ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: The publication of this volume occurs at the one-hundredth anniversary of 1905, which has been called the annus mirabilus because it was the year of a number of enormous scientific advances. Among them are four papers by Albert Einstein explaining (among other things) Brownian motion, the photoelectric effect, the special theory of relativity, and the equation E = mc2. Also of significance in 1905 was the first application of another major advance in physics, which dramatically changed the fields of Earth and planetary science. In March of 1905 (and published the following year), Ernest Rutherford presented the following in the Silliman Lectures at Yale: "The helium observed in the radioactive minerals is almost certainly due to its production from the radium and other radioactive substances contained therein. If the rate of production of helium from known weights of the different radioelements were experimentally known, it should thus be possible to determine the interval required for the production of the amount of helium observed in radioactive minerals, or, in other words, to determine the age of the mineral." Rutherford E (1906) Radioactive Transformations. Charles Scriber's Sons, NY Thus radioisotopic geochronology was born, almost immediately shattering centuries of speculative conjectures and estimates and laying the foundation for establishment of the geologic timescale, the age of the Earth and meteorites, and a quantitative understanding of the rates of processes ranging from nebular condensation to Quaternary glaciations. There is an important subplot to the historical development of radioisotopic dating over the last hundred years, which, ironically, arises directly from the subsequent history of the U-He dating method Rutherford described in 1905. Almost as soon as radioisotopic dating was invented, it was recognized that the U-He [or later the (U-Th)/He method], provided ages that were often far younger than those allowed by stratigraphic correlations or other techniques such as U/Pb dating. Clearly, as R.J. Strutt noted in 1910, He ages only provided "minimum values, because helium leaks out from the mineral, to what extent it is impossible to say" (Strutt, 1910, Proc Roy Soc Lond, Ser A 84:379-388). For several decades most attention was diverted to U/Pb and other techniques better suited to measurement of crystallization ages and establishment of the geologic timescale. Gradually it became clear that other radioisotopic systems such as K/Ar and later fission-track also provided ages that were clearly younger than formation ages. In 1910 it may have been impossible to say the extent to which He (or most other elements) leaked out of minerals, but eventually a growing understanding of thermally-activated diffusion and annealing began to shed light on the significance of such ages. The recognition that some systems can provide cooling, rather than formation, ages, was gradual and diachronous across radioisotopic systems. Most of the heavy lifting in this regard was accomplished by researchers working on the interpretation of K/Ar and fission-track ages. Ironically, Rutherfordπs He-based radioisotopic system was one of the last to be quantitatively interpreted as a thermochronometer, and has been added to K/Ar (including 40Ar/39Ar) and fission-track methods as important for constraining the medium- to low-temperature thermal histories of rocks and minerals. Thermochronology has had a slow and sometimes fitful maturation from what were once troubling age discrepancies and poorly-understood open-system behaviors, into a powerful branch of geochronology applied by Earth scientists from diverse fields. Cooling ages, coupled with quantitative understanding of crystal-scale kinetic phenomena and crustal- or landscape-scale interpretational models now provide an enormous range of insights into tectonics, geomorphology, and subjects of other fields. At the same time, blossoming of lower temperature thermochronometric approaches has inspired new perspectives into the detailed behavior of higher temperature systems that previously may have been primarily used for establishing formation ages. Increased recognition of the importance of thermal histories, combined with improved analytical precision, has motivated progress in understanding the thermochronologic behavior of U/Pb, Sm/Nd, Lu/Hf, and other systems in a wide range of minerals, filling out the temperature range accessible by thermochronologic approaches. Thus the maturation of low- and medium-temperature thermochronology has led to a fuller understanding of the significance of radioisotopic ages in general, and to one degree or another has permeated most of geochronology. Except in rare cases, the goal of thermochronology is not thermal histories themselves, but rather the geologic processes responsible for them. Thermochronometers are now routinely used for quantifying exhumation histories (tectonic or erosional), magmatism, or landscape evolution. As thermochronology has matured, so have model and interpretational approaches used to convert thermal histories into these more useful geologic histories. Low-temperature thermochronology has been especially important in this regard, as knowledge of thermal processes in the uppermost few kilometers of the crust require consideration of coupled interactions of tectonic, geodynamic, and surface processes. Exciting new developments in these fields in turn drive improved thermochronologic methods and innovative sampling approaches. The chapters This volume presents 22 chapters covering many of the important modern aspects of thermochronology. The coverage of the chapters ranges widely, including historical perspective, analytical techniques, kinetics and calibrations, modeling approaches, and interpretational methods. In general, the chapters focus on intermediate- to low-temperature thermochronometry, though some chapters cover higher temperature methods such as monazite U/Pb closure profiles, and the same theory and approaches used in low-temperature thermochronometry are generally applicable to higher temperature systems. The widely used low- to medium-temperature thermochronometric systems are reviewed in detail in these chapters, but while there are numerous chapters reviewing various aspects of the apatite (U-Th)/He system, there is no chapter singularly devoted to it, partly because of several previous reviews recently published on this topic. Chapter 1 by Reiners, Ehlers, and Zeitler provides a perspective on the history of thermochronology, comments on modern work in this field and general lessons on the potential for noise to be turned into signal. This chapter also provides a summary of the current challenges, unresolved issues, and most exciting prospects in the field. Much of the modern understanding of kinetic controls on apparent ages, thermal histories, and sampling approaches comes from decades of progress in fission-track dating, a method that remains as essential as ever, partly because of the power of track-length measurements and the depth of (at least empirical) understanding of the kinetics of track annealing. Tagami, Donelick and OπSullivan review the fundamentals of modern fission-track dating (Chapter 2). Two of the most commonly dated, well-understood, and powerful minerals dated by fission-track methods are apatite and zircon, and the specifics of modern methods for these systems and their kinetics are reviewed by Donelick, OπSullivan, and Ketcham (Chapter 3), and Tagami (Chapter 4). Although 40Ar/39Ar and (U-Th)/He dating methods followed somewhat different paths to their modern thermochronologic incarnations, they have many features in common, especially in the kinetics of diffusion and closure. Zeitler and Harrison review the concepts underlying both 40Ar/39Ar and (U-Th)/He methods (Chapter 5). Zircon was one of the first minerals dated by the (U-Th)/He method, but has only just begun to be used for thermochronometry of both bedrock and detrital samples, as reviewed by Reiners (Chapter 6). Continuous time-temperature paths from intracrystalline variations of radiogenic Ar proven perhaps the most powerful of all thermochronologic approaches, and an innovative analogous approach in He dating (4He/3He thermochronometry) is revealing remarkably powerful constraints on the extreme low temperature end of thermal histories, as reviewed by Shuster and Farley (Chapter 7). Thermochronology of detrital minerals provides unique constraints on the long-term evolution of orogens, sediment provenance, and depositional age constraints, to name a few. Bernet and Garver (Chapter 8) review the essentials of detrital zircon fission-track dating, one of the most venerable and robust of detrital thermochronometers, and in Chapter 9, Hodges, Ruhl, Wobus, and Pringle review the use of 40Ar/39Ar dating of detrital minerals, demonstrating the power of detrital muscovite ages in illuminating variations in exhumation rates in catchments over broad landscapes. (U-Th)/He thermochronometry presents several unique interpretational challenges besides new kinetics and low temperature sensitivity. One of these is long-alpha stopping distances, and its coupling with diffusion and U-Th zonation in age corrections. Dunai reviews modeling approaches to deal with these issues in interpreting low-temperature thermal histories (Chapter 10). Ketcham (Chapter 11) reviews the theory and calibration of both forward and inverse models of thermal histories from fission-track and (U-Th)/He data, and makes some important points about the interpretations of such models. Translating thermal histories into exhumational histories and their tectonic or geomorphic significance across a landscape requires quantitative understanding of the thermal structure of the crust and how it is perturbed, a review of which is presented by Ehlers (Chapter 12). Braun (Chapter 13) illustrates the power of low-temperature thermochronometry to constrain topographic evolution of landscapes over time, using PECUBE. Gallagher, Stephenson, Brown, Holmes, and Ballester present a novel method of inverse modeling of fission-track and (U-Th)/He data for thermal histories over landscapes (Chapter 14). Continuous time-temperature paths from closure profiles or their step-heating-derived equivalents are, to some degree, the holy grail of thermochronology. Harrison, Zeitler, Grove, and Lovera (Chapter 15) provide a review of the theory, measurement, and interpretation of continuous thermal histories at both intermediate and high temperatures, derived from both K-feldspar 40Ar/39Ar and monazite U/Pb dating. Extensional orogens provide a special challenge and opportunity for thermochronometry because tectonic exhumation by footwall unroofing often outstrips erosional exhumation, and often occurs at high rates. As Stockli shows (Chapter 16) thermochronology in these setting provides opportunities to measure rates of a number of important processes, as well as obtain a snapshot of crustal thermal structure and its imprint on thermochronometers with varying closure temperatures. Spotila (Chapter 17) reviews the use of thermochronology applied to tectonic geomorphology in a wide range of orogenic settings, introducing the concept of denudational maturity. Thermochronology has found great utility in economic geology, and newly developed approaches pose great potential in this area, and shown by McInnes, Evans, Fu, and Garwin in their review of the use and modeling of thermochronology of hydrothermal ore deposits (Chapter 18). The thermal histories of sedimentary basins are also critical to understanding thermal maturation of hydrocarbons, but are also critical for understanding basin formation, erosional histories of source regions, fluid flow, and climate change and other temporal signals preserved in sedimentary rocks. Armstrong (Chapter 19) reviews these issues and the use of thermochronology in deducing the thermal histories of sedimentary basins. Drawing on large datasets of bedrock apatite fission-track dates, Kohn, Gleadow, Brown, Gallagher, Lorencak, and Noble demonstrate the power of modeling, and, importantly, effectively visualizing, integrated thermotectonic and denudational histories over large regions (Chapter 20). Thermal histories of meteorites provide constraints on a wide range of fundamentally important processes, including nebular condensation and early solar-system metamorphic histories, and the dynamics of interplanetary collisions and shock metamorphism. Min reviews thermochronologic approaches to understanding meteorite thermal histories (Chapter 21), including new methods and approaches. Finally, the importance of robust models with which to interpret thermochronologic data is underscored by the review of the Software for Interpretation and Analysis of Thermochronologic Data (Chapter 22), summarized and compiled by Ehlers, for programs associated with the work of authors in this volume and others.

Description / Table of Contents: The IUGS/IAGC Global Geochemical Baselines Programme aims to establish a global geochemical reference baseline for 〉60 determinants in a range of media for environmental and other applications. The European contribution to the programme has been carried out by government institutions from 26 countries under the auspices of the Forum of European Geological Surveys (FOREGS) The main objectives of this European survey were: 1) to apply standardised methods of sampling, chemical analysis and data management to prepare a geochemical baseline across Europe; and 2) to use this reference network to level national baseline datasets. Samples of stream water, stream sediment and three types of soil (organic top layer, minerogenic top and sub soil) have been collected at 900 stations, each representing a catchment area of 100 km2, corresponding to a sampling density of about one sample per 4700 km2. In addition, the uppermost 25 cm of floodplain sediment was sampled from 790 sites each representing a catchment area of 1000 km2. All soil and sediment samples were prepared at the same laboratory, and all samples of particular sample types were analysed by the same method at the same laboratory. More than 50 elements, both total and aqua regia extractable concentrations, and other parameters (such as pH and grain size) were determined on the 〈2 mm grain size fraction of minerogenic samples, and total concentrations of organic soil samples were measured after using a strong acid digestion. Nine laboratories of European geological surveys carried out the analytical work. Altogether, 360 geochemical maps showing the distribution of elements across Europe have been prepared. All the results and field observations are organised in a common database and the maps are published as a Geochemical Atlas of Europe. All the sampling sites were photographed and this photo archive is also available. Samples have been archived in the Slovak Republic for possible future use. Initial results show that the distribution patterns of both water and solid samples are related to such factors as large-scale tectonic provinces, geochemical variation of large lithological units, extension of the Weichselian glaciation, and contamination reflecting industrialized areas and regions of intensive agriculture. Key words (GeoRef Thesaurus, AGI): geochemical surveys, baseline studies, soils, sediments, stream water, sampling, sample preparation, chemical analysis, geochemical maps, atlas, areal geology, Europe

Description / Table of Contents: Работа посвящена геологическому и палеонтологическому обоснованию возрастного расчленения палеогеновых и неогеновых отложений востока Сибирской платформы. Обобщен фактический материал, полученный за последние 25 лет по стратиграфии палеоген-неогеновых отложений востока Сибирской платформы. Впервые составлена схема структурно-фациального районирования региона. В 8 районах детально охарактеризовано 25 сводных разрезов (колонок). Выделено 6 региональных горизонтов (5 из них впервые). Для всех стратиграфических подразделений наряду с литологическими и параметрическими данными даются полная палеонтологическая и палеомагнитная характеристики. Проведены региональная и межрегиональная корреляции. Схема рекомендуется в качестве основы для геологической съемки среднего и крупного масштабов, геолого-поисковых и геологоразведочных работ, также разноплановых палеогеографических реконструкций.

Description / Table of Contents: Translation of the abstract: The work is devoted to the geological and paleontological substantiation of the age division of the Paleogene and Neogene deposits of the east of the Siberian Platform. The factual material obtained over the past 25 years from the stratigraphy of Paleogene-Neogene deposits in the east of the Siberian Platform is summarized. For the first time, a scheme of structural-facies zoning of the region was drawn up. In 8 regions, 25 summary sections (columns) were characterized in detail. 6 regional horizons were identified (5 of them for the first time). For all stratigraphic units, along with lithological and parametric data, complete paleontological and paleomagnetic characteristics are given. Conducted regional and interregional correlations. The scheme is recommended as a basis for geological surveys of medium and large scales, geological prospecting and exploration works, as well as diverse paleogeographic reconstructions.

Description / Table of Contents: Es ist von grossem Interesse, den fundamentalen physikalischen Prozess zu isolieren, der die beobachteten Eigenschaften von Seismizitätsmustern erklärt. Wir präsentieren vier numerische Studien, die die Effektivität von Fluiden und der strukturellen Heterogenität von Verwerfungszonen im Hinblick auf die Genese von Erdbebenkomplexität untersuchen. Die dreidimensionalen, kontinuierlichen Modelle werden von der empirischen `rate and state' Beschreibung der Entwicklung des Reibungskoeffizienten bestimmt, und|vom jeweiligen Problem abhängig|von elasto-hydraulischen Wechselwirkungen oder heterogenen Reibungsverhältnissen auf der zweidimensionalen Verwerfungszone. Zu Beginn wird gezeigt, dass für bestimmte Bereiche von hydraulisch relevanten Parametern der Prozess des `dilatant hardening', d. h. Verhärtungen aufgrund der Erweiterung des Porenraumes, ausreicht, um beschleunigende Instabilitäten zu stabilisieren, was zu heterogenen raum-zeitlichen Verschiebungen führt...

Description / Table of Contents: This book integrates spatial and behavioral perspectives - in a word, those of the Rochester and Michigan schools - into a unified theory of voter choice and party strategy. The theory encompasses both policy and non-policy factors, effects of turnout, voter discounting of party promises, expectations of coalition governments, and party motivations based on policy as well as office. Optimal (Nash equilibrium) strategies are determined for alternative models for presidential elections in the US and France, and for parliamentary elections in Britain and Norway. These polities cover a wide range of electoral rules, number of major parties, and governmental structures. The analyses suggest that the more competitive parties generally take policy positions that come close to maximizing their electoral support, and that these vote-maximizing positions correlate strongly with the mean policy positions of their supporters

Description / Table of Contents: The Pollen Flora of Yunnan, China is the first book of the series of pollen morphological studies of tree plants growing in the wild in the Yunnan Province and in the surrounding area of China: Asian Environmental History. The series will present the first detailed work on the pollen flora of China. This book includes electron microscope photographs and light micrographs of 67 species of Gymnosperm, Myricaceae and Juglandaceae and can be used for research on many areas including pollen analysis and plant taxonomy.

Description / Table of Contents: Wissenschaftliche Wahrnehmung von Forschungsinstituten und Wissenschaftlern in aller Welt wird oft anhand ihrer Publikationen gemessen. Dazu werden bibliometrische Indikatoren, etwa die Anzahl der Veröffentlichungen und ihre Zitate, zu Rate gezogen. Mit bibliometrischen Analysen kann der Erfolg von wissenschaftlichen Arbeiten messbar dokumentiert werden. Dies ist ein wichtiger Aspekt gegenüber Entscheidungsträgern und Geldgebern, denn Forschungs- gelder sind knapp und immer lauter wird die Frage, nach welchen Kriterien sie gerecht vergeben werden können. Hier sind bibliometrische Methoden zukünftig stärker gefragt. Bücher zu bibliometrischen Analysen gibt es aber nicht viele. Gut lesbare noch weniger und eigentlich gar keine für Menschen, die nicht Statistiker oder Bibliometriker sind. Alle, die sich mit dieser Art der wissenschaftlichen Bewertung auseinandersetzen möchten oder müssen, vermissen eine knappe und gut lesbare Übersicht über Methoden, Anwendungen aber auch Grenzen bibliometrischer Analysen. Diesen Missstand behebt das vorliegende Buch.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: 1 Background and objectives ; 2 Theory ; 3 Innovation and entrepreneurship monitors ; 4 Method ; 5 Frame conditions for innovations in forestry in Central Europe ; 6 Forest-owners and forest managers as innovators ; 7 Forest-owners and forest managers as entrepreneurs: start-ups in forestry ; 8 Entrepreneurial orientation and future expectations ; 9 Institutional system of innovation ; 10 Innovation systems and processes: lessons from selected cases ; 11 Conclusions and recommendations

Description / Table of Contents: An account of the results of the 2 March 1987 earthquake in the eastern Bay of Plenty and the aftermath's effects on the people and places on the Rangitaiki Plains

Description / Table of Contents: 〉〉Planung〈〈 war einst ein Schlüsselwort, das die rationale Gestaltung von Raum und Gesellschaft verhieß. Später geriet das Wort in das Assoziationsumfeld von Bevormundung, Bürokratie und Ineffizienz. Heute sieht man - was die 〉〉Planung〈〈 für Städte und Regionen betrifft - klarer: Räumliche Entwicklung resultiert aus dem Handeln vieler.

Description / Table of Contents: In an increasingly globalized world, an understanding of the role of international trade is central to the study of agricultural economics and agribusiness. This text interweaves these two elements, explaining the theories and practices relevant to agricultural trade. Using real-life examples to explain theories and models, the text prepares readers to critically examine agricultural trade issues. In addition to its comprehensive coverage, each chapter features chapter overviews and summaries, key concepts, questions for review, and suggested readings.Explains the theories and practices releva

Description / Table of Contents: Die Küstenzone ist als System zu betrachten, in dem natürliche Prozesse in Wechselwirkung mit gesellschaftlichen, wirtschaftlichen und kulturellen Entwicklungen stehen. Küsten sind mehr als andere Regionen vom globalen Wandel betroffen. Das reicht vom Klimawandel bis zur Bevölkerungsverdichtung. Ozeane bedecken 72% der Erdoberfläche, an Küsten sind 50% der Weltbevölkerung zu Hause. Unter den Nationen der Erde befinden sich 43 kleine Inselstaaten, die in vielen Fällen vom steigenden Meeresspiegel in ihrer Existenz bedroht sind. Aus diesem Grund ist das Integrierte Küstenzonenmanagement (IKZM) als Politikfeld und als Forschungsbereich entstanden. Hier werden widerstreitende Ansprüche an Raum und Ressourcen, somit Konflikte, thematisiert. Lösungen zur nachhaltigen, zukunftsfähigen Gestaltung erfordern zivilgesellschaftliches Engagement zur Eindämmung partikularer Nutzerinteressen. Und sie erfordern die aktive Beteiligung der betroffenen Bevölkerung und der Nutznießer. Der Band präsentiert einerseits internationale Erfahrung hierzu, andererseits kommen lokale Akteure zu Wort. Ziel ist die Vorbereitung einer deutschen Strategie für Nord- und Ostsee im Rahmen der EU-Erfordernisse.

Description / Table of Contents: Winner of the 2006 Giovanni Sartori Book Award, given by the American Political Science Association's Qualitative Methods Section. The use of case studies to build and test theories in political science and the other social sciences has increased in recent years. Many scholars have argued that the social sciences rely too heavily on quantitative research and formal models and thus have attempted to develop and refine rigorous methods for using case studies. This text presents a comprehensive analysis of research methods using case studies and examines the place of case studies in social science methodology. It argues that case studies, statistical methods, and formal models are complementary rather than competitive. The book explains how to design case study research that will produce results useful to policymakers and it emphasizes the importance of developing policy-relevant theories. It offers three major contributions to case study methodology: an emphasis on the importance of within-case analysis, a detailed discussion of process tracing, and development of the concept of typological theories. Case Studies and Theory Development in the Social Sciences will be particularly useful to graduate students and scholars in social science methodology and the philosophy of science, as well as to those designing new research projects, and will contribute greatly to the broader debate about scientific methods.

Description / Table of Contents: The monograph outlines the history of establishing the drifting stations in the Arctic Basin beginning from 1937, sets forth the main aims and goals of the observations made, and describes methods of arranging drifting stations, gear and equipment for life support and scientific observations at the "North Pole" drifting stations and in high-latitudinal airborne expeditions. The main scientific results of the analysis of meteorological, ice, oceanographic and geophysical observations in the central Arctic Basin are presented. The contribution of data collected at the drifting stations to the process of gaining knowledge about the nature of the Arctic Basin and the perspectives of using drifting stations in the future, in particular during the International Polar Year 2007-2008 are being discussed. The book contains an extensive illustrative, cartographic and tabular material, which can be used by a wide circle of specialists investigating the nature of the Arctic region.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Vorbereitung geophysikalischer Messungen. - Magnetik.- Gravimetrie. - Geoelektrik. - Elektromagnetik. - Bodenradar. - Seismik. - Geothermik.- Radiometrie. - Aerogeophysik.- Bohrlochgeophysik. - Geophysikalische Penetrationssondierungen. - Milieusondenmessungen. - Petrophysik. - In-situ-Überwachung.

Description / Table of Contents: Contents: Simple calculations with MATLAB.- Writing scripts and functions.- Loopsand conditional statements.- Root finding.- Interpolation and extrapolation.- Matrices.- Numerical integration.- Solving differential equations.- Simulations and random numbers.- Appendices.- A mathematical introduction to matrices.- Glossary of useful terms.-Solutions to tasks.

Description / Table of Contents: Six contributions from researchers discuss current geochemical approaches to reconstructing climate in both marine and terrestrial settings during the Cenozoic era. Included are descriptions of a number of theoretical and practical frameworks for analyzing and interpreting isotopic and elemental signals across a range of substrates.

Description / Table of Contents: Currently, a first generation of dedicated satellite missions for the precise mapping of the Earth's gravity field is in orbit (CHAMP, GRACE, and soon GOCE). The gravity data from these satellite missions provide us with very new information on the dynamics of planet Earth. In particular, on the mass distribution in the Earths interior, the entire water cycle (ocean circulation, ice mass balance, continental water masses, and atmosphere), and on changes in the mass distribution.The results are fascinating, but still rough with respect to spatial and temporal resolution. Technical progress in satellite-to-satellite tracking and in gravity gradiometry will allow more detailed results in the future. In this special issue, Earth scientists develop visions of future applications based on follow-on high-precision satellite gravimetry missions.