIATION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 279-308 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: The objective of this review is to provide a synthesis of speciation theory, of what is known about mechanisms of speciation in fungi and from this, what is expected, and of ideas on how speciation can be elucidated in more fungal systems. The emphasis is on process rather than pattern. Phylogeographic studies in some groups, such as the agarics, demonstrate predominantly allopatric speciation, often through vicariance, as seen in many plants and animals. The variety of life history factors in fungi suggests, however, a diversity in speciation mechanisms that is borne out in comparison of some key examples. Life history features in fungi with a bearing on speciation include genetic mechanisms for intra- and interspecies interactions, haploidy as monokaryons, dikaryons, or coenocytes, distinctive types of propagules with distinctive modes of dispersal, as well as characteristic relationships to the substrate or host as specialized or generalist saprotrophs, parasites or mutualists with associated opportunities and selective pressures for hybridization. Approaches are proposed for both retrospective, phylogeographic determination of speciation mechanisms, and experimental studies with the potential for genomic applications, particularly in examining the relationship between adaptation and reproductive isolation.
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    REGULATION OF SECONDARY METABOLISM IN FILAMENTOUS FUNGI (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 437-458 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Fungal secondary metabolites are of intense interest to humankind due to their pharmaceutical (antibiotics) and/or toxic (mycotoxins) properties. In the past decade, tremendous progress has been made in understanding the genes that are associated with production of various fungal secondary metabolites. Moreover, the regulatory mechanisms controlling biosynthesis of diverse groups of secondary metabolites have been unveiled. In this review, we present the current understanding of the genetic regulation of secondary metabolism from clustering of biosynthetic genes to global regulators balancing growth, sporulation, and secondary metabolite production in selected fungi with emphasis on regulation of metabolites of agricultural concern. Particularly, the roles of G protein signaling components and developmental regulators in the mycotoxin sterigmatocystin biosynthesis in the model fungus Aspergillus nidulans are discussed in depth.
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    RNA SILENCING IN PRODUCTIVE VIRUS INFECTIONS 1 (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 523-544 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: RNA silencing can reduce the expression of specific genes through posttranscriptional gene silencing, the microRNA pathway, and also through transcriptional gene silencing. Posttranscriptional gene silencing also acts as an antivirus mechanism. By suppressing this antivirus defense mechanism, viruses affect all three silencing pathways in addition to the intercellular signaling mechanism that transmits RNA-based messages throughout the plant. Productive virus infection may therefore disrupt the normal gene expression patterns in plants, resulting, at least in part, in a symptomatic phenotype. This review examines the cellular world that viruses exploit to provide some insight into the molecular interactions that occur during the virus infection cycle and how these produce the symptoms on infected plants.
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    BIOLOGY OF PLANT RHABDOVIRUSES * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 623-660 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: The Rhabdoviridae, whose members collectively infect invertebrates, animals, and plants, form a large family that has important consequences for human health, agriculture, and wildlife ecology. Plant rhabdoviruses can be separated into the genera Cytorhabdovirus and Nucleorhabdovirus, based on their sites of replication and morphogenesis. This review presents a general overview of classical and contemporary findings about rhabdovirus ecology, pathology, vector relations, and taxonomy. The genome organization and structure of several recently sequenced nucleorhabdoviruses and cytorhabdoviruses is integrated with new cell biology findings to provide a model for the replication of the two genera. A prospectus outlines the exciting opportunities for future research that will contribute to a more detailed understanding of the biology, biochemistry, replication and host interactions of the plant rhabdoviruses.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.011205.141136
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    THE ROLE OF ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS IN DEVELOPMENT (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 549-571 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The presence of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) in human milk but not in infant formula, coupled with lower plasma and brain lipid contents of DHA in formula-fed than in breast-fed infants and reports of higher IQ in individuals who were breast-fed versus formula-fed as infants, suggest that exogenous DHA (and ARA) may be essential for optimal development. Thus, since 1990, several studies have examined the impact of formulas containing DHA or DHA plus ARA on visual function and neurodevelopmental outcome. Some of these studies have shown benefits but others have not. These results leave largely unanswered the question of whether these fatty acids are beneficial for either the term or preterm infant. However, evidence that preterm infants might benefit is somewhat more convincing than that for term infants. Despite the limited evidence for efficacy, formulas supplemented with DHA and ARA are now available and appear to be safe.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132254
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    THE VITAMIN KĐ??DEPENDENT CARBOXYLASE (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 127-149 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The vitamin KĐ??dependent (VKD) carboxylase uses the oxygenation of vitamin K to convert glutamyl residues (Glus) to carboxylated Glus (Glas) in VKD proteins, rendering them active in a broad range of physiologies that include hemostasis, apoptosis, bone development, arterial calcification, signal transduction, and growth control. The carboxylase has a high-affinity site that selectively binds VKD proteins, usually through their propeptide, and also has a second low-affinity site of VKD protein interaction. Propeptide binding increases carboxylase affinity for the Glu substrate, and the coordinated binding of the VKD propeptide and Glu substrate increases carboxylase affinity for vitamin K and activity, possibly through a mechanism of substrate-assisted catalysis. Tethering of VKD proteins to the carboxylase allows clusters of Glus to be modified to Glas by a processive mechanism that becomes disrupted during warfarin therapy. Warfarin inhibits a vitamin K oxidoreductase that generates the reduced vitamin K cofactor required for continuous carboxylation and causes decreased carboxylase catalysis and increased dissociation of partially carboxylated, inactive VKD proteins. The availability of reduced vitamin K may also control carboxylation in r-VKD protein-expressing cells, where the amounts of reduced vitamin K are sufficient for full carboxylation of low, but not high, expression levels of VKD proteins, and where carboxylation is not improved by overexpression of r-carboxylase. This review discusses these recent advances in understanding the mechanism of carboxylation. Also covered is the identification of functional carboxylase residues, a brief description of the role of VKD proteins in mammalian and lower organisms, and the potential impact of quality control components on carboxylation, which occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum during the secretion of VKD proteins.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092713
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    DIETARY FIBER: How Did We Get Where We Are? (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 1-8 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Dietary fiber has been a topic of considerable interest among nutritionists and clinicians for the past 50 years. Many studies on fiber have concentrated on fiber isolates, resulting in findings that have ignored fiber as a component of fruits, vegetables, nuts, cereals, and legumes in the general diet. The principle actions of fiber are to alter the nature of the contents of the gastrointestinal tract and to modify the absorption of other nutrients and chemicals. Fiber is but one component of plant food, and to neglect the other componentsĐ??be they proteins, lipids, vitamins, minerals, antioxidants, or the secondary metabolitesĐ??is to seriously limit our understanding. Much of the effort expended in defining fiber and studying the fiber isolate would have been better focused using this whole-plant-food approach. Greater progress in our understanding of the relevance of fiber in the etiology of disease would have been achieved if a more holistic approach had been followed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.121304.131658
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    REGULATION OF GENE TRANSCRIPTION BY BOTANICALS: Novel Regulatory Mechanisms (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 297-315 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Early investigations of gene regulation revealed that nutrients could modulate gene expression, an example being the discovery of metal-regulated gene transcription ( 11, 19, 44 ). Only more recently have we focused on the ability of non-nutritional botanicals or functional food components to affect gene expression at the transcriptional level. Significant findings include the discovery that hyperforin is an active ingredient of the herbal remedy St. John's wort, and activates gene transcription of cytochrome p450-3A4, causing significant botanical-drug interactions. Recently, the lipid-regulating peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors have been studied as receptors activated by soy isoflavones, perhaps explaining the lipid-lowering effect of soy intake. Epigallocatechin gallate has been shown to be an inhibitor of the protealytic activity of the proteasome; this inhibition has a significant implication for cell proliferation and the stability of transcription factors in the nucleus. Very recently, the effects of botanicals have been studied as activators of sirtuins, important deacetylation enzymes that have been shown to enhance lifespan in a variety of organisms. Sirtuins have been implicated in the lifespan-enhancing effect of caloric restriction. Originally presumed to act mainly on compaction or accessibility of DNA, recent evidence shows important activity of sirtuins as controllers of transcriptional coactivator availability. This review focuses on novel mechanisms by which botanical products regulate cell function via gene transcription. Investigating these newly appreciated mechanisms will assist with the characterization and clarification of specific effects of botanicals on gene expression.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092639
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    HUMAN MILK GLYCANS PROTECT INFANTS AGAINST ENTERIC PATHOGENS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 37-58 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Breastfed infants have lower morbidity and mortality due to diarrhea than those fed artificially. This had been attributed primarily to the secretory antibodies and prebiotic factors in human milk. Oligosaccharides are the third largest component of human milk. They were initially considered to be functionless by-products of glycoprotein and glycolipid synthesis during milk production. However, in the past few decades it has become apparent that the human milk oligosaccharides are composed of thousands of components, at least some of which protect against pathogens. Oligosaccharide protection against infectious agents may result in part from their prebiotic characteristics, but is thought to be primarily due to their inhibition of pathogen binding to host cell ligands. Most human milk oligosaccharides are fucosylated, and their production depends on enzymes encoded by the genes associated with expression of the Lewis blood group system. The expression of specific fucosylated oligosaccharides in milk thus varies in relation to maternal Lewis blood group type, and is significantly associated with the risk of infectious disease in breastfed infants. Specific fucosylated moieties of oligosaccharides and related glycoconjugates (glycans) are able to inhibit binding and disease by specific pathogens. This review presents the argument that specific glycans, especially the oligosaccharides, are the major constituent of an innate immune system of human milk whereby the mother protects her infant from enteric and other pathogens through breastfeeding. The large input of energy expended by the mother in the synthesis of milk oligosaccharides is consistent with the human reproductive strategy of large parental input into rearing relatively few offspring through a prolonged period of maturation. These protective glycans may prove useful as a basis for the development of novel prophylactic and therapeutic agents that inhibit diseases caused by mucosal pathogens.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092553
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    KENNETH FRANK BAKERĐ??PIONEER LEADER IN PLANT PATHOLOGY (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 25-38 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Kenneth F. Baker (1908Đ??1996) made major contributions to understanding diseases of ornamental plants, seed pathology, soilborne plant pathogens, biological control, and history of plant pathology. His work set the stage for the success of today's ornamentals and nursery industries. His leadership and writings created the scientific framework for research and teaching on soilborne plant pathogens and biological control. After B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from Washington State University in 1930 and 1934, respectively, and one year as a National Research Council Fellow with B.M. Dugger at Wisconsin, he took jobs in 1935 with the U.S. Department of Agriculture in Nebraska on establishment of shelter belts and 1936Đ??39 with the Pineapple Producers Cooperative Association in Hawaii. He worked on diseases of ornamental plants at the University of California, Los Angeles, starting in 1939, moving to Berkeley in 1961 when the UCLA program closed. He retired in 1975 and moved to Corvallis, OR, as Emeritus Professor, Oregon State University, and Collaborator, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. He spent four sabbatical leaves in Australia, and was elected fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1950, fellow of the American Phytopathological Society in 1969, and the Horticultural Hall of Fame in 1976.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.42.040803.140334
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    VIROIDS AND VIROID-HOST INTERACTIONS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 117-139 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Although they induce symptoms in plants similar to those accompanying virus infections, viroids have unique structural, functional, and evolutionary characteristics. They are composed of a small, nonprotein-coding, single-stranded, circular RNA, with autonomous replication. Viroid species are clustered into the families Pospiviroidae and Avsunviroidae, whose members replicate (and accumulate) in the nucleus and chloroplast, respectively. Viroids replicate in three steps through an RNA-based rolling-circle mechanism: synthesis of longer-than-unit strands catalyzed by host RNA polymerases; processing to unit-length, which in the family Avsunviroidae is mediated by hammerhead ribozymes; and circularization. Within the initially infected cells, viroid RNA must move to its replication organelle, with the resulting progeny then invading adjacent cells through plasmodesmata and reaching distal parts via the vasculature. To carry out these movements, viroids must interact with host factors. The mature viroid RNA could be the primary pathogenic effector or, alternatively, viroids could exert their pathogenic effects via RNA silencing.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.140243
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    CONTRASTING MECHANISMS OF DEFENSE AGAINST BIOTROPHIC AND NECROTROPHIC PATHOGENS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 205-227 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: It has been suggested that effective defense against biotrophic pathogens is largely due to programmed cell death in the host, and to associated activation of defense responses regulated by the salicylic acidĐ??dependent pathway. In contrast, necrotrophic pathogens benefit from host cell death, so they are not limited by cell death and salicylic acidĐ??dependent defenses, but rather by a different set of defense responses activated by jasmonic acid and ethylene signaling. This review summarizes results from Arabidopsis-pathogen systems regarding the contributions of various defense responses to resistance to several biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens. While the model above seems generally correct, there are exceptions and additional complexities.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.135923
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    PHYTOPHTHORA RAMORUM: Integrative Research and Management of an Emerging Pathogen in California and Oregon Forests (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 309-335 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Phytophthora ramorum, causal agent of sudden oak death, is an emerging plant pathogen first observed in North America associated with mortality of tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) and coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia) in coastal forests of California during the mid-1990s. The pathogen is now known to occur in North America and Europe and have a host range of over 40 plant genera. Sudden oak death has become an example of unintended linkages between the horticultural industry and potential impacts on forest ecosystems. This paper examines the biology and ecology of P. ramorum in California and Oregon forests as well discussing research on the pathogen in a broader management context.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.42.040803.140418
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    TOSPOVIRUS-THRIPS INTERACTIONS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 459-489 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: The complex and specific interplay between thrips, tospoviruses, and their shared plant hosts leads to outbreaks of crop disease epidemics of economic and social importance. The precise details of the processes underpinning the vector-virus-host interaction and their coordinated evolution increase our understanding of the general principles underlying pathogen transmission by insects, which in turn can be exploited to develop sustainable strategies for controlling the spread of the virus through plant populations. In this review, we focus primarily on recent progress toward understanding the biological processes and molecular interactions involved in the acquisition and transmission of Tospoviruses by their thrips vectors.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.140017
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    GENETICS OF PLANT VIRUS RESISTANCE (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 581-621 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Genetic resistance to plant viruses has been used for at least 80 years to control agricultural losses to viral diseases. To date, hundreds of naturally occurring genes for resistance to plant viruses have been reported from studies of both monocot and dicot crops, their wild relatives, and the plant model, Arabidopsis. The isolation and characterization of a few of these genes in the past decade have resulted in detailed knowledge of some of the molecules that are critical in determining the outcome of plant viral infection. In this chapter, we have catalogued genes for resistance to plant viruses and have summarized current knowledge regarding their identity and inheritance. Insofar as information is available, the genetic context, genomic organization, mechanisms of resistance and agricultural deployment of plant virus resistance genes are also discussed.
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    EXPLOITING CHINKS IN THE PLANT'S ARMOR: Evolution and Emergence of Geminiviruses (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 361-394 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: The majority of plant-infecting viruses utilize an RNA genome, suggesting that plants have imposed strict constraints on the evolution of DNA viruses. The geminiviruses represent a family of DNA viruses that has circumvented these impediments to emerge as one of the most successful viral pathogens, causing severe economic losses to agricultural production worldwide. The genetic diversity reflected in present-day geminiviruses provides important insights into the evolution and biology of these pathogens. To maximize replication of their DNA genome, these viruses acquired and evolved mechanisms to manipulate the plant cell cycle machinery for DNA replication, and to optimize the number of cells available for infection. In addition, several strategies for cell-to-cell and long-distance movement of the infectious viral DNA were evolved and refined to be compatible with the constraints imposed by the host endogenous macromolecular trafficking machinery. Mechanisms also evolved to circumvent the host antiviral defense systems. Effectively combatting diseases caused by geminiviruses represents a major challenge and opportunity for biotechnology.
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    DEFECTIVE GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS DURING INFECTION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 9-35 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Infection leads to profound alterations in whole-body metabolism, which is characterized by marked acceleration of glucose, fat and protein, and amino acid flux. One of the complications of infection, especially in the nutritionally supported setting, is hyperglycemia. The hyperglycemia is caused by peripheral insulin resistance and alterations in hepatic glucose metabolism. The defects in hepatic glucose metabolism include overproduction of glucose and a failure of the liver to appropriately adapt when nutritional support is administered. Investigators have suggested that multiple factors contribute to the observed defects. In this review, I focus primarily on alterations in carbohydrate metabolism, examining both the metabolic response to infection and inflammatory stress, the role of the accompanying neuroendocrine and inflammatory responses in the metabolic response, and the interaction between the endocrine response to infection and nutritional support.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132159
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    DEVELOPMENTAL DETERMINANTS OF BLOOD PRESSURE IN ADULTS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 407-434 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Over the past 20 years a large and varied body of research has attempted to make the case for the developmental origins of elevated adult blood pressure (BP). Experimental animal research has identified plausible biological mechanisms through which fetal nutritional insufficiency may affect adult BP. The majority of human epidemiologic studies demonstrate an inverse association of birth weight (the most commonly used marker of fetal nutrition) with adult BP and higher risk of hypertension among individuals with lower weight at birth. The most adverse BP outcomes occur among individuals who were small at birth but relatively large as adults, a finding that suggests a role for postnatal growth. We critically review the literature on proposed mechanisms and epidemiologic evidence for developmental origins of adult BP and hypertension, considering associations with birth weight, maternal nutrition during pregnancy, child growth patterns, and infant feeding.
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    VITAMIN E, OXIDATIVE STRESS, AND INFLAMMATION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 151-174 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the Western world. Its incidence has also been increasing lately in developing countries. Several lines of evidence support a role for oxidative stress and inflammation in atherogenesis. Oxidation of lipoproteins is a hallmark in atherosclerosis. Oxidized low-density lipoprotein induces inflammation as it induces adhesion and influx of monocytes and influences cytokine release by monocytes. A number of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1?‚ (IL-1?‚), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-ʼ̛ (TNF-ʼ̛) modulate monocyte adhesion to endothelium. C-reactive protein (CRP), a prototypic marker of inflammation, is a risk marker for CVD and it could contribute to atherosclerosis. Hence, dietary micronutrients having anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties may have a potential beneficial effect with regard to cardiovascular disease. Vitamin E is a potent antioxidant with anti-inflammatory properties. Several lines of evidence suggest that among different forms of vitamin E, ʼ̛-tocopherol (AT) has potential beneficial effects with regard to cardiovascular disease. AT supplementation in human subjects and animal models has been shown to decrease lipid peroxidation, superoxide (O2 -) production by impairing the assembly of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (reduced form) oxidase as well as by decreasing the expression of scavenger receptors (SR-A and CD36), particularly important in the formation of foam cells. AT therapy, especially at high doses, has been shown to decrease the release of proinflammatory cytokines, the chemokine IL-8 and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) levels as well as decrease adhesion of monocytes to endothelium. In addition, AT has been shown to decrease CRP levels, in patients with CVD and in those with risk factors for CVD. The mechanisms that account for nonantioxidant effects of AT include the inhibition of protein kinase C, 5-lipoxygenase, tyrosineĐ??kinase as well as cyclooxygenase-2. Based on its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, AT (at the appropriate dose and form) could have beneficial effects on cardiovascular disease in a high-risk population.
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    SELENOPROTEIN P: An Extracellular Protein with Unique Physical Characteristics and a Role in Selenium Homeostasis (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 215-235 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Selenoprotein P is an abundant extracellular glycoprotein that is rich in selenocysteine. It has two domains with respect to selenium content. The N-terminal domain of the rat protein contains one selenocysteine residue in a UxxC redox motif. This domain also has a pH-sensitive heparin-binding site and two histidine-rich amino acid stretches. The smaller C-terminal domain contains nine selenocysteine and ten cysteine residues. Four isoforms of selenoprotein P are present in rat plasma. They share the same N terminus and amino acid sequence. One isoform is full length and the three others terminate at the positions of the second, third, and seventh selenocysteine residues. Selenoprotein P turns over rapidly in rat plasma with the consequence that approximately 25% of the amount of whole-body selenium passes through it each day. Evidence supports functions of the protein in selenium homeostasis and oxidant defense. Selenoprotein P knockout mice have very low selenium concentrations in the brain, the testis, and the fetus, with severe pathophysiological consequences in each tissue. In addition, those mice waste moderate amounts of selenium in the urine. Selenoprotein P binds to endothelial cells in the rat, and plasma levels of the protein correlate with prevention of diquat-induced lipid peroxidation and hepatic endothelial cell injury. The mechanisms of these apparent functions remain speculative and much work on the mechanism of selenoprotein P function lies ahead. Measurement of selenoprotein P in human plasma has shown that it is depressed by selenium deficiency and by cirrhosis. Selenium supplementation of selenium-deficient human subjects showed that glutathione peroxidase activity was optimized before selenoprotein P concentration was optimized, indicating that plasma selenoprotein P is the better index of human selenium nutritional status.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132120
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    THE INSULIN RESISTANCE SYNDROME: Definition and Dietary Approaches to Treatment (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 391-406 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The ability of insulin to stimulate glucose disposal varies at least sixfold in apparently healthy individuals, and approximately one-third of the population that is most resistant to this action of insulin is at greatly increased risk to develop a number of adverse clinical outcomes. Type 2 diabetes occurs when insulin resistant individuals are unable to secrete enough insulin to compensate for the defect in insulin action, and this was the first clinical syndrome identified as being related to insulin resistance. Although the majority of insulin-resistant individuals are able to maintain the level of compensatory hyperinsulinemia needed to prevent the development of a significant degree of hyperglycemia, the combination of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia greatly increases the likelihood of developing a cluster of closely related abnormalities and the resultant clinical diagnoses that can be considered to make up the insulin resistance syndrome (IRS). Since being overweight/obese and sedentary decreases insulin sensitivity, it is not surprising that the prevalence of the manifestations of the IRS is increasing at a rapid rate. From a dietary standpoint, there are two approaches to attenuating the manifestations of the IRS: (a) weight loss to enhance insulin sensitivity in those overweight/obese individuals who are insulin resistant/hyperinsulinemic; and (b) changes in macronutrient content of diets to avoid the adverse effects of the compensatory hyperinsulinemia. This chapter will focus on defining the abnormalities and clinical syndromes that compose the IRS and evaluating the dietary changes that can ameliorate its adverse consequences.
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    NUTRITIONAL CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION: How Mammalian Cells Respond to Amino Acid Limitation * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 59-85 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The amino acid response (AAR) pathway in mammalian cells is designed to detect and respond to amino acid deficiency. Limiting any essential amino acid initiates this signaling cascade, which leads to increased translation of a "master regulator," activating transcription factor (ATF) 4, and ultimately, to regulation of many steps along the pathway of DNA to RNA to protein. These regulated events include chromatin remodeling, RNA splicing, nuclear RNA export, mRNA stabilization, and translational control. Proteins that are increased in their expression as targets of the AAR pathway include membrane transporters, transcription factors from the basic region/leucine zipper (bZIP) superfamily, growth factors, and metabolic enzymes. Significant progress has been achieved in understanding the molecular mechanisms by which amino acids control the synthesis and turnover of mRNA and protein. Beyond gaining additional knowledge of these important regulatory pathways, further characterization of how these processes contribute to the pathology of various disease states represents an interesting aspect of future research in molecular nutrition.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132145
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    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISMS THAT INFLUENCE LIPID METABOLISM: Interaction with Dietary Factors (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 341-390 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk is the result of complex interactions between genetic and environmental factors. During the past few decades, much attention has focused on plasma lipoproteins as CVD risk factors. The current evidence supports the concept that gene-environment interactions modulate plasma lipid concentrations and potentially CVD risk. The findings from studies examining gene-diet interactions and lipid metabolism have been highly promising. Several loci (i.e., APOA1, APOA4, APOE, and LIPC) are providing proof-of-concept for the potential application of genetics in the context of personalized nutritional recommendations for CVD prevention. However, the incorporation of these findings to the clinical environment is not ready for prime time. There is a compelling need for replication using a higher level of scientific evidence. Moreover, we need to evolve from the simple scenarios examined nowadays (i.e., one single dietary component, single nucleotide polymorphism, and risk factor) to more realistic situations involving interactions between multiple genes, dietary components, and risk factors. In summary, there is need for both large population studies and well-standardized intervention studies.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.050304.092656
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    Retinal Prosthesis (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-08-15
    Print ISSN: 1523-9829
    Electronic ISSN: 1545-4274
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    Blood-on-a-Chip (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-08-15
    Print ISSN: 1523-9829
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    In Vivo Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy in Cancer (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-08-15
    Print ISSN: 1523-9829
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    Instrumentation Aspects of Animal PET (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-08-15
    Print ISSN: 1523-9829
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    Biochemistry and Biomechanics of Cell Motility (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-08-15
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    Quantum Dots as Cellular Probes (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-08-15
    Print ISSN: 1523-9829
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    Functional Electrical Stimulation for Neuromuscular Applications (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-08-15
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    Deterministic and Stochastic Elements of Axonal Guidance (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-08-15
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    DNA Mechanics (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-08-15
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    Structure and Mechanics of Healing Myocardial Infarcts (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-08-15
    Print ISSN: 1523-9829
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    Werner Goldsmith: Life and Work (1924–2003) (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-08-15
    Print ISSN: 1523-9829
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    Molecular Mechanics and Dynamics of Leukocyte Recruitment During Inflammation (2005)
    Annual Reviews
    Details
    Publication Date: 2005-08-15
    Print ISSN: 1523-9829
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    NUTRITIONAL CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION: How Mammalian Cells Respond to Amino Acid Limitation (2005)
    Annual Reviews
    Details
    Publication Date: 2005-08-21
    Description: ▪ Abstract  The amino acid response (AAR) pathway in mammalian cells is designed to detect and respond to amino acid deficiency. Limiting any essential amino acid initiates this signaling cascade, which leads to increased translation of a “master regulator,” activating transcription factor (ATF) 4, and ultimately, to regulation of many steps along the pathway of DNA to RNA to protein. These regulated events include chromatin remodeling, RNA splicing, nuclear RNA export, mRNA stabilization, and translational control. Proteins that are increased in their expression as targets of the AAR pathway include membrane transporters, transcription factors from the basic region/leucine zipper (bZIP) superfamily, growth factors, and metabolic enzymes. Significant progress has been achieved in understanding the molecular mechanisms by which amino acids control the synthesis and turnover of mRNA and protein. Beyond gaining additional knowledge of these important regulatory pathways, further characterization of how these processes contribute to the pathology of various disease states represents an interesting aspect of future research in molecular nutrition.
    Print ISSN: 0199-9885
    Electronic ISSN: 1545-4312
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
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    ENERGY INTAKE, MEAL FREQUENCY, AND HEALTH: A Neurobiological Perspective (2005)
    Annual Reviews
    Details
    Publication Date: 2005-08-21
    Description: ▪ Abstract  The size and frequency of meals are fundamental aspects of nutrition that can have profound effects on the health and longevity of laboratory animals. In humans, excessive energy intake is associated with increased incidence of cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and certain cancers and is a major cause of disability and death in industrialized countries. On the other hand, the influence of meal frequency on human health and longevity is unclear. Both caloric (energy) restriction (CR) and reduced meal frequency/intermittent fasting can suppress the development of various diseases and can increase life span in rodents by mechanisms involving reduced oxidative damage and increased stress resistance. Many of the beneficial effects of CR and fasting appear to be mediated by the nervous system. For example, intermittent fasting results in increased production of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), which increases the resistance of neurons in the brain to dysfunction and degeneration in animal models of neurodegenerative disorders; BDNF signaling may also mediate beneficial effects of intermittent fasting on glucose regulation and cardiovascular function. A better understanding of the neurobiological mechanisms by which meal size and frequency affect human health may lead to novel approaches for disease prevention and treatment.
    Print ISSN: 0199-9885
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    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
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    DEFECTIVE GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS DURING INFECTION (2005)
    Annual Reviews
    Details
    Publication Date: 2005-08-21
    Description: ▪ Abstract  Infection leads to profound alterations in whole-body metabolism, which is characterized by marked acceleration of glucose, fat and protein, and amino acid flux. One of the complications of infection, especially in the nutritionally supported setting, is hyperglycemia. The hyperglycemia is caused by peripheral insulin resistance and alterations in hepatic glucose metabolism. The defects in hepatic glucose metabolism include overproduction of glucose and a failure of the liver to appropriately adapt when nutritional support is administered. Investigators have suggested that multiple factors contribute to the observed defects. In this review, I focus primarily on alterations in carbohydrate metabolism, examining both the metabolic response to infection and inflammatory stress, the role of the accompanying neuroendocrine and inflammatory responses in the metabolic response, and the interaction between the endocrine response to infection and nutritional support.
    Print ISSN: 0199-9885
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    THE INSULIN RESISTANCE SYNDROME: Definition and Dietary Approaches to Treatment (2005)
    Annual Reviews
    Details
    Publication Date: 2005-08-21
    Description: ▪ Abstract  The ability of insulin to stimulate glucose disposal varies at least sixfold in apparently healthy individuals, and approximately one-third of the population that is most resistant to this action of insulin is at greatly increased risk to develop a number of adverse clinical outcomes. Type 2 diabetes occurs when insulin resistant individuals are unable to secrete enough insulin to compensate for the defect in insulin action, and this was the first clinical syndrome identified as being related to insulin resistance. Although the majority of insulin-resistant individuals are able to maintain the level of compensatory hyperinsulinemia needed to prevent the development of a significant degree of hyperglycemia, the combination of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia greatly increases the likelihood of developing a cluster of closely related abnormalities and the resultant clinical diagnoses that can be considered to make up the insulin resistance syndrome (IRS). Since being overweight/obese and sedentary decreases insulin sensitivity, it is not surprising that the prevalence of the manifestations of the IRS is increasing at a rapid rate. From a dietary standpoint, there are two approaches to attenuating the manifestations of the IRS: (a) weight loss to enhance insulin sensitivity in those overweight/obese individuals who are insulin resistant/hyperinsulinemic; and (b) changes in macronutrient content of diets to avoid the adverse effects of the compensatory hyperinsulinemia. This chapter will focus on defining the abnormalities and clinical syndromes that compose the IRS and evaluating the dietary changes that can ameliorate its adverse consequences.
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    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
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    SINGLE NUCLEOTIDE POLYMORPHISMS THAT INFLUENCE LIPID METABOLISM: Interaction with Dietary Factors (2005)
    Annual Reviews
    Details
    Publication Date: 2005-08-21
    Description: ▪ Abstract  Cardiovascular disease (CVD) risk is the result of complex interactions between genetic and environmental factors. During the past few decades, much attention has focused on plasma lipoproteins as CVD risk factors. The current evidence supports the concept that gene-environment interactions modulate plasma lipid concentrations and potentially CVD risk. The findings from studies examining gene-diet interactions and lipid metabolism have been highly promising. Several loci (i.e., APOA1, APOA4, APOE, and LIPC) are providing proof-of-concept for the potential application of genetics in the context of personalized nutritional recommendations for CVD prevention. However, the incorporation of these findings to the clinical environment is not ready for prime time. There is a compelling need for replication using a higher level of scientific evidence. Moreover, we need to evolve from the simple scenarios examined nowadays (i.e., one single dietary component, single nucleotide polymorphism, and risk factor) to more realistic situations involving interactions between multiple genes, dietary components, and risk factors. In summary, there is need for both large population studies and well-standardized intervention studies.
    Print ISSN: 0199-9885
    Electronic ISSN: 1545-4312
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
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    Contrasting Mechanisms of Defense Against Biotrophic and Necrotrophic Pathogens (2005)
    Annual Reviews
    Details
    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: It has been suggested that effective defense against biotrophic pathogens is largely due to programmed cell death in the host, and to associated activation of defense responses regulated by the salicylic acid–dependent pathway. In contrast, necrotrophic pathogens benefit from host cell death, so they are not limited by cell death and salicylic acid–dependent defenses, but rather by a different set of defense responses activated by jasmonic acid and ethylene signaling. This review summarizes results from Arabidopsis-pathogen systems regarding the contributions of various defense responses to resistance to several biotrophic and necrotrophic pathogens. While the model above seems generally correct, there are exceptions and additional complexities.
    Print ISSN: 0066-4286
    Electronic ISSN: 1545-2107
    Topics: Biology , Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
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    Principles of Plant Health Management for Ornamental Plants (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: Economic, environmental, and technological influences complicate the task of achieving disease-free products in the ornamentals industry. Integrated pest management (IPM) is a cornerstone of floriculture and nursery crop production: strategies include sanitation, clean stock, host resistance, and control through biological, cultural, environmental, chemical, and regulatory means. Sanitation measures and cultural controls must keep pace with new production technologies. Clean stock programs are used for many crops that are propagated vegetatively. Breeding, selection, and biotechnology provide crops resistant to pathogens. Offshore production for economic competitiveness can introduce pathogens that make regulatory programs necessary. New biocontrol and chemical products continue to improve control while meeting the requirement for minimal environmental impact. Continual introduction of new crops and new production technologies creates new opportunities for pathogens to exploit, such that new disease management tactics must be discovered and old ones rediscovered to achieve optimum health management for ornamentals.
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    Phytophthora ramorum: Integrative Research and Management of an Emerging Pathogen in California and Oregon Forests (2005)
    Annual Reviews
    Details
    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: Phytophthora ramorum, causal agent of sudden oak death, is an emerging plant pathogen first observed in North America associated with mortality of tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus) and coast live oak (Quercus agrifolia) in coastal forests of California during the mid-1990s. The pathogen is now known to occur in North America and Europe and have a host range of over 40 plant genera. Sudden oak death has become an example of unintended linkages between the horticultural industry and potential impacts on forest ecosystems. This paper examines the biology and ecology of P. ramorum in California and Oregon forests as well discussing research on the pathogen in a broader management context.
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    Plant Disease: A Threat to Global Food Security (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: A vast number of plant pathogens from viroids of a few hundred nucleotides to higher plants cause diseases in our crops. Their effects range from mild symptoms to catastrophes in which large areas planted to food crops are destroyed. Catastrophic plant disease exacerbates the current deficit of food supply in which at least 800 million people are inadequately fed. Plant pathogens are difficult to control because their populations are variable in time, space, and genotype. Most insidiously, they evolve, often overcoming the resistance that may have been the hard-won achievement of the plant breeder. In order to combat the losses they cause, it is necessary to define the problem and seek remedies. At the biological level, the requirements are for the speedy and accurate identification of the causal organism, accurate estimates of the severity of disease and its effect on yield, and identification of its virulence mechanisms. Disease may then be minimized by the reduction of the pathogen's inoculum, inhibition of its virulence mechanisms, and promotion of genetic diversity in the crop. Conventional plant breeding for resistance has an important role to play that can now be facilitated by marker-assisted selection. There is also a role for transgenic modification with genes that confer resistance. At the political level, there is a need to acknowledge that plant diseases threaten our food supplies and to devote adequate resources to their control.
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    Signal Crosstalk and Induced Resistance: Straddling the Line Between Cost and Benefit (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: This review discusses recent progress in our understanding of signaling in induced plant resistance and susceptibility to pathogens and insect herbivores, with a focus on the connections and crosstalk among phytohormone signaling networks that regulate responses to these and other stresses. Multiple stresses, often simultaneous, reduce growth and yield in plants. However, prior challenge by a pathogen or insect herbivore also can induce resistance to subsequent challenge. This resistance, or failure of susceptibility, must be orchestrated within a larger physiological context that is strongly influenced by other biotic agents and by abiotic stresses such as inadequate light, temperature extremes, drought, nutrient limitation, and soil salinity. Continued research in this area is predicated on the notion that effective utilization of induced resistance in crop protection will require a functional understanding of the physiological consequences of the “induced” state of the plant, coupled with the knowledge of the specificity and compatibility of the signaling systems leading to this state. This information may guide related strategies to improve crop performance in suboptimal environments, and define the limits of induced resistance in certain agricultural contexts.
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    Exploiting Chinks in the Plant's Armor: Evolution and Emergence of Geminiviruses (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: The majority of plant-infecting viruses utilize an RNA genome, suggesting that plants have imposed strict constraints on the evolution of DNA viruses. The geminiviruses represent a family of DNA viruses that has circumvented these impediments to emerge as one of the most successful viral pathogens, causing severe economic losses to agricultural production worldwide. The genetic diversity reflected in present-day geminiviruses provides important insights into the evolution and biology of these pathogens. To maximize replication of their DNA genome, these viruses acquired and evolved mechanisms to manipulate the plant cell cycle machinery for DNA replication, and to optimize the number of cells available for infection. In addition, several strategies for cell-to-cell and long-distance movement of the infectious viral DNA were evolved and refined to be compatible with the constraints imposed by the host endogenous macromolecular trafficking machinery. Mechanisms also evolved to circumvent the host antiviral defense systems. Effectively combatting diseases caused by geminiviruses represents a major challenge and opportunity for biotechnology.
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    Regulation of Secondary Metabolism in Filamentous Fungi (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: Fungal secondary metabolites are of intense interest to humankind due to their pharmaceutical (antibiotics) and/or toxic (mycotoxins) properties. In the past decade, tremendous progress has been made in understanding the genes that are associated with production of various fungal secondary metabolites. Moreover, the regulatory mechanisms controlling biosynthesis of diverse groups of secondary metabolites have been unveiled. In this review, we present the current understanding of the genetic regulation of secondary metabolism from clustering of biosynthetic genes to global regulators balancing growth, sporulation, and secondary metabolite production in selected fungi with emphasis on regulation of metabolites of agricultural concern. Particularly, the roles of G protein signaling components and developmental regulators in the mycotoxin sterigmatocystin biosynthesis in the model fungus Aspergillus nidulans are discussed in depth.
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    Plant Pathology and RNAi: A Brief History (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: This article describes the discovery of RNA-activated sequence-specific RNA degradation, a phenomenon now referred to as RNA silencing or RNA interference (RNAi). From 1992 to 1996, a series of articles were published on virus resistant transgenic plants expressing either translatable or nontranslatable versions of the coat protein gene of Tobacco etch virus (TEV). Certain transgenic plant lines were resistant to TEV but not to closely related viruses. In these plants a surprising correlation was observed: Transgenic plant lines with the highest degree of TEV resistance had actively transcribed transgenes but low steady-state levels of transgene RNA. Molecular analysis of these transgenic plants demonstrated the existence of a cellular-based, sequence-specific, posttranscriptional RNA-degradation system that was programmed by the transgene-encoded RNA sequence. This RNA-degradation activity specifically targeted both the transgene RNA and TEV (viral) RNA for degradation and was the first description of RNA-mediated gene silencing.
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    Replication of Alfamo- and Ilarviruses: Role of the Coat Protein (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: In the family Bromoviridae, a mixture of the three genomic RNAs of bromo-, cucumo-, and oleaviruses is infectious as such, whereas the RNAs of alfamo- and ilarviruses require binding of a few molecules of coat protein (CP) to the 3′ end to initiate infection. Most studies on the early function of CP have been done on the alfamovirus Alfalfa mosaic virus (AMV). The 3′ 112 nucleotides of AMV RNAs can adopt two different conformations. One conformer consists of a tRNA-like structure that, together with an upstream hairpin, is required for minus-strand promoter activity. The other conformer consists of four hairpins interspersed by AUGC-sequences and represents a strong binding site for CP. Binding of CP to this conformer enhances the translational efficiency of viral RNAs in vivo 40-fold and blocks viral minus-strand RNA synthesis in vitro. AMV CP is proposed to initiate infection by mimicking the function of the poly(A)-binding protein.
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    Commercialization and Implementation of Biocontrol (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: Although the number of biocontrol products is increasing, these products still represent only about 1% of agricultural chemical sales. Yet these are important contributions because biocontrol agents offer disease management alternatives with different mechanisms of action than chemical pesticides. Trends in research include the increased use of biorational screening processes to identify microorganisms with potential for biocontrol, increased testing under semicommercial and commercial production conditions, increased emphasis on combining biocontrol strains with each other and with other control methods, integrating biocontrol into an overall system.
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    Resistance of Cotton Towards Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum (2005)
    Annual Reviews
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: Interactions between Gossypium spp. and the bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas campestris pv. malvacearum are understood in the context of the gene-for-gene concept. Reviewed here are the genetic basis for cotton resistance, with reference to resistance genes, resistance gene analogs, and bacterial avirulence genes, together with the physiological mechanisms involved in the hypersensitive response to the pathogen, including production of signaling hormones, synthesis of antimicrobial molecules and alteration of host cell structures. This host-pathogen interaction represents the most complex resistance gene/avr gene system yet known and is one of the few in which phytoalexins are known to be specifically localized in HR cells at anti-microbial concentrations.
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    RNA Silencing in Productive Virus Infections (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: RNA silencing can reduce the expression of specific genes through posttranscriptional gene silencing, the microRNA pathway, and also through transcriptional gene silencing. Posttranscriptional gene silencing also acts as an antivirus mechanism. By suppressing this antivirus defense mechanism, viruses affect all three silencing pathways in addition to the intercellular signaling mechanism that transmits RNA-based messages throughout the plant. Productive virus infection may therefore disrupt the normal gene expression patterns in plants, resulting, at least in part, in a symptomatic phenotype. This review examines the cellular world that viruses exploit to provide some insight into the molecular interactions that occur during the virus infection cycle and how these produce the symptoms on infected plants.
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    Kenneth Frank Baker—Pioneer Leader in Plant Pathology (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: Kenneth F. Baker (1908–1996) made major contributions to understanding diseases of ornamental plants, seed pathology, soilborne plant pathogens, biological control, and history of plant pathology. His work set the stage for the success of today's ornamentals and nursery industries. His leadership and writings created the scientific framework for research and teaching on soilborne plant pathogens and biological control. After B.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees from Washington State University in 1930 and 1934, respectively, and one year as a National Research Council Fellow with B.M. Dugger at Wisconsin, he took jobs in 1935 with the U.S. Department of Agriculture in Nebraska on establishment of shelter belts and 1936–39 with the Pineapple Producers Cooperative Association in Hawaii. He worked on diseases of ornamental plants at the University of California, Los Angeles, starting in 1939, moving to Berkeley in 1961 when the UCLA program closed. He retired in 1975 and moved to Corvallis, OR, as Emeritus Professor, Oregon State University, and Collaborator, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. He spent four sabbatical leaves in Australia, and was elected fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in 1950, fellow of the American Phytopathological Society in 1969, and the Horticultural Hall of Fame in 1976.
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    Tospovirus-Thrips Interactions (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: The complex and specific interplay between thrips, tospoviruses, and their shared plant hosts leads to outbreaks of crop disease epidemics of economic and social importance. The precise details of the processes underpinning the vector-virus-host interaction and their coordinated evolution increase our understanding of the general principles underlying pathogen transmission by insects, which in turn can be exploited to develop sustainable strategies for controlling the spread of the virus through plant populations. In this review, we focus primarily on recent progress toward understanding the biological processes and molecular interactions involved in the acquisition and transmission of Tospoviruses by their thrips vectors.
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    Genetics of Plant Virus Resistance (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: Genetic resistance to plant viruses has been used for at least 80 years to control agricultural losses to viral diseases. To date, hundreds of naturally occurring genes for resistance to plant viruses have been reported from studies of both monocot and dicot crops, their wild relatives, and the plant model, Arabidopsis. The isolation and characterization of a few of these genes in the past decade have resulted in detailed knowledge of some of the molecules that are critical in determining the outcome of plant viral infection. In this chapter, we have catalogued genes for resistance to plant viruses and have summarized current knowledge regarding their identity and inheritance. Insofar as information is available, the genetic context, genomic organization, mechanisms of resistance and agricultural deployment of plant virus resistance genes are also discussed.
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    Pathogen Testing and Certification of Vitis and Prunus Species (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: Strategies to screen horticultural crops for graft-transmissible agents, particularly viruses and phytoplasmas, have advanced substantially over the past decade. Tests used for Vitis and Prunus are reviewed in detail, including both biological indexing procedures and laboratory-based assays. Despite advances in laboratory molecular-based detection techniques, a strong case is presented for the continued use of slower biological tests in programs requiring high levels of confidence in detection of pathogens that must be excluded from valuable germplasm.
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    Hemipterans as Plant Pathogens (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: Integration of the tools of genetics, genomics, and biochemistry has provided new approaches for identifying genes responding to herbivory. As a result, a picture of the complexity of plant-defense signaling to different herbivore feeding guilds is emerging. Plant responses to hemipteran insects have substantial overlap with responses mounted against microbial pathogens, as seen in changes in RNA profiles and emission of volatiles. Responses to known defense signals and characterization of the signaling pathways controlled by the first cloned insect R gene (Mi-1) indicate that perception and signal transduction leading to resistance may be similar to plant-pathogen interactions. Additionally, novel signaling pathways are emerging as important components of plant defense to insects. The availability of new tools and approaches will further enhance our understanding of the nature of defense in plant-hemipteran interactions.
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    The Biology of Phytophthora infestans at Its Center of Origin (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: The central highlands of Mexico are considered to be a center of genetic diversity for both the potato late blight pathogen and for tuber-bearing Solanum spp. Recent work conducted in Mexico and South America sheds new light on the biology and evolution of Phytophthora infestans and other related Phytophthora pathogens. It now appears that Mexican Solanum species, which coevolved with P. infestans and were previously known for providing a source of R-genes, also provide a source of quantitative, rate-reducing resistance that is highly effective, stable, and durable. It is now apparent that Mexico is the center of origin not only of the potato late blight pathogen P. infestans, but also of several related Phytophthora species including P. mirabilis, P. ipomoeae, and possibly P. phaseoli. We close with the hypothesis that these Phytophthora species evolved sympatrically from one ancestral host through adaptive radiation onto their respective four host families.
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    Molecular Interactions Between Tomato and the Leaf Mold Pathogen Cladosporium fulvum (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: The interaction between tomato and the leaf mold pathogen Cladosporium fulvum is controlled in a gene-for-gene manner. This interaction has provided useful insights to the molecular basis of recognition specificity in plant disease resistance (R) proteins, disease resistance (R) gene evolution, R-protein mediated signaling, and cellular responses to pathogen attack. Tomato Cf genes encode type I membrane-associated receptor-like proteins (RLPs) comprised predominantly of extracellular leucine-rich repeats (eLRRs) and which are anchored in the plasma membrane. Cf proteins recognize fungal avirulence (Avr) peptides secreted into the leaf apoplast during infection. A direct interaction of Cf proteins with their cognate Avr proteins has not been demonstrated and the molecular mechanism of Avr protein perception is not known. Following ligand perception Cf proteins trigger a hypersensitive response (HR) and the arrest of pathogen development. Cf proteins lack an obvious signaling domain, suggesting that defense response activation is mediated through interactions with other partners. Avr protein perception results in the rapid accumulation of active oxygen species (AOS), changes in cellular ion fluxes, activation of protein kinase cascades, changes in gene expression and, possibly, targeted protein degradation. Here we review our current understanding of Cf-mediated responses in resistance to C. fulvum.
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    Being at the Right Place, at the Right Time, for the Right Reasons—Plant Pathology (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: This article relates some personal history and influences leading to becoming a plant pathologist. Next a summary of my research experiences on rice and barley diseases and the effect of regulatory changes on efforts to manage rice diseases in California. I conclude with an invitation to consider the opportunities and obligations of plant pathologists to return to the field and for individual introspection regarding attitudes and behavior toward colleagues and factors affecting our profession.
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    Biology of Plant Rhabdoviruses (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: The Rhabdoviridae, whose members collectively infect invertebrates, animals, and plants, form a large family that has important consequences for human health, agriculture, and wildlife ecology. Plant rhabdoviruses can be separated into the genera Cytorhabdovirus and Nucleorhabdovirus, based on their sites of replication and morphogenesis. This review presents a general overview of classical and contemporary findings about rhabdovirus ecology, pathology, vector relations, and taxonomy. The genome organization and structure of several recently sequenced nucleorhabdoviruses and cytorhabdoviruses is integrated with new cell biology findings to provide a model for the replication of the two genera. A prospectus outlines the exciting opportunities for future research that will contribute to a more detailed understanding of the biology, biochemistry, replication and host interactions of the plant rhabdoviruses.
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    Lipids, Lipases, and Lipid-Modifying Enzymes in Plant Disease Resistance (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: Lipids and lipid metabolites influence pathogenesis and resistance mechanisms associated with plant-microbe interactions. Some microorganisms sense their presence on a host by perceiving plant surface waxes, whereas others produce toxins that target plant lipid metabolism. In contrast, plants have evolved to recognize microbial lipopolysaccharides (LPSs), sphingolipids, and lipid-binding proteins as elicitors of defense response. Recent studies have demonstrated that the plasma membrane provides a surface on which some plant resistance (R) proteins perceive pathogen-derived effectors and thus confer race-specific resistance. Plant cell membranes also serve as reservoirs from which biologically active lipids and precursors of oxidized lipids are released. Some of these oxylipins, for example jasmonic acid (JA), are important signal molecules in plant defense. Arabidopsis thaliana is an excellent model plant to elucidate the biosynthesis and metabolism of lipids and lipid metabolites, and the characterization of signaling mechanisms involved in the modulation of plant defense responses by phytolipids. This review focuses on recent studies that highlight the involvement of lipids and lipid metabolites, and enzymes involved in lipid metabolism and modification in plant disease resistance.
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    Viroids and Viroid-Host Interactions (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: Although they induce symptoms in plants similar to those accompanying virus infections, viroids have unique structural, functional, and evolutionary characteristics. They are composed of a small, nonprotein-coding, single-stranded, circular RNA, with autonomous replication. Viroid species are clustered into the families Pospiviroidae and Avsunviroidae, whose members replicate (and accumulate) in the nucleus and chloroplast, respectively. Viroids replicate in three steps through an RNA-based rolling-circle mechanism: synthesis of longer-than-unit strands catalyzed by host RNA polymerases; processing to unit-length, which in the family Avsunviroidae is mediated by hammerhead ribozymes; and circularization. Within the initially infected cells, viroid RNA must move to its replication organelle, with the resulting progeny then invading adjacent cells through plasmodesmata and reaching distal parts via the vasculature. To carry out these movements, viroids must interact with host factors. The mature viroid RNA could be the primary pathogenic effector or, alternatively, viroids could exert their pathogenic effects via RNA silencing.
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    Mechanisms of Fungal Speciation (2005)
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    Publication Date: 2005-09-01
    Description: The objective of this review is to provide a synthesis of speciation theory, of what is known about mechanisms of speciation in fungi and from this, what is expected, and of ideas on how speciation can be elucidated in more fungal systems. The emphasis is on process rather than pattern. Phylogeographic studies in some groups, such as the agarics, demonstrate predominantly allopatric speciation, often through vicariance, as seen in many plants and animals. The variety of life history factors in fungi suggests, however, a diversity in speciation mechanisms that is borne out in comparison of some key examples. Life history features in fungi with a bearing on speciation include genetic mechanisms for intra- and interspecies interactions, haploidy as monokaryons, dikaryons, or coenocytes, distinctive types of propagules with distinctive modes of dispersal, as well as characteristic relationships to the substrate or host as specialized or generalist saprotrophs, parasites or mutualists with associated opportunities and selective pressures for hybridization. Approaches are proposed for both retrospective, phylogeographic determination of speciation mechanisms, and experimental studies with the potential for genomic applications, particularly in examining the relationship between adaptation and reproductive isolation.
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