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  • Articles  (7,977)
  • Wiley  (7,755)
  • Annual Reviews
  • 2000-2004  (7,977)
  • 1985-1989
  • 1980-1984
  • 2002  (7,977)
  • Chemistry and Pharmacology  (4,627)
  • Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition  (2,035)
  • Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying  (1,315)
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  • Articles  (7,977)
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  • 2000-2004  (7,977)
  • 1985-1989
  • 1980-1984
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Journal
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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    ATP-DEPENDENT NUCLEOSOME REMODELING (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 247-273 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract It has been a long-standing challenge to decipher the principles that enable cells to both organize their genomes into compact chromatin and ensure that the genetic information remains accessible to regulatory factors and enzymes within the confines of the nucleus. The discovery of nucleosome remodeling activities that utilize the energy of ATP to render nucleosomal DNA accessible has been a great leap forward. In vitro, these enzymes weaken the tight wrapping of DNA around the histone octamers, thereby facilitating the sliding of histone octamers to neighboring DNA segments, their displacement to unlinked DNA, and the accumulation of patches of accessible DNA on the surface of nucleosomes. It is presumed that the collective action of these enzymes endows chromatin with dynamic properties that govern all nuclear functions dealing with chromatin as a substrate. The diverse set of ATPases that qualify as the molecular motors of the nucleosome remodeling process have a common history and are part of a superfamily. The physiological context of their remodeling action builds on the association with a wide range of other proteins to form distinct complexes for nucleosome remodeling. This review summarizes the recent progress in our understanding of the mechanisms underlying the nucleosome remodeling reaction, the targeting of remodeling machines to selected sites in chromatin, and their integration into complex regulatory schemes.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135400
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    EUKARYOTIC RIBONUCLEASE P: A Plurality of Ribonucleoprotein Enzymes (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 165-189 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Ribonuclease P (RNase P) is an essential endonuclease that acts early in the tRNA biogenesis pathway. This enzyme catalyzes cleavage of the leader sequence of precursor tRNAs (pre-tRNAs), generating the mature 5' end of tRNAs. RNase P activities have been identified in Bacteria, Archaea, and Eucarya, as well as organelles. Most forms of RNase P are ribonucleoproteins, i.e., they consist of an essential RNA subunit and protein subunits, although the composition of the enzyme in mitochondria and chloroplasts is still under debate. The recent purification of the eukaryotic nuclear RNase P has demonstrated a significantly larger protein content compared to the bacterial enzyme. Moreover, emerging evidence suggests that the eukaryotic RNase P has evolved into at least two related nuclear enzymes with distinct functions, RNase P and RNase MRP. Here we review current information on RNase P, with emphasis on the composition, structure, and functions of the eukaryotic nuclear holoenzyme, and its relationship with RNase MRP.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135352
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    DNA REPLICATION IN EUKARYOTIC CELLS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 333-374 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The maintenance of the eukaryotic genome requires precisely coordinated replication of the entire genome each time a cell divides. To achieve this coordination, eukaryotic cells use an ordered series of steps to form several key protein assemblies at origins of replication. Recent studies have identified many of the protein components of these complexes and the time during the cell cycle they assemble at the origin. Interestingly, despite distinct differences in origin structure, the identity and order of assembly of eukaryotic replication factors is highly conserved across all species. This review describes our current understanding of these events and how they are coordinated with cell cycle progression. We focus on bringing together the results from different organisms to provide a coherent model of the events of initiation. We emphasize recent progress in determining the function of the different replication factors once they have been assembled at the origin.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135425
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    METABOLISM AND THE CONTROL OF CIRCADIAN RHYTHMS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 307-331 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The core apparatus that regulates circadian rhythm has been extensively studied over the past five years. A looming question remains, however, regarding how this apparatus is adjusted to maintain coordination between physiology and the changing environment. The diversity of stimuli and input pathways that gain access to the circadian clock are summarized. Cellular metabolic states could serve to link physiologic perception of the environment to the circadian oscillatory apparatus. A simple model, integrating biochemical, cellular, and physiologic data, is presented to account for the connection of cellular metabolism and circadian rhythm.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.090501.142857
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    THE LA PROTEIN (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 375-403 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Ubiquitous in eukaryotic cells, the La protein associates with the 3' termini of many newly synthesized small RNAs. RNAs bound by the La protein include all nascent transcripts made by RNA polymerase III as well as certain small RNAs synthesized by other RNA polymerases. Recent genetic and biochemical analyses have revealed that binding by the La protein protects the 3' ends of these RNAs from exonucleases. This La-mediated stabilization is required for the normal pathway of pre-tRNA maturation, facilitates assembly of small RNAs into functional RNA-protein complexes, and contributes to nuclear retention of certain small RNAs. Studies of mutant La proteins have given some insights into how the La protein specifically recognizes its RNA targets. However, many questions remain regarding the molecular mechanisms by which La protein binding influences multiple steps in small RNA biogenesis. This review focuses on the roles of the La protein in small RNA biogenesis and also discusses data that implicate the La protein in the translation of specific mRNAs.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.090501.150003
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    MAMMALIAN ABC TRANSPORTERS IN HEALTH AND DISEASE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 537-592 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters are a family of large proteins in membranes and are able to transport a variety of compounds through membranes against steep concentration gradients at the cost of ATP hydrolysis. The available outline of the human genome contains 48 ABC genes; 16 of these have a known function and 14 are associated with a defined human disease. Major physiological functions of ABC transporters include the transport of lipids, bile salts, toxic compounds, and peptides for antigen presentation or other purposes. We review the functions of mammalian ABC transporters, emphasizing biochemical mechanisms and genetic defects. Our overview illustrates the importance of ABC transporters in human physiology, toxicology, pharmacology, and disease. We focus on three topics: (a) ABC transporters transporting drugs (xenotoxins) and drug conjugates. (b) Mammalian secretory epithelia using ABC transporters to excrete a large number of substances, sometimes against a steep concentration gradient. Several inborn errors in liver metabolism are due to mutations in one of the genes for these pumps; these are discussed. (c) A rapidly increasing number of ABC transporters are found to play a role in lipid transport. Defects in each of these transporters are involved in human inborn or acquired diseases.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.102301.093055
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
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    NUCLEAR ACTIN AND ACTIN-RELATED PROTEINS IN CHROMATIN REMODELING (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 755-781 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The existence and function of actin in the nucleus has been hotly debated for forty years. Recently, beta-actin was found to be a component of mammalian SWI/SNF-like BAF chromatin remodeling complexes and still more recently other SWI/SNF-related chromatin remodeling complexes in yeast, flies, and man. Although the function of actin in these chromatin remodeling complexes is only starting to be explored, the fact that actin is one of the most regulated proteins in the cell suggests that control of nuclear actin may be a critical regulatory point in the control of chromatin remodeling. Actin rapidly shuttles between the nucleus and the cytoplasm offering additional sites and modes of regulation. In addition, actin-related proteins (Arps) are also components of these chromatin remodeling complexes and have been implicated in transcriptional control in yeast. The observation that the BAF chromatin remodeling complex in which actin was originally identified, is also a human tumor suppressor complex necessary for the actions of the retinoblastoma protein indicates that the study of nuclear actin is likely to contribute to understanding cell growth control.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135507
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
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    CATALYTIC PROFICIENCY: The Unusual Case of OMP Decarboxylase (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 847-885 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Enzymes are called upon to differ greatly in the difficulty of the tasks that they perform. The catalytic proficiency of an enzyme can be evaluated by comparing the second-order rate constant (kcat/Km) with the rate of the spontaneous reaction in neutral solution in the absence of a catalyst. The proficiencies of enzymes, measured in this way, are matched by their affinity constants for the altered substrate in the transition state. These values vary from approximately ~109 M-1 for carbonic anhydrase to ~1023 M-1 for yeast orotidine 5'-phosphate decarboxylase (ODCase). ODCase turns its substrate over with a half-time of 18 ms, in a reaction that proceeds in its absence with a half-time of 78 million years in neutral solution. ODCase differs from other decarboxylases in that its catalytic activity does not depend on the presence of metals or other cofactors, or on the formation of a covalent bond to the substrate. Several mechanisms of transition state stabilization are considered in terms of ODCase crystal structures observed in the presence and absence of bound analogs of the substrate, transition state, and product. Very large connectivity effects are indicated by the results of experiments testing how transition state stabilization is affected by the truncation of binding determinants of the substrate and the active site.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135446
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
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    THE BACTERIAL RECA PROTEIN AND THE RECOMBINATIONAL DNA REPAIR OF STALLED REPLICATION FORKS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 71-100 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The primary function of bacterial recombination systems is the nonmutagenic repair of stalled or collapsed replication forks. The RecA protein plays a central role in these repair pathways, and its biochemistry must be considered in this context. RecA protein promotes DNA strand exchange, a reaction that contributes to fork regression and DNA end invasion steps. RecA protein activities, especially formation and disassembly of its filaments, affect many additional steps. So far, Escherichia coli RecA appears to be unique among its nearly ubiquitous family of homologous proteins in that it possesses a motorlike activity that can couple the branch movement in DNA strand exchange to ATP hydrolysis. RecA is also a multifunctional protein, serving in different biochemical roles for recombinational processes, SOS induction, and mutagenic lesion bypass. New biochemical and structural information highlights both the similarities and distinctions between RecA and its homologs. Increasingly, those differences can be rationalized in terms of biological function.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.083101.133940
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    ACTIVE SITE TIGHTNESS AND SUBSTRATE FIT IN DNA REPLICATION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 191-219 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Various physicochemical factors influence DNA replication fidelity. Since it is now known that Watson-Crick hydrogen bonds are not necessary for efficient and selective replication of a base pair by DNA polymerase enzymes, a number of alternative physical factors have been examined to explain the efficiency of these enzymes. Among these factors are minor groove hydrogen bonding, base stacking, solvation, and steric effects. We discuss the concept of active site tightness in DNA polymerases, and consider how it might influence steric (size and shape) effects of nucleotide selection in synthesis of a base pair. A high level of active site tightness is expected to lead to higher fidelity relative to proteins with looser active sites. We review the current data on what parts and dimensions of active sites are most affected by size and shape, based on data with modified nucleotides that have been examined as polymerase substrates. We also discuss recent data on nucleotide analogs displaying higher fidelity than the natural ones. The published data are discussed with a view toward testing this sterically based hypothesis and unifying existing observations into a narrowly defined range of effects.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135453
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  • 11
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    DISCOVERIES OF VITAMIN B12 AND SELENIUM ENZYMES* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 1-16 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: My undergraduate education at Cornell University was followed by graduate studies on methane fermentations under the guidance of H.A. Barker at the University of California, Berkeley. My Ph.D. degree was granted in June 1949. Two anaerobic microorganisms isolated from the mud flats of San Francisco Bay served as sources of biochemical research material for later studies at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda. These organisms, Methanococcus vannielii and Clostridium sticklandii, proved to be especially rich sources of selenium-dependent enzymes and seleno-tRNAs. New B12 coenzyme-dependent enzymes that catalyzed intermediate steps in the anaerobic conversion of lysine to fatty acids and ammonia were isolated from C. sticklandii and characterized. My research efforts since 1970 have dealt primarily with various aspects of selenium biochemistry. We have shown that selenium is an essential constituent of several enzymes in prokaryotes. Se is present in these either as a selenocysteine residue in the protein or alternatively, in a few molybdoenzymes, as a component of a bound cofactor. Recent studies with a human adenocarcinoma cell line led to the unexpected discovery that selenocysteine occurs in mammalian thioredoxin reductase. The selenium located in a redox center of this enzyme is essential for catalytic activity.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.083101.134224
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
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    ORDER OUT OF CHAOS: Assembly of Ligand Binding Sites in Heparan Sulfate1 (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 435-471 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Virtually every cell type in metazoan organisms produces heparan sulfate. These complex polysaccharides provide docking sites for numerous protein ligands and receptors involved in diverse biological processes, including growth control, signal transduction, cell adhesion, hemostasis, and lipid metabolism. The binding sites consist of relatively small tracts of variably sulfated glucosamine and uronic acid residues in specific arrangements. Their formation occurs in a tissue-specific fashion, generated by the action of a large family of enzymes involved in nucleotide sugar metabolism, polymer formation (glycosyltransferases), and chain processing (sulfotransferases and an epimerase). New insights into the specificity and organization of the biosynthetic apparatus have emerged from genetic studies of cultured cells, nematodes, fruit flies, zebrafish, rodents, and humans. This review covers recent developments in the field and provides a resource for investigators interested in the incredible diversity and specificity of this process.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135458
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  • 13
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    BIOCHEMISTRY OF NA,K-ATPASE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 511-535 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The Na,K-ATPase or sodium pump carries out the coupled extrusion and uptake of Na and K ions across the plasma membranes of cells of most higher eukaryotes. It is a member of the P-type ATPase superfamily. This heterodimeric integral membrane protein is composed of a 100-kDa alpha-subunit with ten transmembrane segments and a heavily glycosylated beta subunit of about 55 kDa, which is a type II membrane protein. Current ideas on how the protein achieves active transport are based on a fusion of results of transport physiology, protein chemistry, and heterologous expression of mutant proteins. Recently acquired high resolution structural information provides an important new avenue for a more complete understanding of this protein. In this review, the current status of knowledge of Na,K-ATPase is discussed, and areas where there is still considerable uncertainty are highlighted.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.102201.141218
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  • 14
    Electronic Resource
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    LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE ENDOTOXINS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 635-700 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Bacterial lipopolysaccharides (LPS) typically consist of a hydrophobic domain known as lipid A (or endotoxin), a nonrepeating "core" oligosaccharide, and a distal polysaccharide (or O-antigen). Recent genomic data have facilitated study of LPS assembly in diverse Gram-negative bacteria, many of which are human or plant pathogens, and have established the importance of lateral gene transfer in generating structural diversity of O-antigens. Many enzymes of lipid A biosynthesis like LpxC have been validated as targets for development of new antibiotics. Key genes for lipid A biosynthesis have unexpectedly also been found in higher plants, indicating that eukaryotic lipid A-like molecules may exist. Most significant has been the identification of the plasma membrane protein TLR4 as the lipid A signaling receptor of animal cells. TLR4 belongs to a family of innate immunity receptors that possess a large extracellular domain of leucine-rich repeats, a single trans-membrane segment, and a smaller cytoplasmic signaling region that engages the adaptor protein MyD88. The expanding knowledge of TLR4 specificity and its downstream signaling pathways should provide new opportunities for blocking inflammation associated with infection.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135414
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  • 15
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    TRANSITION PATH SAMPLING: Throwing Ropes Over Rough Mountain Passes, in the Dark (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 291-318 
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    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract This article reviews the concepts and methods of transition path sampling. These methods allow computational studies of rare events without requiring prior knowledge of mechanisms, reaction coordinates, and transition states. Based upon a statistical mechanics of trajectory space, they provide a perspective with which time dependent phenomena, even for systems driven far from equilibrium, can be examined with the same types of importance sampling tools that in the past have been applied so successfully to static equilibrium properties.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.53.082301.113146
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  • 16
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    CONNECTING LOCAL STRUCTURE TO INTERFACE FORMATION: A Molecular Scale van der Waals Theory of Nonuniform Liquids (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 533-562 
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    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract This article reviews a new and general theory of nonuniform fluids that naturally incorporates molecular scale information into the classical van der Waals theory of slowly varying interfaces. The method optimally combines two standard approximations, molecular (mean) field theory to describe interface formation and linear response (or Gaussian fluctuation) theory to describe local structure. Accurate results have been found in many different applications in nonuniform simple fluids and these ideas may have important implications for the theory of hydrophobic interactions in water.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.53.100201.133929
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  • 17
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    ONE FOOT IN THE FURROW: Implications to One's Career in Plant Pathology (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 1-11 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Most of us want to be successful in what we do-either financially or programmatically. For me, being a good, well-respected plant pathologist is what motivated me throughout my professional career. After being trained as a plant pathologist at the University of California-Davis, an institution that prides itself in solving problems, I spent the majority of my career in population-sparse Montana-"the last best place." And best place it has been for me as I became involved in researching a number of plant disease problems and solving a few. J.C. Walker's philosophy of keeping "one foot in the furrow" has stood by me, and I encourage young plant pathologists to adopt it as well to ensure a productive and satisfying life in agricultural science.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.012202.130819
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  • 18
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    MAKING AN ALLY FROM AN ENEMY: Plant Virology and the New Agriculture (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 45-74 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Historically, the study of plant viruses has contributed greatly to the elucidation of eukaryotic biology. Recently, concurrent with the development of viruses into expression vectors, the biotechnology industry has developed an increasing number of disease therapies utilizing recombinant proteins. Plant virus vectors are viewed as a viable option for recombinant protein production. Employing pathogens in the process of creating added value to agriculture is, in effect, making an ally from an enemy. This review discusses the development and use of viruses as expression vectors, with special emphasis on (+) strand RNA virus systems. Further, the use of virus expression vectors in large-scale agricultural settings to produce recombinant proteins is described, and the technical challenges that need to be addressed by agriculturists and molecular virologists to fully realize the potential of this latest evolution of plant science are outlined.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.021102.150133
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  • 19
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    GENE EXPRESSION IN NEMATODE FEEDING SITES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 191-219 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The feeding sites induced by sedentary root-endoparasitic nematodes have long fascinated researchers. Nematode feeding sites are constructed from plant cells, modified by the nematode to feed itself. Powerful new techniques are allowing us to begin to elucidate the molecular mechanisms that produce the ultrastructural features in nematode feeding cells. Many plant genes that are expressed in feeding sites produced by different nematodes have been identified in several plant species. Nematode-responsive plant genes can now be grouped in categories related to plant developmental pathways and their roles in the making of a feeding site can be illuminated. The black box of how nematodes bring about such elaborate cell differentiation in the plant is also starting to open. Although the information is far from complete, the groundwork is set so that the functions of the plant and nematode genes in feeding site development can begin to be assessed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.121201.093719
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  • 20
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    HOST-SELECTIVE TOXINS AND AVIRULENCE DETERMINANTS: What's in a Name?* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 251-285 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Host-selective toxins, a group of structurally complex and chemically diverse metabolites produced by plant pathogenic strains of certain fungal species, function as essential determinants of pathogenicity or virulence. Investigations into the molecular and biochemical responses to these disease determinants reveal responses typically associated with host defense and incompatibility induced by avirulence determinants. The characteristic responses that unify these disparate disease phenotypes are numerous, yet the evidence implicating a causal relationship of these responses, whether induced by host-selective toxins or avirulence factors, in determining the consequences of the host-pathogen interaction is equivocal. This review summarizes some examples of the action of host-selective toxins to illustrate the similarity in responses with those to avirulence determinants.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.011402.114210
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  • 21
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    ANTIBIOTIC USE IN PLANT AGRICULTURE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 443-465 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Antibiotics have been used since the 1950s to control certain bacterial diseases of high-value fruit, vegetable, and ornamental plants. Today, the antibiotics most commonly used on plants are oxytetracycline and streptomycin. In the USA, antibiotics applied to plants account for less than 0.5% of total antibiotic use. Resistance of plant pathogens to oxytetracycline is rare, but the emergence of streptomycin-resistant strains of Erwinia amylovora, Pseudomonas spp., and Xanthomonas campestris has impeded the control of several important diseases. A fraction of streptomycin-resistance genes in plant-associated bacteria are similar to those found in bacteria isolated from humans, animals, and soil, and are associated with transfer-proficient elements. However, the most common vehicles of streptomycin-resistance genes in human and plant pathogens are genetically distinct. Nonetheless, the role of antibiotic use on plants in the antibiotic-resistance crisis in human medicine is the subject of debate.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.120301.093927
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    USE OF MULTILINE CULTIVARS AND CULTIVAR MIXTURES FOR DISEASE MANAGEMENT (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 381-410 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The usefulness of mixtures (multiline cultivars and cultivar mixtures) for disease management has been well demonstrated for rusts and powdery mildews of small grain crops. Such mixtures are more useful under some epidemiological conditions than under others, and experimental methodology, especially problems of scale, may be crucial in evaluating the potential efficacy of mixtures on disease. There are now examples of mixtures providing both low and high degrees of disease control for a wide range of pathosystems, including crops with large plants, and pathogens that demonstrate low host specificity, or are splash dispersed, soilborne, or insect vectored. Though most analyses of pathogen evolution in mixtures consider static costs of virulence to be the main mechanism countering selection for pathogen complexity, many other potential mechanisms need to be investigated. Agronomic and marketing considerations must be carefully evaluated when implementing mixture approaches to crop management. Practical difficulties associated with mixtures have often been overestimated, however, and mixtures will likely play an increasingly important role as we develop more sustainable agricultural systems.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.011402.113723
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    REGULATION OF NITRIC OXIDE SYNTHESIS BY DIETARY FACTORS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 61-86 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Nitric oxide (NO) is synthesized from L-arginine by NO synthase (NOS). As an endothelium-derived relaxing factor, a mediator of immune responses, a neurotransmitter, a cytotoxic free radical, and a signaling molecule, NO plays crucial roles in virtually every cellular and organ function in the body. The discovery of NO synthesis has unified traditionally diverse research areas in nutrition, physiology, immunology, pathology, and neuroscience. Increasing evidence over the past decade shows that many dietary factors, including protein, amino acids, glucose, fructose, cholesterol, fatty acids, vitamins, minerals, phytoestrogens, ethanol, and polyphenols, are either beneficial to health or contribute to the pathogenesis of chronic diseases partially through modulation of NO production by inducible NOS or constitutive NOS. Although most published studies have focused on only a single nutrient and have generated new and exciting knowledge, future studies are necessary to investigate the interactions of dietary factors on NO synthesis and to define the underlying molecular mechanisms.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.110901.145329
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    REGULATION OF ENZYMES OF THE UREA CYCLE AND ARGININE METABOLISM (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 87-105 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract The urea cycle is comprised of five enzymes but also requires other enzymes and mitochondrial amino acid transporters to function fully. The complete urea cycle is expressed in liver and to a small degree also in enterocytes. However, highly regulated expression of several enzymes present in the urea cycle occurs also in many other tissues, where these enzymes are involved in synthesis of nitric oxide, polyamines, proline and glutamate. Glucagon, insulin, and glucocorticoids are major regulators of the expression of urea cycle enzymes in liver. In contrast, the "urea cycle" enzymes in nonhepatic cells are regulated by a wide range of pro- and antiinflammatory cytokines and other agents. Regulation of these enzymes is largely transcriptional in virtually all cell types. This review emphasizes recent information regarding roles and regulation of urea cycle and arginine metabolic enzymes in liver and other cell types.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.110801.140547
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    MALNUTRITION AND POVERTY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 241-253 
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    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract This paper is an attempt to discuss the problem of malnutrition within the framework of the global need for development and the challenges posed by the trends of neoliberalism and globalization. We argue that there is a two-way link between poverty and health in which nutrition plays an important role both as an active and as a mediating factor. Key concepts are exposed and expanded: (a) Development per se does not ensure better health; (b) unequal distribution of income has an independent effect on health indicators after adjusting for total income; (c) improving health can make an important contribution to reducing poverty; (d ) improving nutrition throughout the whole life course is an indispensable strategy for better health; (e) obesity has to be included amongst the most critical health problems, has different traits, and presents with different challenges in the developing world and in the industrialized countries.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.120701.141104
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    HOW HOST-MICROBIAL INTERACTIONS SHAPE THE NUTRIENT ENVIRONMENT OF THE MAMMALIAN INTESTINE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 283-307 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Humans and other mammals are colonized by a vast, complex, and dynamic consortium of microorganisms. One evolutionary driving force for maintaining this metabolically active microbial society is to salvage energy from nutrients, particularly carbohydrates, that are otherwise nondigestible by the host. Much of our understanding of the molecular mechanisms by which members of the intestinal microbiota degrade complex polysaccharides comes from studies of Bacteroides thetaiotaomicron, a prominent and genetically manipulatable component of the normal human and mouse gut. Colonization of germ-free mice with B. thetaiotaomicron has shown how this anaerobe modifies many aspects of intestinal cellular differentiation/gene expression to benefit both host and microbe. These and other studies underscore the importance of understanding precisely how nutrient metabolism serves to establish and sustain symbiotic relationships between mammals and their bacterial partners.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.011602.092259
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    SARCOPENIA, WEIGHT LOSS, AND NUTRITIONAL FRAILTY IN THE ELDERLY* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 309-323 
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    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract The progression of the aging process leads to a decreased margin of homeostatic reserve and a reduced ability to accommodate metabolic challenges, including nutritional stress. Nutritional frailty refers to the disability that occurs in old age owing to rapid, unintentional loss of body weight and loss of lean body mass (sarcopenia). Sarcopenia, a loss of muscle mass and strength, contributes to functional impairment. Weight loss is commonly due to a reduction in food intake; its possible etiology includes a host of physiological and nonphysiological causes. The release of cytokines during chronic disease may also be an important determinant of frailty. In addition to being anorectic, cytokines also contribute to lipolysis, muscle protein breakdown, and nitrogen loss. Whereas the multiple causes of nutritional frailty are not completely understood, clinical interventions for weight loss, sarcopenia, and cytokine alterations have been used with modest success.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.010402.102715
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    THE ROLE OF VITAMIN A IN MAMMALIAN REPRODUCTION AND EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 347-381 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Since the late 1980s, there has been an explosion of information on the molecular mechanisms and functions of vitamin A. This review focuses on the essential role of vitamin A in female reproduction and embryonic development and the metabolism of vitamin A (retinol) that results in these functions. Evidence strongly supports that in situ-generated all-trans retinoic acid (atRA) is the functional form of vitamin A in female reproduction and embryonic development. This is supported by the ability to reverse most reproductive and developmental blocks found in vitamin A deficiency with atRA, the block in embryonic development that occurs in retinaldehyde dehydrogenase type 2 null mutant mice, and the essential roles of the retinoic acid receptors, at least in embryogenesis. Early studies of embryos from marginally vitamin A-deficient (VAD) pregnant rats revealed a collection of defects called the vitamin A-deficiency syndrome. The manipulation of all-trans retinoic acid (atRA) levels in the diet of VAD female rats undergoing a reproduction cycle has proved to be an important new tool in deciphering the points of atRA function in early embryos and has provided a means to generate large numbers of embryos at later stages of development with the vitamin A-deficiency syndrome. The essentiality of the retinoid receptors in mediating the activity of atRA is exemplified by the many compound null mutant embryos that now recapitulate both the original vitamin A-deficiency syndrome and exhibit a host of new defects, many of which can also be observed in the VAD-atRA-supported rat embryo model and in retinaldehyde dehydrogenase type 2 (RALDH2) mutant mice. A major task for the future is to elucidate the atRA-dependent pathways that are normally operational in vitamin A-sufficient animals and that are perturbed in deficiency, thus leading to the characteristic VAD phenotypes described above.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.010402.102745E
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    PHYTOSTEROLS IN HUMAN NUTRITION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 533-549 
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    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Phytosterols are cholesterol-like molecules found in all plant foods, with the highest concentrations occurring in vegetable oils. They are absorbed only in trace amounts but inhibit the absorption of intestinal cholesterol including recirculating endogenous biliary cholesterol, a key step in cholesterol elimination. Natural dietary intake varies from about 167-437 mg/day. Attempts to measure biological effects in feeding studies have been impeded by limited solubility in both water and fat. Esterification of phytosterols with long-chain fatty acids increases fat solubility by 10-fold and allows delivery of several grams daily in fatty foods such as margarine. A dose of 2 g/day as the ester reduces low density lipoprotein cholesterol by 10%, and little difference is observed between Delta5-sterols and 5alpha-reduced sterols (stanols). Phytosterols can also be dispersed in water after emulsification with lecithin and reduce cholesterol absorption when added to nonfat foods. In contrast to these supplementation studies, much less is known about the effect of low phytosterol levels in the natural diet. However, reduction of cholesterol absorption can be measured at a dose of only 150 mg during otherwise sterol-free test meals, suggesting that natural food phytosterols may be clinically important. Current literature suggests that phytosterols are safe when added to the diet, and measured absorption and plasma levels are very small. Increasing the aggregate amount of phytosterols consumed in a variety of foods may be an important way of reducing population cholesterol levels and preventing coronary heart disease.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.020702.075220
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    HYDROXYLASE ENZYMES OF THE VITAMIN D PATHWAY: Expression, Function, and Regulation (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 139-166 
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    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Vitamin D is a secosteroid that is metabolically activated and degraded through the actions of three cytochrome P450 hydroxylase enzymes. Bioactivation occurs through the sequential actions of cytochromes P450C25 and P450C1, resulting in synthesis of the pleiotropic hormone 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D (1,25VD), which regulates over 60 genes whose actions include those associated with calcium homeostasis and immune responses as well as cellular growth, differentiation, and apoptosis. Inactivation of 1,25VD occurs by C23/C24 oxidation pathways that are catalyzed by the multifunctional cytochrome P450C24 enzyme. Both P450C1 and P450C24 are highly regulated enzymes whose differential expression is controlled in response to numerous cellular modulatory agents such as parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitonin, interferon gamma, calcium, phosphorus, and pituitary hormones as well as the secosteroid hormone 1,25VD. Most thoroughly studied at the molecular level are the actions of PTH to upregulate P450C1 gene expression and 1,25VD to induce the expression of P450C24. The regulatory action of PTH is mediated through the protein kinase A pathway and involves the phosphorylation of transcription factors that function at the proximal promoter of the P450C1 gene. The upregulation of P450C24 by 1,25VD has both a rapid nongenomic and a slower genomic component that are functionally linked. The rapid response involves protein kinase C and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways that direct the phosphorylation of nuclear transcription factors. The slower genomic actions are linked to the binding of 1,25VD to the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and the interaction of the VDR-1,25VD complex with its heterodimer partner retinoid-X-receptor and associated coactivators. The regulatory complex is assembled on vitamin D response elements in the proximal promoter of the P450C24 gene and functions to increase the transcription rate.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.120501.150216
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    BIOTIN IN METABOLISM AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 221-239 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Biotin is a water-soluble vitamin required by all organisms by virtue of its essential role in carboxylation reactions. Although the metabolism and role of biotin in intermediary metabolism are well established, biotin remains one of the most poorly understood water-soluble vitamins in terms of nutritional requirements and responsiveness to physiological and pharmacological states. Significant advances in the understanding of biotin nutriture have been recently accomplished through the description of the kinetics and regulation of biotin transport and improved methods for biotin status assessment. Additionally, the potential role of biotin in the regulation of gene expression has been strengthened through description of altered gene expression during biotin deficiency and through newly described enzymatic activities of the enzyme biotinidase. Given mounting evidence of suboptimum biotin status, a more complete understanding of these aspects of biotin should lead to a greater appreciation of the ways in which biotin aids in the maintenance of health.
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    FATTY ACID TRANSPORT ACROSS MEMBRANES: Relevance to Nutrition and Metabolic Pathology1 (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 383-415 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Long-chain fatty acids are an important constituent of the diet and they contribute to a multitude of cellular pathways and functions. Uptake of long-chain fatty acids across plasma membranes is the first step in fatty acid utilization, and recent evidence supports an important regulatory role for this process. Although uptake of fatty acids involves two components, passive diffusion through the lipid bilayer and protein-facilitated transfer, the latter component appears to play the major role in mediating uptake by key tissues. Identification of several proteins as fatty acid transporters, and emerging evidence from genetically altered animal models for some of these proteins, has contributed significant insight towards understanding the limiting role of transport in the regulation of fatty acid utilization. We are also beginning to better appreciate how disturbances in fatty acid utilization influence general metabolism and contribute to metabolic pathology.
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    THE BINDING SITE OF AMINERGIC G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTORS: The Transmembrane Segments and Second Extracellular Loop (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 437-467 
    Details
    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract In the current chapter, we review approaches to the identification of the residues forming the binding sites for agonists, antagonists, and allosteric modulators in the family of aminergic G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs). We then review the structural bases for ligand binding and pharmacological specificity based on the application of these methods to muscarinic cholinergic, adrenergic, dopaminergic, serotonergic, and histaminergic receptors, using the high resolution rhodopsin structure as a template. Furthermore, we propose a critical role of the second extracellular loop in forming the binding site for small molecular weight aminergic ligands, much as this loop dives down into the binding-site crevice and contacts retinal in rhodopsin.
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    THE SPINAL PHOSPHOLIPASE-CYCLOOXYGENASE-PROSTANOID CASCADE IN NOCICEPTIVE PROCESSING (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 553-583 
    Details
    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Intrathecal phospholipase A2 (PLA2) and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), but not COX-1, inhibitors attenuate facilitated pain states generated by peripheral injury/inflammation and by direct activation of spinal glutamate and substance P receptors. These results are consistent with the constitutive expression of PLA2 and COX-2 in spinal cord, the spinal release of prostaglandins by persistent afferent input, and the effects of prostaglandins on spinal excitability. Whereas the acute actions of COX-2 inhibitors are clearly mediated by constitutively expressed spinal COX-2, studies of spinal COX-2 expression indicate that it is upregulated by neural input and circulating cytokines. Given the intrathecal potency of COX-2 inhibitors, the comparable efficacy of intrathecal versus systemic COX-2 inhibitors in hyperalgesic states not associated with inflammation, and the onset of antihyperalgesic activity prior to COX-2 upregulation, it is argued that a principal antihyperalgesic mechanism of COX-2 inhibitors lies with modulation of constitutive COX-2 present at the spinal level.
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    ALTERED DNA METHYLATION: A Secondary Mechanism Involved in Carcinogenesis (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 501-525 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract This review focuses on the role that DNA methylation plays in the regulation of normal and aberrant gene expression and on how, in a hypothesis-driven fashion, altered DNA methylation may be viewed as a secondary mechanism involved in carcinogenesis. Research aimed at discerning the mechanisms by which chemicals can transform normal cells into frank carcinomas has both theoretical and practical implications. Through an increased understanding of the mechanisms by which chemicals affect the carcinogenic process, we learn more about basic biology while, at the same time, providing the type of information required to make more rational safety assessment decisions concerning their actual potential to cause cancer under particular conditions of exposure. One key question is: does the mechanism of action of the chemical in question involve a secondary mechanism and, if so, what dose may be below its threshold?
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    CYTOKINE MODULATORS AS NOVEL THERAPIES FOR ASTHMA (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 81-98 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Cytokines play a critical role in orchestrating and perpetuating inflammation in asthmatic airways and several specific cytokine and chemokine inhibitors are now in development for the treatment of asthma. Inhibition of IL-4 with soluble IL-4 receptors has shown promising early results in asthma. Anti-IL-5 antibody is very effective at inhibiting peripheral blood and airway eosinophils but does not appear to be effective in symptomatic asthma. Inhibitory cytokines, such as IL-10, interferons, and IL-12 are less promising because systemic delivery produces intolerable side effects. Inhibition of TNF-alpha may be useful in severe asthma. Many chemokines are involved in the inflammatory response of asthma, and small-molecule inhibitors of chemokine receptors are in development. CCR3 antagonists are now in clinical development for the treatment of asthma. Because so many cytokines are involved in asthma, drugs that inhibit the synthesis of multiple cytokines may prove to be more useful. Several such classes of drug are now in clinical development, and the risk of side effects with these nonspecific inhibitors may be reduced by the inhaled route of delivery.
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    PROTEIN ALLERGENICITY ASSESSMENT OF FOODS PRODUCED THROUGH AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 99-112 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Foods produced through agricultural biotechnology are reaching the consumer marketplace. These novel foods should be assessed for their safety, including their potential allergenicity. Agricultural biotechnology involves the introduction of novel proteins into the modified foods, and proteins can be allergenic. The potential allergenicity of the introduced proteins can be evaluated by focusing on the source of the gene, the homology of the newly introduced protein to known allergens, the reactivity of the novel protein with IgE antibodies from the serum of individuals with known allergies to the source of the transferred DNA or to materials that are broadly related to the source of the transferred DNA, the resistance of the novel protein to pepsin, and the immunoreactivity of the novel protein in appropriate animal models. Additional factors, such as the level of expression of the novel protein in the modified food and expression in the edible portion of the food, may also yield valuable insights. Applying such criteria provides a reasonable approach to determining whether or not the novel protein is likely to become an allergen.
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    CHALLENGES FOR BIOMEDICAL INFORMATICS AND PHARMACOGENOMICS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 113-133 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Pharmacogenomics requires the integration and analysis of genomic, molecular, cellular, and clinical data, and it thus offers a remarkable set of challenges to biomedical informatics. These include infrastructural challenges such as the creation of data models and databases for storing these data, the integration of these data with external databases, the extraction of information from natural language text, and the protection of databases with sensitive information. There are also scientific challenges in creating tools to support gene expression analysis, three-dimensional structural analysis, and comparative genomic analysis. In this review, we summarize the current uses of informatics within pharmacogenomics and show how the technical challenges that remain for biomedical informatics are typical of those that will be confronted in the postgenomic era.
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    DRUG EFFICACY AT G PROTEIN-COUPLED RECEPTORS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 349-379 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Efficacy has been defined in receptor pharmacology as a proportionality factor denoting the amount of physiological response a given ligand imparts to a biological system for a given amount of receptor occupancy. While first defined in terms of response, the concept can be expanded to a wide variety of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) behaviors, which includes pleiotropic interaction with multiple G proteins, internalization, oligomerization, desensitization, and interaction with membrane auxilliary proteins. Thus, there can be numerous types of efficacy, and different ligands can have a range of efficacies for different receptor behaviors. This review discusses the use of the efficacy concept in GPCR models based on the thermodynamic linkage theory and also in terms of the protein ensemble theory, in which macroaffinity of ligands for an ensemble of receptor microstates produces a new ligand-bound ensemble. The pharmacological characteristics of the ligand emerge from the intersection of the ligand-bound ensemble with the various ensembles defining pharmacological receptor behaviors. Receptor behaviors discussed are activation of G proteins; ability to be phosphorylated, desensitized, and internalized; formation of dimers and oligomers; and the interaction with auxiliary membrane and cytosolic proteins. The concepts of ligand-specific receptor conformation and conditional efficacy are also discussed in the context of ligand control of physiological response.
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    STRUCTURE, FUNCTION, AND INHIBITION OF CHEMOKINES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 469-499 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Chemokines are the largest family of cytokines in human immunophysiology. These proteins are defined by four invariant cysteines and are categorized based on the sequence around the first two cysteines, which leads to two major and two minor subfamilies. Chemokines function by activating specific G protein-coupled receptors, which results in, among other functions, the migration of inflammatory and noninflammatory cells to the appropriate tissues or compartments within tissues. Some of these proteins and receptors have been implicated or shown to be involved in inflammation, autoimmune diseases, and infection by HIV-1. The three-dimensional structure of each monomer is virtually identical, but the quaternary structure of chemokines is different for each subfamily. Structure-function studies reveal several regions of chemokines to be involved in function, with the N-terminal region playing a dominant role. A number of proteins and small-molecule antagonists have been identified that inhibit chemokine activities. In this review, we discuss aspects of the structure, function, and inhibition of chemokines.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.091901.115838
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    THE BIOCHEMISTRY AND PHYSIOLOGY OF S-NITROSOTHIOLS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 585-600 
    Details
    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract S-nitrosothiols are biological metabolites of nitric oxide. It has often been suggested that they represent a more stable metabolite of nitric oxide that can either be stored, or transported, although the evidence for this is sparse. There are many unanswered questions concerning how S-nitrosothiols are formed, how they are metabolized and how they elicit biological responses. These questions are highlighted by the fact that the known chemistry of nitric oxide, thiols, and S-nitrosothiols cannot serve to explain their proposed biological activities. This review attempts to highlight the gulf between our chemical understanding of S-nitrosothiols and the proposed biological activities of these compounds with respect to guanylyl cyclase-independent nitric oxide bioactivity and also the control of vascular tone.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.092501.104328
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    HOMOGENEOUS GLYCOPEPTIDES AND GLYCOPROTEINS FOR BIOLOGICAL INVESTIGATION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 593-634 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Protein glycosylation is widely recognized as a modulator of protein structure, localization, and cell-cell recognition in multicellular systems. Glycoproteins are typically expressed as mixtures of glycoforms, their oligosaccharides being generated by a template-independent biosynthetic process. Investigation of their function has been greatly assisted by sources of homogeneous material. This review summarizes current efforts to obtain homogeneous glycopeptide and glycoprotein materials by a variety of methods that draw from the techniques of recombinant expression, chemical synthesis, enzymatic transformation, and chemoselective ligation. Some of these techniques remove obstacles to glycoprotein synthesis by installing nonnative linkages and other modifications for facilitated assembly. The end purpose of the described approaches is the production of glycosylated materials for experiments relevant to the biological investigation of glycoproteins, although the strategies presented apply to other posttranslational modifications as well.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135334
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    FORMATION OF UNUSUAL SUGARS: Mechanistic Studies and Biosynthetic Applications (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 701-754 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Carbohydrates are highly abundant biomolecules found extensively in nature. Besides playing important roles in energy storage and supply, they often serve as essential biosynthetic precursors or structural elements needed to sustain all forms of life. A number of unusual sugars that have certain hydroxyl groups replaced by a hydrogen, an amino group, or an alkyl side chain play crucial roles in determining the biological activity of the parent natural products in bacterial lipopolysaccharides or secondary metabolite antibiotics. Recent investigation of the biosynthesis of these monosaccharides has led to the identification of the gene clusters whose protein products facilitate the unusual sugar formation from the ubiquitous NDP-glucose precursors. This review summarizes the mechanistic studies of a few enzymes crucial to the biosynthesis of C-2, C-3, C-4, and C-6 deoxysugars, the characterization and mutagenesis of nucleotidyl transferases that can recognize and couple structural analogs of their natural substrates and the identification of glycosyltransferases with promiscuous substrate specificity. Information gleaned from these studies has allowed pathway engineering, resulting in the creation of new macrolides with unnatural deoxysugar moieties for biological activity screening. This represents a significant progress toward our goal of searching for more potent agents against infectious diseases and malignant tumors.
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    ERROR-PRONE REPAIR DNA POLYMERASES IN PROKARYOTES AND EUKARYOTES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 17-50 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract DNA repair is crucial to the well-being of all organisms from unicellular life forms to humans. A rich tapestry of mechanistic studies on DNA repair has emerged thanks to the recent discovery of Y-family DNA polymerases. Many Y-family members carry out aberrant DNA synthesis-poor replication accuracy, the favored formation of non-Watson-Crick base pairs, efficient mismatch extension, and most importantly, an ability to replicate through DNA damage. This review is devoted primarily to a discussion of Y-family polymerase members that exhibit error-prone behavior. Roles for these remarkable enzymes occur in widely disparate DNA repair pathways, such as UV-induced mutagenesis, adaptive mutation, avoidance of skin cancer, and induction of somatic cell hypermutation of immunoglobulin genes. Individual polymerases engaged in multiple repair pathways pose challenging questions about their roles in targeting and trafficking. Macromolecular assemblies of replication-repair "factories" could enable a cell to handle the complex logistics governing the rapid migration and exchange of polymerases.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.083101.124707
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    EUKARYOTIC DNA POLYMERASES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 133-163 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Any living cell is faced with the fundamental task of keeping the genome intact in order to develop in an organized manner, to function in a complex environment, to divide at the right time, and to die when it is appropriate. To achieve this goal, an efficient machinery is required to maintain the genetic information encoded in DNA during cell division, DNA repair, DNA recombination, and the bypassing of damage in DNA. DNA polymerases (pols) alpha, beta, gamma, delta, and epsilon are the key enzymes required to maintain the integrity of the genome under all these circumstances. In the last few years the number of known pols, including terminal transferase and telomerase, has increased to at least 19. A particular pol might have more than one functional task in a cell and a particular DNA synthetic event may require more than one pol, which suggests that nature has provided various safety mechanisms. This multi-functional feature is especially valid for the variety of novel pols identified in the last three years. These are the lesion-replicating enzymes pol zeta, pol eta, pol itoa, pol kappa, and Rev1, and a group of pols called pol theta, pol lamba, pol mu, pol sigma, and pol phi that fulfill a variety of other tasks.
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    GREAT METALLOCLUSTERS IN ENZYMOLOGY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 221-246 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Metallocluster-containing enzymes catalyze some of the most basic redox transformations in the biosphere. The reactions catalyzed by these enzymes typically involve small molecules such as N2, CO, and H2 that are used to generate both chemical building blocks and energy for metabolic purposes. During the past decade, structures have been established for the iron-sulfur-based metalloclusters present in the molybdenum nitrogenase, the iron-only hydrogenase, and the nickel-carbon monoxide dehydrogenase, and for the copper-sulfide-based cluster in nitrous oxide reductase. Although these clusters are built from interactions observed in simpler metalloproteins, they contain novel features that may be relevant for their catalytic function. The mechanisms of metallocluster-containing enzymes are still poorly defined, and represent substantial and continuing challenges to biochemists, biophysicists, and synthetic chemists. These proteins also provide a window into the union of the biological and inorganic worlds that may have been relevant to the early evolution of biochemical catalysis.
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    BIOLOGICAL ROLES OF PROTEASES IN PARASITIC PROTOZOA (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 275-305 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Proteases from a variety of protozoan parasites have been characterized at the molecular and cellular levels, and the many roles that proteases play in these organisms are coming into focus. Central roles have been proposed for proteases in diverse processes such as host cell invasion and egress, encystation, excystation, catabolism of host proteins, differentiation, cell cycle progression, cytoadherence, and both stimulation and evasion of host immune responses. Detailed structural and functional characterization of parasite proteases has led to novel insights into the workings of these fascinating catalytic machines. The possibility of developing selective inhibitors of key proteases of pathogenic parasites into novel chemotherapeutic strategies is being vigorously explored.
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    LIPOPROTEIN RECEPTORS IN THE NERVOUS SYSTEM (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 405-434 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The low-density-lipoprotein (LDL) receptor family is an evolutionarily ancient gene family of structurally closely related cell-surface receptors. Members of the family are involved in the cellular uptake of extracellular ligands and regulate diverse biological processes including lipid and vitamin metabolism and cell-surface protease activity. Some members of the family also participate in cellular signaling and regulate the development and functional maintenance of the nervous system. Here we review the roles of this family of multifunctional receptors in the nervous system and focus on recent advances toward the understanding of the mechanisms by which lipoprotein receptors and their ligands transmit and modulate signals in the brain.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.71.110601.135342
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    NEURONAL CA2+/CALMODULIN-DEPENDENT PROTEIN KINASE II: The Role of Structure and Autoregulation in Cellular Function (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 473-510 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Highly enriched in brain tissue and present throughout the body, Ca2+/calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II (CaMKII) is central to the coordination and execution of Ca2+ signal transduction. The substrates phosphorylated by CaMKII are implicated in homeostatic regulation of the cell, as well as in activity-dependent changes in neuronal function that appear to underlie complex cognitive and behavioral responses, including learning and memory. The architecture of CaMKII holoenzymes is unique in nature. The kinase functional domains (12 per holoenzyme) are attached by stalklike appendages to a gear-shaped core, grouped into two clusters of six. Each subunit contains a catalytic, an autoregulatory, and an association domain. Ca2+/calmodulin (CaM) binding disinhibits the autoregulatory domain, allowing autophosphorylation and complex changes in the enzyme's sensitivity to Ca2+/CaM, including the generation of Ca2+/CaM-independent activity, CaM trapping, and CaM capping. These processes confer a type of molecular memory to the autoregulation and activity of CaMKII. Its function is intimately shaped by its multimeric structure, autoregulation, isozymic type, and subcellular localization; these features and processes are discussed as they relate to known and potential cellular functions of this multifunctional protein kinase.
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    MECHANISMS OF FAST PROTEIN FOLDING (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 783-815 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract An explosion of in vitro experimental data on the folding of proteins has revealed many examples of folding in the millisecond or faster timescale, often occurring in the absence of stable intermediate states. We review experimental methods for measuring fast protein folding kinetics, and then discuss various analytical models used to interpret these data. Finally, we classify general mechanisms that have been proposed to explain fast protein folding into two catagories, heterogeneous and homogeneous, reflecting the nature of the transition state. One heterogeneous mechanism, the diffusion-collision mechanism, can be used to interpret experimental data for a number of proteins.
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    CATALYTIC STRATEGIES OF THE HEPATITIS DELTA VIRUS RIBOZYMES* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 887-917 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The hepatitis delta virus (HDV) ribozymes are self-cleaving RNA sequences critical to the replication of a small RNA genome. A recently determined crystal structure together with biochemical and biophysical studies provides new insight into the possible catalytic mechanism of these ribozymes. The HDV ribozymes are examples of naturally occurring small ribozymes that catalyze cleavage of the RNA backbone with a rate enhancement of 106- to 107-fold over the uncatalyzed rate. To achieve this level of rate enhancement, the HDV ribozymes have been proposed to employ several catalytic strategies that include the use of metal ions, intrinsic binding energy, and a novel example of general acid-base catalysis with a cytosine side chain acting as a proton donor or acceptor.
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    MY CAREER IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. xiii 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Norman Davidson's training as a physical chemist led him to make key early contributions to the chemistry of DNA. He described the details of DNA denaturation and renaturation, concepts that still form the basis for understanding hybridization. He also applied the single-molecule resolution of the electron microscope to describing the chemistry of circular DNA, mapping specific genes, and characterizing heteroduplexes. The latter became a dominant tool for the study of nucleic acids and contributed to our knowledge of transcription, polyadenylation, and retroviral structure. The advent of cDNA cloning and restriction enzymes enabled Davidson to describe the diversity of Drosophila actin genes and to isolate the gene encoding cAMP phosphodiesterase. Davidson then turned his attention to neuroscience and participated in cDNA cloning, oocyte expression, and structure-function studies of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors, voltage-gated sodium channels, a GABA transporter, a G protein-gated potassium channel, and calcium channels. His interests also extended to synaptic plasticity, and he helped to define the role of neuronal nitric oxide synthase and of trkB receptors. His final experiments concerned the role of protein kinase A in long-term potentiation. (The abstract was written posthumously by a colleague.)
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    LONG-DISTANCE ELECTRON TRANSFER THROUGH DNA (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 51-70 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract DNA molecules are able to transport electrons over long distances. In most experiments the process is stimulated by the oxidation of guanines (G), which generates guanine radical cations. The electron transport through DNA occurs in a multistep hopping mechanism with all Gs as carriers of the positive charge. The rate of each individual hopping step between the Gs decreases strongly with increase of the distance. If the (A:T) bridges between the guanines are long, adenines (A) also become charge carriers. Mismatches, single strands, and G-oxidation products can drastically diminish the efficiency of the charge transport. But in triplexes and DNA/RNA duplexes, as well as in several duplex DNA/peptide complexes, the efficacy of the charge transport is less affected. The ability of DNA molecules to transport charges over long distances could provide a mechanism for ameliorating the harmfulness of damage to DNA under the conditions of oxidative stress.
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    V(D)J RECOMBINATION: RAG PROTEINS, REPAIR FACTORS, AND REGULATION* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 101-132 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract V(D)J recombination is the specialized DNA rearrangement used by cells of the immune system to assemble immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor genes from the preexisting gene segments. Because there is a large choice of segments to join, this process accounts for much of the diversity of the immune response. Recombination is initiated by the lymphoid-specific RAG1 and RAG2 proteins, which cooperate to make double-strand breaks at specific recognition sequences (recombination signal sequences, RSSs). The neighboring coding DNA is converted to a hairpin during breakage. Broken ends are then processed and joined with the help of several factors also involved in repair of radiation-damaged DNA, including the DNA-dependent protein kinase (DNA-PK) and the Ku, Artemis, DNA ligase IV, and Xrcc4 proteins, and possibly histone H2AX and the Mre11/Rad50/Nbs1 complex. There may be other factors not yet known. V(D)J recombination is strongly regulated by limiting access to RSS sites within chromatin, so that particular sites are available only in certain cell types and developmental stages. The roles of enhancers, histone acetylation, and chromatin remodeling factors in controlling accessibility are discussed. The RAG proteins are also capable of transposing RSS-ended fragments into new DNA sites. This transposition helps to explain the mechanism of RAG action and supports earlier proposals that V(D)J recombination evolved from an ancient mobile DNA element.
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    RNA EDITING BY ADENOSINE DEAMINASES THAT ACT ON RNA (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 71 (2002), S. 817-846 
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    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: Abstract ADARs are RNA editing enzymes that target double-stranded regions of nuclear-encoded RNA and viral RNA. These enzymes are particularly abundant in the nervous system, where they diversify the information encoded in the genome, for example, by altering codons in mRNAs. The functions of ADARs in known substrates suggest that the enzymes serve to fine-tune and optimize many biological pathways, in ways that we are only starting to imagine. ADARs are also interesting in regard to the remarkable double-stranded structures of their substrates and how enzyme specificity is achieved with little regard to sequence. This review summarizes ongoing investigations of the enzyme family and their substrates, focusing on biological function as well as biochemical mechanism.
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    HIGHER-ORDER OPTICAL CORRELATION SPECTROSCOPY IN LIQUIDS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 17-40 
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    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Linear optical spectroscopies have long been used to study the behavior of liquids. Laser technology has progressed to the point that it has become possible to perform nonlinear optical experiments that probe higher-order correlation functions in liquids, opening a new window into our understanding of the microscopic details of solution-phase processes. Here we review advances that have been made in recent years in employing higher-order electronic and vibrational spectroscopies to study liquid-state dynamics and structure.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.53.082001.144216
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    THE MOLECULAR HAMILTONIAN (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 141-172 
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    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The molecular Hamiltonian represents one of the most basic concepts in spectroscopy and molecular reaction dynamics. Its derivation is notoriously difficult owing to the use of a rotating reference frame which, in turn, is necessary to define the concept of vibration and rotation. In this article, we review the construction of the molecular Hamiltonian in normal mode and in internal coordinates. For normal mode coordinates, the Watson Hamiltonian including its modification for linear molecules is derived using an approach based on classical mechanics and the Podolsky transformation. The method is subsequently used to derive the molecular Hamiltonian in terms of Jacobi and valence coordinates. Results are presented for the triatomic system and for the extension toward N-atom systems with N 〉= 3.
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    AB INITIO MOLECULAR DYNAMICS WITH DENSITY FUNCTIONAL THEORY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 249-290 
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    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Recent applications of density functional theory base ab initio molecular dynamics in chemical relevant systems are reviewed. The emphasis is on the dynamical aspect in the study of structures, reaction mechanisms, and electronic properties in both the molecular and condensed phases. Examples were chosen from fluxional molecules, solution reactions, and biological systems to illustrate the broad potential applications and unique information that can be obtained from ab initio molecular dynamics calculations. Recent advances in the development of efficient numerical algorithms for the prediction of spectroscopic properties are highlighted.
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    REACTIVE COLLISIONS OF HYPERTHERMAL ENERGY MOLECULAR IONS WITH SOLID SURFACES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 379-407 
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    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Recent experimental advances have uncovered many of the diverse reaction pathways following an energetic collision between a molecular ion and a solid surface. Hyperthermal translational energies (5-500 eV) are sufficient to activate a number of chemical transformations in the near-surface region, including charge transfer, dissociation, abstraction, and deposition. State-of-the-art scattering studies probe the consumption and disposal of energy and the effects of approach geometry and surface electronic structure on the operative reaction mechanisms. These fundamental investigations provide insight relevant to the fabrication of microelectronics devices, the interaction of space vehicles with the earth's atmosphere, and the development of analytical techniques in mass spectrometry.
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    ELECTRONIC STRUCTURE AND CATALYSIS ON METAL SURFACES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 319-348 
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    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The powerful computational resources available to scientists today, together with recent improvements in electronic structure calculation algorithms, are providing important new tools for researchers in the fields of surface science and catalysis. In this review, we discuss first principles calculations that are now capable of providing qualitative and, in many cases, quantitative insights into surface chemistry. The calculations can aid in the establishment of chemisorption trends across the transition metals, in the characterization of reaction pathways on individual metals, and in the design of novel catalysts. First principles studies provide an excellent fundamental complement to experimental investigations of the above phenomena and can often allow the elucidation of important mechanistic details that would be difficult, if not impossible, to determine from experiments alone.
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    QUANTUM MECHANICAL METHODS FOR ENZYME KINETICS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 467-505 
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    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract This review discusses methods for the incorporation of quantum mechanical effects into enzyme kinetics simulations in which the enzyme is an explicit part of the model. We emphasize three aspects: (a) use of quantum mechanical electronic structure methods such as molecular orbital theory and density functional theory, usually in conjunction with molecular mechanics; (b) treating vibrational motions quantum mechanically, either in an instantaneous harmonic approximation, or by path integrals, or by a three-dimensional wave function coupled to classical nuclear motion; (c) incorporation of multidimensional tunneling approximations into reaction rate calculations.
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    STRIPE RUST OF WHEAT AND BARLEY IN NORTH AMERICA: A Retrospective Historical Review1 (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 75-118 
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    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This retrospective review deals with the sequence of events and research progress on control of stripe rust of wheat and barley in North America. From the discovery of stripe rust in 1915, it documents the early years of stripe rust research, the 20-year hiatus when stripe rust was not considered important and research was almost nonexistent, the short period in the 1950s when stripe rust became prevalent in the central United States, and the severe epidemics in the West in the 1960s and the associated revival and expansion of research. Finally, it covers 1968 to 2001 when the earlier information was consolidated and combined with results of new research to enable prediction and control of stripe rust, especially in the West.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.020102.111645
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    DIETARY FLAVONOIDS: Bioavailability, Metabolic Effects, and Safety (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 19-34 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Flavonoids comprise the most common group of plant polyphenols and provide much of the flavor and color to fruits and vegetables. More than 5000 different flavonoids have been described. The six major subclasses of flavonoids include the flavones (e.g., apigenin, luteolin), flavonols (e.g., quercetin, myricetin), flavanones (e.g., naringenin, hesperidin), catechins or flavanols (e.g., epicatechin, gallocatechin), anthocyanidins (e.g., cyanidin, pelargonidin), and isoflavones (e.g., genistein, daidzein). Most of the flavonoids present in plants are attached to sugars (glycosides), although occasionally they are found as aglycones. Interest in the possible health benefits of flavonoids has increased owing to their potent antioxidant and free-radical scavenging activities observed in vitro. There is growing evidence from human feeding studies that the absorption and bioavailability of specific flavonoids is much higher than originally believed. However, epidemiologic studies exploring the role of flavonoids in human health have been inconclusive. Some studies support a protective effect of flavonoid consumption in cardiovascular disease and cancer, other studies demonstrate no effect, and a few studies suggest potential harm. Because there are many biological activities attributed to the flavonoids, some of which could be beneficial or detrimental depending on specific circumstances, further studies in both the laboratory and with populations are warranted.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.111401.144957
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    IN VIVO KINETICS OF FOLATE METABOLISM (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 199-220 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Investigation of the in vivo kinetics of folate metabolism provides information that contributes to a better understanding of the manner in which this vitamin is processed in vivo. Kinetic studies can yield insight into the requirements for folate, especially with respect to factors that may lead to increased requirements. This review considers the strengths and weaknesses of various approaches to the study of folate kinetics and resulting data, followed by a summary and interpretation of existing data.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.120701.083554
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    PPARgamma AND GLUCOSE HOMEOSTASIS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 167-197 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARgamma) is a nuclear receptor involved in the control of metabolism. Research on PPARgamma is oriented towards understanding its role in insulin sensitization, which was inspired by the discovery that antidiabetic agents, the thiazolidinediones, were agonists for PPARgamma. PPARgamma stimulation improves glucose tolerance and insulin sensitivity in type 2 diabetic patients and in animal models of insulin resistance through mechanisms that are incompletely understood. Upon activation, PPARgamma heterodimerizes with retinoid X receptor, recruits specific cofactors, and binds to responsive DNA elements, thereby stimulating the transcription of target genes. Because PPARgamma is highly enriched in adipose tissue and because of its major role in adipocyte differentiation, it is thought that the effects of PPARgamma in adipose tissue are crucial to explain its role in insulin sensitization, but recent studies have highlighted the contribution of other tissues as well. Although relatively potent for their insulin-sensitizing action, currently marketed PPARgamma activators have some important undesirable side effects. These concerns led to the discovery of new ligands with potent antidiabetic properties but devoid of certain of these side effects. Data from human genetic studies and from PPARgamma heterozygous knockout mice indicate that a reduction in PPARgamma activity could paradoxically improve insulin sensitivity. These findings suggest that modulation of PPARgamma activity by partial agonists or compounds that affect cofactor recruitment might hold promise for the treatment of insulin resistance.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.010402.102808
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    MUSCLE TRIGLYCERIDE AND INSULIN RESISTANCE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 325-346 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Skeletal muscle contains the majority of the body's glycogen stores and a similar amount of readily accessible energy as intramyocellular triglyceride (imTG). While a number of factors have been considered to contribute to the pathogenesis of insulin resistance (IR) in obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM), this review will focus on the potential role of skeletal muscle triglyceride content. In obesity and type 2 DM, there is an increased content of lipid within and around muscle fibers. Changes in muscle in fuel partitioning of lipid, between oxidation and storage of fat calories, almost certainly contribute to accumulation of imTG and to the pathogenesis of both obesity and type 2 DM. In metabolic health, skeletal muscle physiology is characterized by the capacity to utilize either lipid or carbohydrate fuels, and to effectively transition between these fuels. We will review recent findings that indicate that in type 2 DM and obesity, skeletal muscle manifests inflexibility in the transition between lipid and carbohydrate fuels. This inflexibility in fuel selection by skeletal muscle appears to be related to the accumulation of imTG and is an important aspect of IR of skeletal muscle in obesity and type 2 DM.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.010402.102912
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    METABOLIC LESSONS FROM GENETICALLY LEAN MICE* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 459-482 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Different types of lean mice have been produced by genetic manipulation. Leanness can result from deficiency of stored energy or a lack of adipocytes to store the lipid. Mice lacking functional adipocytes are usually insulin resistant and have fatty livers, and elevated circulating triglyceride levels. Insulin resistance may result from the lack of adipocyte hormones (such as leptin) and increased metabolite (such as triglyceride) levels in nonadipose tissue. Mice with depleted adipocyte triglyceride levels typically are insulin sensitive and have normal or low liver and circulating triglycerides. Mechanisms to produce depleted adipocytes include increased energy expenditure by peripheral tissues, peripheral mechanisms to decrease food intake, and altered central regulation of these processes.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.010402.102849
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    CERULOPLASMIN METABOLISM AND FUNCTION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 439-458 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Ceruloplasmin is a serum ferroxidase that contains greater than 95% of the copper found in plasma. This protein is a member of the multicopper oxidase family, an evolutionarily conserved group of proteins that utilize copper to couple substrate oxidation with the four-electron reduction of oxygen to water. Despite the need for copper in ceruloplasmin function, this protein plays no essential role in the transport or metabolism of this metal. Aceruloplasminemia is a neurodegenerative disease resulting from inherited loss-of-function mutations in the ceruloplasmin gene. Characterization of this disorder revealed a critical physiological role for ceruloplasmin in determining the rate of iron efflux from cells with mobilizable iron stores and has provided new insights into human iron metabolism and nutrition.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.012502.114457
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    INHIBITION OF CARCINOGENESIS BY TEA* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 25-54 
    Details
    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Tea has received a great deal of attention because tea polyphenols are strong antioxidants, and tea preparations have inhibitory activity against tumorigenesis. The bioavailability and biotransformation of tea polyphenols, however, are key factors limiting these activities in vivo. The inhibition of tumorigenesis by green or black tea preparations has been demonstrated in animal models on different organ sites such as skin, lung, oral cavity, esophagus, forestomach, stomach, small intestine, colon, pancreas, and mammary gland. Epidemiological studies, however, have not yielded clear conclusions concerning the protective effects of tea consumption against cancer formation in humans. The discrepancy between the results from humans and animal models could be due to 1) the much higher doses of tea used in animals in comparison to human consumption, 2) the differences in causative factors between the cancers in humans and animals, and 3) confounding factors limiting the power of epidemiological studies to detect an effect. It is possible that tea may be only effective against specific types of cancer caused by certain etiological factors. Many mechanisms have been proposed for the inhibition of carcinogenesis by tea, including the modulation of signal transduction pathways that leads to the inhibition of cell proliferation and transformation, induction of apoptosis of preneoplastic and neoplastic cells, as well as inhibition of tumor invasion and angiogenesis. These mechanisms need to be evaluated and verified in animal models or humans in order to gain more understanding on the effect of tea consumption on human cancer.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.082101.154309
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    SIGNAL TRANSDUCTION BY CELL ADHESION RECEPTORS AND THE CYTOSKELETON: Functions of Integrins, Cadherins, Selectins, and Immunoglobulin-Superfamily Members (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 283-323 
    Details
    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Cellular interactions with the extracellular matrix and with neighboring cells profoundly influence a variety of signaling events including those involved in mitogenesis, survival, and differentiation. Recent advances have provided insights into mechanisms underlying the ability of integrins, cadherins, selectins, and other cell adhesion molecules to regulate signal transduction cascades. These mechanisms often involve the ability of cell adhesion molecules to initiate the formation of organized structures or scaffolds that permit the efficient flow of information in signaling pathways.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.090401.151133
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    DIMERIZATION: An Emerging Concept for G Protein-Coupled Receptor Ontogeny and Function (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 409-435 
    Details
    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract In the last four to five years, the view that G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) function as monomeric proteins has been challenged by numerous studies, which suggests that GPCRs exist as dimers or even higher-structure oligomers. Recently, biophysical methods based on luminescence and fluorescence energy transfer have confirmed the existence of such oligomeric complexes in living cells. Although no consensus exists on the role of receptor dimerization, converging evidence suggests potential roles in various aspects of receptor biogenesis and function. In several cases, receptors appear to fold as constitutive dimers early after biosynthesis, whereas ligand-promoted dimerization at the cell surface has been proposed for others. The reports of heterodimerization between receptor subtypes suggest a potential level of receptor complexity that could account for previously unexpected pharmacological diversities. In addition to fundamentally changing our views on the structure and activation processes of GPCRs, the concept of homo- and heterodimerization could have dramatic impacts on drug development and screening.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.091701.082314
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    REGULATION OF CYP3A GENE TRANSCRIPTION BY THE PREGNANE X RECEPTOR* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 1-23 
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    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract The pregnane X receptor (PXR) is a promiscuous nuclear receptor that has evolved to protect the body from toxic chemicals. PXR is activated by a structurally diverse collection of xenobiotics, including several widely used prescription drugs. Various lipophilic compounds produced by the body, such as bile acids and steroids, also activate PXR. PXR stimulates the transcription of cytochrome P450 3A monooxygenases and other genes involved in the detoxification and elimination of these potentially harmful chemicals. Assays that detect PXR activation have important implications for the design of future drugs in two respects. On the one hand, PXR activation assays can be used to determine whether candidate drugs are likely to induce CYP3A gene expression and interact with other medicines. On the other hand, PXR agonists may prove useful in the treatment of diseases in which toxic metabolites accumulate, such as cholestatic liver disease.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.111901.111051
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    COX-2: A Target for Colon Cancer Prevention (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 55-80 
    Details
    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Disease prevention is one area that both public and governmental agencies strongly support owing to its potential for an improved lifestyle and a reduction in health care costs. In this review, we focus on the clinical development of one target for cancer prevention, the COX-2 enzyme. This provides an excellent example of how basic research in biochemistry and pharmacology can lead to translational studies and eventually to approval of a drug by the FDA for use as a chemopreventive agent in humans. It is hoped that, as the genome sequence is understood more clearly, other targets will emerge that will provide even more effective drugs for future cancer prevention.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.082301.164620
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    GLUTAMATERGIC MECHANISMS IN SCHIZOPHRENIA (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 165-179 
    Details
    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Schizophrenia is a chronic, severely disabling brain disorder with symptomatic onset in early adulthood. Typical antipsychotic medications that block dopamine D2 receptors are most effective in treating the psychosis but have limited effects on the negative symptoms and cognitive impairments. Considerable research has demonstrated that noncompetitive NMDA receptor antagonists, the dissociative anaesthetic like phencyclidine and ketamine, reproduce the cardinal symptomatic features of schizophrenia. Postmortem studies reveal variable alterations in glutamate receptors and their modulators in schizophrenia. Several clinical trials indicate agents that enhance NMDA receptor function via the glycine modulatory site reduce negative and variably improve cognitive function in schizophrenics receiving typical antipsychotics. Thus, hypofunction of a subpopulation of cortico-limbic NMDA receptors may participate in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.082701.160735
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    SCATTERING RESONANCES IN THE SIMPLEST CHEMICAL REACTION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 67-99 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Recent studies of state-resolved angular distributions show the participation of reactive scattering resonances in the simplest chemical reaction. This review is intended for those who wish to learn about the state-of-the-art in the study of the H + H2 reaction family that has made this breakthrough possible. This review is also intended for those who wish to gain insight into the nature of reactive scattering resonances. Following a tour across several fields of physics and chemistry where the concept of resonance has been crucial for the understanding of new phenomena, we offer an operational definition and taxonomy of reactive scattering resonances. We introduce simple intuitive models to illustrate each resonance type. We focus next on the last decade of H + H2 reaction dynamics. Emphasis is placed on the various experimental approaches that have been applied to the search for resonance behavior in the H + H2 reaction family. We conclude by sketching the road ahead in the study of H + H2 reactive scattering resonances.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.53.091001.094554
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    MOLECULAR THEORY OF HYDROPHOBIC EFFECTS: "She is too mean to have her name repeated."* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 409-436 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract This paper reviews the molecular theory of hydrophobic effects relevant to biomolecular structure and assembly in aqueous solution. Recent progress has resulted in simple, validated molecular statistical thermodynamic theories and clarification of confusing theories of decades ago. Current work is resolving effects of wider variations of thermodynamic state, e.g., pressure denaturation of soluble proteins, and more exotic questions such as effects of surface chemistry in treating stability of macromolecular structures in aqueous solution.
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    SURFACE FEMTOCHEMISTRY: Observation and Quantum Control of Frustrated Desorption of Alkali Atoms from Noble Metals (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 507-531 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract This review presents a case study of the direct, real-time observation of a surface photochemical reaction, namely the frustrated photodesorption of alkali atoms from noble metal surfaces. Charge transfer excitation of an electron from the metal substrate into an unoccupied resonance of the alkali atom instantaneously turns on the repulsive Coulomb force inducing the nuclear motion of both the adsorbate and substrate atoms. The incipient nuclear wave packet dynamics are documented for the case of Cs/Cu(111) through the accompanying change in the surface electronic structure. The intimate view of atoms attempting to escape the surface bond highlights the unique role of the substrate in the electronic and nuclear dynamics that ultimately determine the product yields. Moreover, slow dephasing of the coherent polarization is exploited to demonstrate the control of nuclear wave packets through the phase of the excitation light.
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    COMPARATIVE GENOMIC ANALYSIS OF PLANT-ASSOCIATED BACTERIA (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 169-189 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This review deals with a comparative analysis of seven genome sequences from plant-associated bacteria. These are the genomes of Agrobacterium tumefaciens, Mesorhizobium loti, Sinorhizobium meliloti, Xanthomonas campestris pv campestris, Xanthomonas axonopodis pv citri, Xylella fastidiosa, and Ralstonia solanacearum. Genome structure and the metabolism pathways available highlight the compromise between the genome size and lifestyle. Despite the recognized importance of the type III secretion system in controlling host compatibility, its presence is not universal in all necrogenic pathogens. Hemolysins, hemagglutinins, and some adhesins, previously reported only for mammalian pathogens, are present in most organisms discussed. Different numbers and combinations of cell wall degrading enzymes and genes to overcome the oxidative burst generally induced by the plant host are characterized in these genomes. A total of 19 genes not involved in housekeeping functions were found common to all these bacteria.
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    TOBACCO MOSAIC VIRUS ASSEMBLY AND DISASSEMBLY: Determinants in Pathogenicity and Resistance (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 287-308 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The structural proteins of plant viruses have evolved to self-associate into complex macromolecules that are centrally involved in virus biology. In this review, the structural and biophysical properties of the Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) coat protein (CP) are addressed in relation to its role in host resistance and disease development. TMV CP affects the display of several specific virus and host responses, including cross-protection, systemic virus movement, hypersensitive disease resistance, and symptom development. Studies indicate that the three-dimensional structure of CP is critical to the control of these responses, either directly through specific structural motifs or indirectly via alterations in CP assembly. Thus, both the structure and assembly of the TMV CP function as determinants in the induction of disease and resistance responses.
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    MICROBIAL POPULATIONS RESPONSIBLE FOR SPECIFIC SOIL SUPPRESSIVENESS TO PLANT PATHOGENS1 (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 309-348 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Agricultural soils suppressive to soilborne plant pathogens occur worldwide, and for several of these soils the biological basis of suppressiveness has been described. Two classical types of suppressiveness are known. General suppression owes its activity to the total microbial biomass in soil and is not transferable between soils. Specific suppression owes its activity to the effects of individual or select groups of microorganisms and is transferable. The microbial basis of specific suppression to four diseases, Fusarium wilts, potato scab, apple replant disease, and take-all, is discussed. One of the best-described examples occurs in take-all decline soils. In Washington State, take-all decline results from the buildup of fluorescent Pseudomonas spp. that produce the antifungal metabolite 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol. Producers of this metabolite may have a broader role in disease-suppressive soils worldwide. By coupling molecular technologies with traditional approaches used in plant pathology and microbiology, it is possible to dissect the microbial composition and complex interactions in suppressive soils.
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    BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF POSTHARVEST DISEASES OF FRUITS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 411-441 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Losses from postharvest fruit diseases range from 1 to 20 percent in the United States, depending on the commodity. The application of fungicides to fruits after harvest to reduce decay has been increasingly curtailed by the development of pathogen resistance to many key fungicides, the lack of replacement fungicides, negative public perception regarding the safety of pesticides and consequent restrictions on fungicide use. Biological control of postharvest diseases (BCPD) has emerged as an effective alternative. Because wound-invading necrotrophic pathogens are vulnerable to biocontrol, antagonists can be applied directly to the targeted area (fruit wounds), and a single application using existing delivery systems (drenches, line sprayers, on-line dips) can significantly reduce fruit decays. The pioneering biocontrol products BioSave and Aspire were registered by EPA in 1995 for control of postharvest rots of pome and citrus fruit, respectively, and are commercially available. The limitations of these biocontrol products can be addressed by enhancing biocontrol through manipulation of the environment, using mixtures of beneficial organisms, physiological and genetic enhancement of the biocontrol mechanisms, manipulation of formulations, and integration of biocontrol with other alternative methods that alone do not provide adequate protection but in combination with biocontrol provide additive or synergistic effects.
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    NUTRITIONAL IMPACT OF INTESTINAL HELMINTHIASIS DURING THE HUMAN LIFE CYCLE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 35-59 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract Poor people in developing countries endure the burden of disease caused by four common species of soil-transmitted nematode that inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. Disease accompanying these infections is manifested mainly as nutritional disturbance, with the differing infections having their deleterious effects at different phases during the human life cycle. Reduced food intake, impaired digestion, malabsorption, and poor growth rate are frequently observed in children suffering from ascariasis and trichuriasis. Poor iron status and iron deficiency anemia are the hallmarks of hookworm disease. The course and outcome of pregnancy, growth, and development during childhood and the extent of worker productivity are diminished during hookworm disease. Less is known about the impact of these infections in children under 2 years of age. The severity of disease caused by soil-transmitted nematodes has consistently been found to depend on the number of worms present per person. Cost-effective measures based on highly efficacious anthelminthic drugs are now available to reduce and control disease caused by these infections.
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    NUTRITIONAL IMPACT OF PRE- AND PROBIOTICS AS PROTECTIVE GASTROINTESTINAL ORGANISMS* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 107-138 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract The health benefits of pre- and probiotics have been the subject of increased research interests. These food supplements have been demonstrated to alter the pre-existing intestinal flora so as to provide an advantage to the host. This review focuses on the scientific evidence both for and against their role in promoting health and treating disease. Specific attention is turned to their effects on immunomodulation, lipid metabolism, cancer prevention, diarrhea, Helicobacter pylori, necrotizing enterocolitis, allergy, and inflammatory bowel disease.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.110901.145412
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    GENETIC EFFECTS OF METHYLATION DIETS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 255-282 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract DNA methylation at cytosines in CpG dinucleotides can lead to changes in gene expression and function without altering the primary sequence of the DNA. Methylation can be affected by dietary levels of methyl-donor components, such as folic acid. This may be an important mechanism for environmentally induced changes in gene expression. Recent literature supports a role for DNA-methylation changes in a number of adult-onset disorders and during development. These changes may be significant for better understanding certain birth defects (e.g., neural tube defects) and the long-term consequences of early environmental influences on gene expression (metabolic programming). Optimal "methylation diets" should be investigated as part of the prevention and treatment of all these conditions, as well as in disorders such as Rett syndrome, whose primary defects may lie in DNA methylation-dependent gene regulation.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.010402.102932
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    PHYSIOLOGIC DETERMINANTS OF THE ANOREXIA OF AGING: Insights from Animal Studies* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 417-438 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract The anorexia of aging is a syndrome characterized by unexplained losses in food intake and body weight that occur near the end of life. Proposed etiologies cover a wide range of biological and psychological conditions. The observation of this phenomenon in older laboratory animals suggests that physiological changes play a significant causal role. Research on the neurochemical control of energy balance has received much attention in recent years, and age-related alterations in the neuropeptidergic effectors of food intake have been implicated in the anorexia of aging. This review provides an update on putative mechanisms underlying this dysregulation of feeding during advanced age.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.120301.071049
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    CAROTENOID BIOAVAILABILITY AND BIOCONVERSION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 22 (2002), S. 483-504 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Abstract The possible role of carotenoids and their metabolites in disease prevention is far from fully understood, because the bioavailabilities of carotenoids are complicated by multiple factors that affect their absorption, breakdown, transport, and storage. Rapid progress in developing sophisticated methodologies, including use of stable-isotope dilution methods, now allows for an accurate determination of the true vitamin A activity of provitamin A carotenoids. The recent identification of specific enzymes, which catalyze the breakdown of beta-carotene as well as nonprovitamin A carotenoids, is providing a better understanding of the functions of carotenoids at the molecular level. The pathways and possible mechanisms of carotenoid breakdown and factors affecting the bioavailability of carotenoids, such as carotenoid type, food matrix, interaction with other carotenoids and other food components, nutritional status, aging, and infection, are discussed in this review.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.22.010402.102834
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    THE CHANGING FACE OF THE Na+/H+ EXCHANGER, NHE1: Structure, Regulation, and Cellular Actions (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 527-552 
    Details
    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract The NHE family of ion exchangers includes six isoforms (NHE1-NHE6) that function in an electroneutral exchange of intracellular H+ for extracellular Na+. This review focuses on the only ubiquitously expressed isoform, NHE1, which is localized at the plasma membrane where it plays a critical role in intracellular pH (pHi) and cell volume homeostasis. All NHE isoforms share a similar topology: an N-terminus of 12 transmembrane (TM) alpha-helices that collectively function in ion exchange, and a C-terminal cytoplasmic regulatory domain that modulates transport activity by the TM domain. Extracellular signals, mediated by diverse classes of cell-surface receptors, regulate NHE1 activity through distinct signaling networks that converge to directly modify the C-terminal regulatory domain. Modifications in the C-terminus, including phosphorylation and the binding of regulatory proteins, control transport activity by altering the affinity of the TM domain for intracellular H+. Recently, it was determined that NHE1 also functions as a membrane anchor for the actin-based cytoskeleton, independently of its role in ion translocation. Through its effects on pHi homeostasis, cell volume, and the actin cortical network, NHE1 regulates a number of cell behaviors, including adhesion, shape determination, migration, and proliferation.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.092001.143801
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    PROTEIN TYROSINE PHOSPHATASES: Structure and Function, Substrate Specificity, and Inhibitor Development (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 209-234 
    Details
    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Protein tyrosine phosphatases (PTPs) are signaling enzymes that control a diverse array of cellular processes. Malfunction of PTP activity is associated with a number of human disorders. Recent genetic and biochemical studies indicate that PTPs represent a novel platform for drug discovery. Detailed knowledge of PTP substrate specificity and the wealth of structural data on PTPs provide a solid foundation for rational PTP inhibitor design. This review summarizes a correlation of PTP structure and function from mutagenesis experiments. The molecular basis for PTP1B and MKP3 substrate recognition is discussed. A powerful strategy is presented for creating specific and high-affinity bidentate PTP inhibitors that simultaneously bind both the active site and a unique adjacent site. Finally, recent advances in the development of potent and selective inhibitors for PTP1B and Cdc25 are described.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.083001.144616
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    MOLECULAR BASIS OF ENVIRONMENTALLY INDUCED BIRTH DEFECTS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 181-208 
    Details
    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Exposure of the developing conceptus to selected environmental agents can lead to deleterious and often times lethal birth defects. These malformations result in serious emotional and financial consequences to families and societies worldwide. As we continue to progress technologically, we face challenges from the introduction of new pharmacological agents and chemical compounds into the environment. This results in a concomitant need to more fully understand the relationship between in utero exposure to environmental teratogens and the risk of congenital malformations. The goal of this review is to provide a current perspective of the major concepts related to the molecular basis of environmentally induced birth defects. Starting with a discussion of commonly occurring birth defects, we consider important fundamental facets of embryonic development, teratology, and gene-environment interactions. The review then summarizes our current understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved in selected birth defects following exposure to pharmacological compounds, including thalidomide, retinoids, and valproic acid. Understanding these signaling pathways may lead to the development of safer pharmaceutical compounds and a reduction in the number of infants born with preventable birth defects.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.083001.110955
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    GLYCOPEPTIDE ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Pharmacology 42 (2002), S. 381-408 
    Details
    ISSN: 0362-1642
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Chemistry and Pharmacology
    Notes: Abstract Glycopeptide antibiotics are integral components of the current antibiotic arsenal that is under strong pressures as a result of the emergence of a variety of resistance mechanisms over the past 15 years. Resistance has manifested itself largely through the expression of genes that encode proteins that reprogram cell wall biosynthesis and thus evade the action of the antibiotic in the enterococci, though recently new mechanisms have appeared that afford resistance and tolerance in the more virulent staphylococci and streptococci. Overcoming glycopeptide resistance will require innovative approaches to generate new antibiotics or otherwise to inhibit the action of resistance elements in various bacteria. The chemical complexity of the glycopeptides, the challenges of discovering and successfully exploiting new targets, and the growing number of distinct resistance types all increase the difficulty of the current problem we face as a result of the emergence of glycopeptide resistance.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.pharmtox.42.091601.142813
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    SCANNING TUNNELING MICROSCOPY STUDIES OF THE ONE-DIMENSIONAL ELECTRONIC PROPERTIES OF SINGLE-WALLED CARBON NANOTUBES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 201-220 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Recent developments in scanning tunneling microscopy studies of the electronic properties of single-walled carbon nanotubes are reviewed. A broad range of topics focused on the unique electronic properties of nanotubes are discussed, including (a) the underlying theoretical description of the electronic properties of nanotubes; (b) the roles of finite curvature and broken symmetries in perturbing electronic properties; (c) the unique one-dimensional energy dispersion in nanotubes; (d) the nature of end states; (e) quantum size effects in short tubes; (f) the interactions between local spins and carriers in metallic systems (the Kondo effect); and (g) the atomic structure and electronic properties of intramolecular junctions. The implications of these studies for understanding fundamental one-dimensional physics and future nanotube device applications are discussed.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.53.091801.092924
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    TIME-RESOLVED PHOTOELECTRON ANGULAR DISTRIBUTIONS: Concepts, Applications, and Directions (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 41-65 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The use of photoelectron angular distributions (PADs) as a probe in short-pulse, pump-probe scenarios is reviewed. We focus on concepts, on the insight that can be gained through theoretical analysis, on applications, and on future opportunities. Time-resolved PADs are sensitive to both the time-evolving rotational composition of wavepackets and their time-evolving electronic symmetry. The former feature renders this observable a potential probe of molecular structure, intensity effects, and rotational perturbations. The latter feature renders the PAD a potential probe of radiationless transitions.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.53.082101.130051
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    REVERSIBLE POLYMERIZATIONS AND AGGREGATIONS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 173-200 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The aggregation of monomers into polymers, whether by covalent or noncovalent interactions, is often reversible and frequently occurs with the entropy and enthalpy of the aggregation sharing the same sign. In such a case, the aggregation goes forward or reverses, depending on such variables as temperature and composition, rather like a phase transition. We explore the physical chemistry of three such systems: an organic monomer (alpha-methylstyrene), an inorganic monomer (sulfur), and a biopolymer (actin). We compare the available theories and experiments and list issues still open.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.53.082301.111949
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    PHYSICAL CHEMISTRY OF NUCLEIC ACIDS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 1-15 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: The Watson-Crick double helix of DNA was first revealed in 1953. Since then a wide range of physical chemical methods have been applied to DNA and to its more versatile relative RNA to determine their structures and functions. My major goal is to predict the folded structure of any RNA from its sequence. We have used bulk and single-molecule measurements of thermodynamics and kinetics, plus various spectroscopic methods (UV absorption, optical rotation, circular dichroism, circular intensity differential scattering, fluorescence, NMR) to approach this goal.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.53.082001.144341
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    VACUUM ULTRAVIOLET SPECTROSCOPY AND CHEMISTRY BY PHOTOIONIZATION AND PHOTOELECTRON METHODS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 101-140 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The recent developments of vacuum ultraviolet (VUV) laser and third generation synchrotron radiation sources, together with the introduction of pulsed field ionization (PFI) schemes for photoion-photoelectron detection, have had a profound impact on the field of VUV spectroscopy and chemistry. Owing to the mediation of near-resonant autoionizing states, rovibronic states of ions with negligible Franck-Condon factors for direct photoionization can be examined by VUV-PFI measurements with rotational resolutions. The VUV-PFI spectra thus obtained have provided definitive ionization energies (IEs) for many small molecules. The recent synchrotron-based PFI-photoelectron-photoion coincidence experiments have demonstrated that dissociative photoionization thresholds for a range of molecules can be determined to the same precision as in PFI-photoelectron measurements. Combining appropriate dissociation thresholds and IEs measured in PFI studies, thermochemical data for many neutrals and cations can be determined with unprecedented precision. The further development of two-color excitation-ionization schemes promises to expand the scope of spectroscopic and chemical applications using the photoionization-photoelectron method.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.53.082001.144416
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    ELECTRON TRANSFER AT MOLECULE-METAL INTERFACES: A Two-Photon Photoemission Study (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 221-247 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Electron transfer between a molecular resonance and a metal surface is a ubiquitous process in many chemical disciplines, ranging from molecular electronics to surface photochemistry. This problem has been probed recently by two-photon photoemission spectroscopy. The first photon excites an electron from an occupied metal state to an unoccupied molecular resonance. Subsequent evolution of the excited electronic wavefunction is probed in energy, momentum, and time domains by the absorption of a second photon, which ionizes the electron for detection. These experiments reveal the important roles of molecule-metal wavefunction mixing, intermolecular band formation, polarization, and localization in interfacial electron transfer.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.53.082801.093725
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    CHEMICAL SHIFTS IN AMINO ACIDS, PEPTIDES, AND PROTEINS: From Quantum Chemistry to Drug Design (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 349-378 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract This chapter discusses recent progress in the investigation and use of 13C, 15N, and 19F nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) chemical shifts and chemical shift tensors in proteins and model systems primarily using quantum chemical (ab initio Hartree-Fock and density functional theory) techniques. Correlations between spectra and structure are made and the techniques applied to other spectroscopic and electrostatic properties as well, including hydrogen bonding, ligand binding to heme proteins, J-couplings, electric field gradients, and atoms-in-molecules theory, together with a brief review of the use of NMR chemical shifts in drug design.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.53.082201.124235
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    STUDIES OF POLYMER SURFACES BY SUM FREQUENCY GENERATION VIBRATIONAL SPECTROSCOPY (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physical Chemistry 53 (2002), S. 437-465 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-426X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Recently, sum frequency generation (SFG) vibrational spectroscopy has been developed into a powerful technique to study surfaces of polymer materials. This review summarizes the significant achievements in understanding surface molecular chemical structures of polymer materials obtained by SFG. It reviews in situ detection at the molecular level of surface structures of some common polymers in air, surface segregation of small end groups, polymer surface restructuring in water, and step-wise changed polymer blend surfaces. Studies of surface glass transition and surface structures modified by rubbing, plasma deposition, UV light irradiation, oxygen ion and radical irradiation, and wet etching are also discussed. SFG probing of polymer surfaces provides valuable insights into the relations between polymer surface structures and surface properties, which will assist in the design of polymer materials with desired surface properties.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physchem.53.091801.115126
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    EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY OF PLANT DISEASES IN NATURAL ECOSYSTEMS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 13-43 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Plant pathogens cause mortality and reduce fecundity of individual plants, drive host population dynamics, and affect the structure and composition of natural plant communities. Pathogens are responsible for both numerical changes in host populations and evolutionary changes through selection for resistant genotypes. Linking such ecological and evolutionary dynamics has been the focus of a growing body of literature on the effects of plant diseases in natural ecosystems. A guiding principle is the importance of understanding the spatial and temporal scales at which plants and pathogens interact. This review summarizes the effects of diseases on populations of wild plants, focusing in particular on the mediation of plant competition and succession, the maintenance of plant species diversity, as well as the process of rapid evolutionary changes in host-pathogen symbioses.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.021202.110417
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    VIRAL SEQUENCES INTEGRATED INTO PLANT GENOMES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 40 (2002), S. 119-136 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Sequences of various DNA plant viruses have been found integrated into the host genome. There are two forms of integrant, those that can form episomal viral infections and those that cannot. Integrants of three pararetroviruses, Banana streak virus (BSV), Tobacco vein clearing virus (TVCV), and Petunia vein clearing virus (PVCV), can generate episomal infections in certain hybrid plant hosts in response to stress. In the case of BSV and TVCV, one of the parents contains the integrant but is has not been seen to be activated in that parent; the other parent does not contain the integrant. The number of integrant loci is low for BSV and PVCV and high in TVCV. The structure of the integrants is complex, and it is thought that episomal virus is released by recombination and/or reverse transcription. Geminiviral and pararetroviral sequences are found in plant genomes although not so far associated with a virus disease. It appears that integration of viral sequences is widespread in the plant kingdom and has been occurring for a long period of time.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.40.120301.105642
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