ALBERT

Notes: Abstract. In the European Community (EC) a change towards more market-oriented land use planning is required because of surplus stocks of cereals and dairy products, while at the same time other agricultural goods have to be imported. The implementation of such a policy has to be based on a scientifically sound and objective inventory of the physical potential of the EC as a whole.Principles of such a physical land assessment are explained, using the concepts of the FAO-Framework for Land Evaluation and the Agro-ecological Zone Approach, but adapted to European conditions. The conclusions arrived at through this procedure lead to different alternatives and scenarios, and hence provide valuable background information for future land use planning.

Notes: Abstract. Modern land use problems in the Netherlands are now focused on striking a balance between agricultural production, environmental protection, and nature and landscape conservation by means of new laws on soil protection. Quantitative expressions for crucial land qualities for different land management scenarios are needed to obtain adequate input for the decision making process emphasizing not only actual, but particularly potential conditions. Computer simulation techniques are being applied in this context. Three case studies are reviewed, covering: (i) adsorption of excess phosphate from animal manure; (ii) effects of lowering of water deficits for crops, and (iii) effects of soil tillage and compaction on crucial land qualities for agricultural production. Lack of representative basic data for simulation models inhibits their widespread practical application. Derivation of such basic data from existing soil-survey databases is therefore being discussed in terms of using various types of transfer functions, which allow more effective use of available data. In addition, geographical information systems are needed to allow rapid output for areas of land as represented on soil maps.

Notes: Abstract. A nationwide soil database system has been established containing soil maps, analytical data, and soil classification. The system has been widely used in agricultural planning at county and national level. This paper describes the basic data used for the soil database system, and the exploitation of this system in agricultural water planning. The principles for calculating the irrigation need at county level are given and also those for nationwide mapping of the potential need for drainage. Mapping of potentially acid sulphate soils, which has given rise to legislation on drainage of wetlands, is described, and the future use of the soil database system in agricultural water planning is discussed.

Notes: Abstract. Results of recent research on moisture regimes of surface water soils and on soil credibility are summarized, and proposals are made for the use of results in soil evaluation for selected crops.Measurements of water table depth show high variability from year to year and during the same season. Soil moisture regimes seem to affect soil management more than crop yield. A probabilistic calendar is needed for the occurrence of topsoil moisture content near the lower plastic limit in periods corresponding to the most important management practices. This is required in order to assess important soil qualities like workability and trafficability.Soil erosion is greatest when superficial run-off can create rills. This happens when run-off shear stresses exceed a threshold proportional to soil shear strength. Consequently, soil shear strength can be used as a measure of soil resistance to erosion. Probabilistic calendars are needed on the occurrence of heavy rainstorms able to create rills when the soil is most at risk.Entries for ratings of workability, trafficability and erosion risk are outlined.

Notes: Abstract. A system is described using data processed to combine maps from different sources in order to meet specific needs. The system, known as the KALEIDOS-INRA system, has many advantages over traditional map making and provides the user with better information. Its value is illustrated by a map showing the risk of drought to crops growing in central France.

Notes: Abstract. The purpose of this study was to try to estimate from soil and climate data both absolute and temporal individual soil hydraulic loading limits under Irish conditions. The two concepts cumulative soil moisture deficit (CSMD) and winter rain acceptance potential were used.Cumulative soil moisture deficit (1956–75) ranged from 116 mm in the southeast to 2 mm in the northwest. Four regions were delineated with mean cumulative maximum deficits (mm) of 105.3, 57.7, 20.0, and 2.0 respectively. Consequently, except for Region 4, hydraulic overloading is unlikely to occur under normal farm practices during soil moisture deficit period. Soil moisture deficit was present in Region 1 from early April through October, in Region 2 from early May through September, in Region 3 from early May through August and in Region 4, only in July.The concept of winter rain acceptance potential (WRAP) has been used to assess the possibilities for farm effluent disposal outside of the SMD period. Some 49% of Irish soils have a very high to moderate WRAP, 36% have a low to very low WRAP. These latter categories are likely to exhibit problems if effluents are applied outside of the SMD period.Regional farm slurry storage duration requirements have been estimated from SMD and WRAP data. These are 11.3, 14.0, 16.7 and 20.0 weeks respectively for regions 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Notes: Abstract. Soils mainly in alluvial marine sediments around the coast of England and Wales, occupy about 6% of the agricultural land. The extent of salt-affected soils within these parent materials is unknown, but is believed to be significant from the evidence of existing soil surveys.The principal salt is sodium chloride, and the degree of salinity depends on depth to saline groundwater, the intensity of leaching, and the frequency and severity of past marine flooding. Evidence suggests that while the effects of the flooding are obvious and immediate, long-term salinity owes more to groundwater behaviour and chemistry.The amount of sodium in these soils, particularly the heavier-textured ones, makes them structurally unstable, especially when wet. The instability in turn makes them difficult to drain. Ameliorative treatments are possible, but are expensive and slow to take effect.In their natural or semi-natural state these soils form large areas of wetland or unimproved grassland, often of interest to conservationists. In spite of this, and their generally unfavourable properties for cultivation, extensive areas have become arable in recent years.Structural stability, salt content, and exchangeable sodium percentage are intimately linked and can be measured during soil survey, which then aids rational decisions about land use. Such a survey of the North Kent Marshes is presented as a case study.

Notes: Abstract. The effect of various cultivation sequences on the performance of field drainage systems was investigated in a number of case studies carried out on former opencast coal mining land. Comparisons of drain flow patterns before and after cultivation indicated marked deteriorations in performance following preparation of the final seedbed. Neither mouldboard ploughing nor discing alone affected drain flow.Soil moisture, hydraulic conductivity and drain flow data suggested that drainage performance may have deteriorated as a result, initially, of secondary drainage channels being blocked with fine materials translocated from the seedbed. A subsequent collapse of tilth to form a surface pan reinforced this adverse effect. It was not clear to what extent the failure of secondary drainage channels contributed to this collapse.Implications for the management of former opencast land and the advantages of various cultivation techniques are discussed.

Notes: Abstract. Evidence based on observations of colour, growth and measurements of stem nitrate on carrots and sugar beet, colour and yield of grass, and of yield of wheat in different areas of Britain showed that growth and yield may have been substantially reduced in the wet summer of 1985 due to deficiency of nitrogen following large losses by denitrification. An account of die processes involved is given, together with observations and tests on affected soils. These were compared with field measurements of denitrification also made in 1985, under barley.Examination of climatic data suggests that there were several periods in May, June, July and August when the soils close to the surface would have been saturated for days on end, and in the presence of many tine roots typical of crops at that time of year, the onset of an anaerobic state and accompanying denitrification would have been highly likely. The field evidence in 1985 suggests that nitrogen losses may have been much higher than those reported previously from research station investigations.

Notes: Abstract. The effect of a short-term freeze/thaw cycle (15°C to -8°C to 15°C) on gaseous N-loss (denitrification and NH3-volatilization) from intact blocks of an upland soil is described. Rates of both denitrification and NH3-volatilization were increased by the freeze/thaw cycle, particularly when the blocks had previously been fertilized with urea. Increased gaseous N-loss due to freeze/thaw is reported for soils under heather and under improved grass pasture.

Notes: Abstract. Avalon winter wheat was grown on deep silty clay loam soil (Hook series) under a fixed shelter at Rothamsted with either full drought or irrigation from the end of March to July, 1982. During this time the irrigated crop used 295 mm of irrigation water plus 45 mm of stored soil water, while the droughted crop extracted 223 mm of water from the soil. The roots penetrated to at least 1.8m and water was extracted from 2 m depth.Even with a fully developed root system the crops could transpire at the full rate of atmospheric demand only when the near-surface soil was well supplied with water. However, the draughted crop extracted enough water from the loamy sub-soil to maintain a reduced transpiration flow for a further nine weeks after the near-surface water was depleted. Thus crop growth was maintained with a loss at final harvest of only 10% in total dry weight and even less in grain yield.A summary of other results confirm that yield losses due to drought have been reported only for light soils, except in the exceptional year of 1976, and that drought is not normally an important factor affecting yields of winter wheat in the UK.

Notes: Abstract. Manurial treatments and cropping history have remained unchanged for many years in classical and long-term experiments at Rothamsted and Woburn, in some cases for more than 100 years. Soil samples taken periodically have been analysed to follow changes in organic carbon content with time and treatment. Data presented here clearly show effects of carbon input and soil texture on equilibrium organic matter content.Until recently increasing amounts of soil organic matter had little effect on yields of arable crops especially if fertilizer nitrogen dressings were chosen correctly. However the yield potential of many crops has increased and various agronomic inputs have become available to achieve that potential. Yields of many crops are now larger on soils with extra organic matter both on the sandy loam at Woburn and the silty clay loam at Rothamsted. Some of the effect appears to be related to extra water holding capacity, some to availability of nitrogen in ways which cannot be mimicked by dressings of fertilizer N, and some to improved soil physical properties. Responses to fertilizer N have been larger on soils with more organic matter.

Notes: Abstract. Guidelines are proposed to indicate the range of drainage problems encountered under Scottish conditions, along with some of the main factors to be considered for the treatment of these problems. The identified categories are briefly discussed, together with the potential application of the guidelines.

Notes: Abstract. High rates of erosion are reported from three sites on brickearth (loess) soils in east Kent. Problems are acute where soils are used for intensive production of vegetables and salad crops. Erosion appears to be the result of structural instability, lack of crop cover for much of the year, and certain managment practices, such as ridging the soil for the crop. In the autumn of 1984, about 120 tonnes of soil was lost from rills in a field of onions: an erosion rate of about 15 t ha−1. A large field under winter cereals also eroded and this resulted in damage to property. Conservation techniques are recommended.

Notes: Abstract. Previous studies have shown marked increases in wheat yields on a swelling clay soil due to gypsumslotting compared to no-gypsum and surface gypsum applications, largely through improved aeration in the surface layers. In the present study, steady infiltration rates indicated 2-fold increases due to surface gypsum applications and 4- to 6-fold increases due to slotted gypsum. This should provide increased moisture storage and reduced soil erosion hazards during prolonged heavy rainfall periods, provided that a crust does not form under the impact of raindrops. However, gypsum-slotted lands should not be used in crop rotations which include ponded rice, due to increased potential water use and risk of rising watertables and salinization.The effect of the ‘throttle’ in the upper B horizon which restricts moisture storage in the lower soil layers during short-term and prolonged ponding was reduced, but not eliminated, by surface and slotted gypsum applications. Thus the moisture contents of the lower depths in both the non-ameliorated and ameliorated soils were less than the moisture content at saturation or at -10 kPa potential even after flooding for 11 days.

Notes: Abstract. Reductions in hydraulic conductivity and specific yield (drainable porosity) of large cores of Evesham clay soil were observed for periods up to 40 days under continuous ponding. A strong linear relationship (r2= 0.94) found between these two variables was used as parameter input to a layered drainage model for mole drained soils. Model results indicated that soils of lower drainable porosity and hydraulic conductivity produced higher peaked hydrographs widi faster recessions. These results are discussed in relation to the effects of soil loosening on drain response in heavy clay soils.

Notes: Abstract. The use of sportsfields in winter results in drastic changes in the physical properties of most soils. In consequence adequate sportsfield drainage demands much greater attention to the transmission of incident rainfall to the underdrain system than is normally necessary in agricultural drainage. Solutions to the problem differ in concept and cost, and range from complete profile construction to bypass drainage systems, causing minimal soil disturbance. Specific requirements are examined and practical solutions illustrated and discussed.

Notes: Abstract. The prediction of water-table levels from groundwater theory for a drainage system in a uniform homogeneous soil was tested in an existing field system. Specially designed meters recorded water-table heights and drain discharge with time. A comprehensive hydraulic conductivity survey was made below the water table.The results agreed with theory for water-table heights up to about 300 mm above the mean drain level. The drainage above that level was larger than predicted, either because of an increased hydraulic conductivity (which could have been produced by subsoiling the previous year and would not have been picked up by die hydraulic conductivity measurements), or because of the presence of an older shallower lateral drainage system, broken and blocked, that was discovered during the work.Attention is drawn to the inadequacies of dip-wells for monitoring rapid changes in water-table levels and to the problem of sample size in hydraulic conductivity measurements, which if too small can lead to apparent variability.

Notes: Abstract. Mole drainage of the Hallsworth Series was compared to a traditional treatment of drains alone at 12 m spacing. It is demonstrated that mole drainage offers superior control of water tables and reduces surface run-off. Some management implications of these results are discussed.

Notes: Abstract. Afforestation in the British uplands can lead to changes in the hydrology, sediment load and chemistry of streams. These changes may affect water resource management costs, stream biota and the health of fisheries. Some of the changes can be related to specific phases of the forest management cycle, e.g. site preparation, fertilization, felling; modifications in management practice can limit their impact. Other changes in water yield and chemistry seem to have complex origins in forest-atmosphere and forest-soil interactions; these are more difficult to counteract.

Notes: Abstract. Much field drainage work in Great Britain includes costly permeable backfill material as a connector between mole drains, subsoiler fissures, or permeable subsoil layers and the pipe. This paper reviews the role of the Ministry of Agriculture in sponsoring research and advice on drainage design, as well as providing grant-aid to farmers for the installation of field drainage. As a result of this involvement permeable backfill is now regarded as an essential element in the drainage of clayey soils and springs. The cost is fully justified by the establishment and maintenance of highly efficient and flexible farming systems. These techniques are applicable to many countries where clayey, slowly permeable soils predominate.

Notes: Abstract. Losses of nitrogen in the tile drainflow from a clay soil (Evesham series) under grazed grassland were monitored during the 1982/83 and 1983/84 drainflow seasons. In 1982/83, 40% of the discharge had a NO3− concentration 〉 11.3 mgNl−1, while in 1983/84 concentrations were always 〉 20 mgNl−1. Total N lost by leaching was 17.5 and 48.7 kg ha−1 in 1982/83 and 1983/84 respectively, which was equivalent to 9 and 43% of the fertilizer applied. The marked difference in N losses for the two seasons was attributed to differences in the quantity and timing of N fertilizer applications, the dryness of the preceding summer and the duration and density of stocking.

Notes: Abstract. The literature indicates that cane yield-tonnes cane per hectare (tc ha−1)-is directly related to actual evapotranspiration (Et) and that a ratio 1 tc ha−1 cm−1 Et should be a reasonable objective; this is frequently not attained in commercial practice. Analysis of extensive data from non-irrigated cane in upland Kenya demonstrated water use efficiencies of 0.5 to 0.6 tc ha−1 cm−1 Et in relationships which were remarkably precise; some of the reasons for the failure to achieve higher efficiencies at this location are discussed. The practice of irrigation is likely to introduce additional complications and so reduce water use efficiencies even further; thus responses to irrigation should be measured experimentally before capital expenditure is approved. The main additional complications are the interactions between irrigation and soil type on rooting and growth, in particular the influence of soil type on yield responses; and the fact that advective energy interferes with the convenient, direct relationships between radiation and evaporation and yield.

Notes: Abstract. An interview survey of farmers' assessment of the overall capacity of land, as well as its suitability for specific uses is compared with the judgement of the Soil Survey of England and Wales. The results are interpreted as showing that in a general evaluation the farmers are accurately aware of the quality of their land, but they are less well informed as to its true suitability for specific uses. The comparison shows the potential importance of land suitability analysis to the farmers, especially at a time of changing economic pressures.

Notes: Abstract The effect of incorporating straw of Vigna radiata L. (moong) into the soil at 3.2 t ha-1 on the grain yields of mustard and wheat was investigated with and without 0, 50 and 100% of optimum levels of fertilizers (100 kg N + 50 kg P2O3 ha-1 for mustard and 125 kg N + 62.5 kg P2O3+ 30 kg k2O ha-1 for wheat). In the two-year field experiment, the incorporation of moong residue reduced the grain yield of mustard by 24 to 31% and wheat by 13 to 17%. This adverse effect was, however, diminished with the application of fertilizers. It was concluded that management of crop residues is possible without any adverse effect on the subsequent crop yield when incorporated with adequate levels of N and P fertilizers.

Notes: Abstract Soil samples have been taken periodically from unlimed plots of the 130-year-old Park Grass Experiment and from the 100-year-old Geescroft Wilderness at Rothamsted. Changes in the pH of the samples show how acidification has progressed. The soils are now at, or are approaching, equilibrium pH values which depend on the acidifying inputs and on the buffering capacities of the soils. We have calculated the contributions to soil acidification of natural sources of acidity in the soil, atmospheric deposition, crop growth and nutrient removal, and, where applicable, additions of fertilizers. The relative importance of each source of acidification has changed as the soils have become more acid. Acid rain (wet deposited acidity) is a negligible source, but total atmospheric deposition may comprise up to 30% of acidifying inputs at near neutral soil pH values and more as soil pH decreases. Excepting fertilizers, the greatest causes of soil acidification at or near neutral pH values are the natural inputs of H+ from the dissolution of CO2 and subsequent dissociation of carbonic acid, and the mineralization of organic matter.Under grassland, single superphosphate and small amounts of sodium and magnesium sulphates have had no effect on soil pH, whilst potassium sulphate increased soil acidity slightly. All of these effects are greatly outweighed under grassland, however, by those of nitrogen fertilizers. Against a background of acidification from atmospheric, crop and natural inputs, nitrogen applied as ammonium sulphate decreased soil pH up to a maximum of 1.2 units at a rate in direct proportion to the amount added, and nitrogen applied as sodium nitrate increased soil pH by between 0.5 and 1 unit.

Notes: Abstract. The principles and practice of bulk soil handling for mine reclamation are reviewed, with special reference to the agricultural restoration of sand and gravel quarries in the UK. The principal forms of damage to soils when moved are due to trafficking, and include compaction in cohesive soils and loss of structure in granular soils. Of the wide range of soil moving equipment available, earthscrapers are often responsible for severe compaction. New soil handling techniques have been developed to minimize such damage. On chalky boulder clay soils earthscrapers can be combined with excavators for topsoil placement. On more granular soils all soil handling can be carried out by excavators and dumptrucks, with virtually immediate restoration to full agricultural productivity.

Notes: Abstract. A computer simulation model was used to estimate the effects of season, site, sowing date, residual-N after harvest, autumn-N and field drains on winter losses of nitrate from soils growing winter wheat. The simulations were based on weather data between 1970–71 and 1983–84 and soil data from Rothamsted and Woburn. The residual-N after harvest was predicted to have most effect on nitrate losses, followed by season and site. For the values of residual-N and autumn-applied fertilizer-N tested, the predicted average nitrate-N losses differed between seasons by up to 100 kg N ha-1, and the nitrate-N concentrations varied between 30 and 80 mg N l-1.

Notes: Abstract. The impact of three methods of pasture improvement on soil water chemistry were studied: ploughing plus 15 t ha-1 lime c. 40 years ago, 5 t ha-1 surface spread lime c. 20 years ago and surface cultivation with 7 t ha-1 lime plus compound fertilizer 10 years ago. Soil solution was sampled using tensionless lysimeters and porous ceramic cups. Concentrations of several solutes were higher in the treated soils than a control, including solutes not added in lime or fertilizers. Calcium, magnesium and bicarbonate concentrations showed the largest increases; these were apparent in all horizons, and all treatments. Bicarbonate had become the dominant anion. Solute concentrations varied between treatments and were related to the amount of an element added rather than time since treatment. Highest mean calcium concentrations, 6.25 mg l-1 were still low compared with drainage from lowland arable soils but could have a significant impact on the calcium-poor surface waters of the uplands.

Notes: The paper is concerned with analyzing the consistency problem that arises when the macroenterprise sector of a nation's accounting system is put on a microdata foundation. This foundation is composed of sets of microbusiness accounts, after some appropriate rearrangements and reclassifications. We pose the question: can the macroenterprise sector accounts be regarded as a consolidation of (observed) microbusiness accounts? The answer is positive from a purely conceptual viewpoint, but negative from a statistical viewpoint which preserves the decision-making records of microbusiness units. The latter phenomenon is referred to as the limits to (statistical) consistency while attempting to maintain the viability of a national accounting system.The analysis proceeds by exploiting the structural properties of market transactions matrices for a nation's economy. The results are sufficiently general to encompass the case where the transaction matrices are initially characterized by both sectoral discrepancies and transaction flow category discrepancies. In this general context it is shown that the statistical inconsistency potentially resulting from the replacement of the macroenterprise sector by an aggregation of microbusiness units has certain properties with economic meaning. This leads to a discussion that explains the ultimate rationale of statistical inconsistency: the fact that different microeconomic decision units may have different views and knowledge of common market transactions. The paper concludes with some implications for future research that appear to follow from the historical development of the subject matter.

Notes: This paper explains the treatment of market and non-market transactions in the national accounts. Different possibilities of defining these two types of transactions are discussed, and it becomes evident that a strong restriction of national accounts to market transactions only cannot be seriously taken into consideration. On the other hand, a system of supplementary tables is proposed which shows the market and the non-market transactions as such. Examples of tables of this kind are presented for the Federal Republic of Germany.

Notes: The proposed “Variable Domestic Cost” includes all net payments by sectors belonging to the productive system (enterprises, credit institutions and government) to all other sectors (households, private non-profit organizations and the rest of the world). Compared with the rate of growth of demand, represented by Gross Domestic Marketable Product at current prices, the rate of growth of VDC per unit produced forms the “profitability function of the nation.” Profitability is positively related to the rate of economic growth and to the price/cost relation. A relative deceleration of unit VDC stimulates economic growth, which enlarges the positive difference between price and cost, and that, in turn, accelerates economic growth. Inversely, a relative acceleration of unit VDC brakes economic growth, while a slowdown in production raises unit costs and depresses prices. The resulting fall in profitability stops economic growth.The main explanatory variables of demand are World trade, monetary and fiscal policy and import prices. The main components of VDC are enterprises' wage costs, social benefits minus social contributions and the government wage bill minus direct taxes payable by households. The fact that in West Germany all these unit costs were increasing more slowly than in France explains why Geman economic growth, much slower than French before 1975, outpaced it after that year, achieving a lower rate of inflation, a larger positive balance of trade and a higher appreciation of the national currency.The concept of VDC is a useful contribution to the theories of inflation and of economic fluctuations and provides a possible explanation of structural unemployment. Maintaining VDC at a lowest possible level should be considered a major object of economic policy.

Notes: The United Nations International Comparisons Project (ICP) has conducted in-depth purchasing-power parity (PPP) studies of the so-called “benchmark” countries (of which there were 34 in the 1975 sample). In the absence of PPP studies of the rest of the countries in the world, the ICP team has constructed “short-cut” estimates of real income (that is, income converted from domestic currency to dollars at PPP) for the nonbenchmark countries. The idea of a “short-cut” procedure for estimating real income is to run a regression of real income on nominal income (that is, income converted from domestic currency to dollars at a market exchange rate) and other variables among the benchmark countries and then to use this regression to estimate real income for the nonbenchmark countries. The most recent ICP short-cut estimates have been based on regressions of real income on nominal income and the foreign trade ratio. The present study expands the list of candidate variables that might be included in a short-cut regression. The list includes educational attainments, the share of minerals in GDP, the trade balance, the growth of the money supply, tourist receipts, and the share of nontradables in GDP. The theory underlying the inclusion of each of these variables is discussed. Regressions are run with various combinations of these variables and some short-cut estimates of real income for 76 market economies are presented.

Notes: National accounts in their present form do not serve very well as a framework for microdata, largely because of differing concepts and coverage in the macro and micro data. This article identifies the differences in sectoring and the handling of imputations and attributions between macro and micro data, and then proposes a form of presentation of the macro accounts that will facilitate their integration. Data for the United States in 1980 are used as an illustrative example. The final section explores the consequences of the proposed alterations in the macro accounts for the analysis of saving and investment and the accumulation and distribution of wealth, using U.S. data for the period since 1947. The article concludes that the proposed alterations do lead to new analytical insights, and further, that in their present form the national accounts are both misleading and inadequate.

Notes: The present article includes a proposal for a national accounts algorithm to be applied in the computerization of the national accounts compilation process. While aiming at the estimation and reconciliation of data from different statistical sources, it is based on the application of a linear programming technique applied to a system of identities and inequalities that define the accounting and analytical relations between the data categories of a national accounting framework. The technique is flexible in the sense that it can be used with any configuration of available statistical sources and data requirements of the national accounts. The algorithm is illustrated graphically with help of a simple example and thereafter applied to an extended but still simple national accounting scheme for Suriname with data for 1965 that was compiled by the author many years ago. As the present study is only a first step in the development of the algorithm, more work is needed to make it operational and the last section of the article includes suggestions about the direction of that further work.

Notes: This paper is divided into two main sections. The first part summarises briefly the main points which have arisen in the lengthy debate over the treatment of banking intermediaries in the national accounts. The discussion emphasises the method adopted in the early Australian accounts when banks were treated in the same way as the general government. It is argued that this method is simpler and provides a more realistic account of the functions of banks than the current SNA proposal.The second part of the paper examines the functions of banks in Australia. It uses data of interest and administration cost for separate banking institutions to examine the incidence of bank costs. It is concluded that the costs do not fall on borrowers or lenders but are a charge in providing a communal service in the establishment and maintenance of the financial system.

Notes: This paper focuses on the income patterns among the elderly. The life cycle hypothesis suggests that income and assets will decline after retirement. Data from the 1980 U.S. decennial census confirms that total income declines for succeeding elderly cohorts. The census data, however, shows that income from assets for elderly cohorts increases until the cohort aged 85 years and older. This pattern is similar for different sex-marital groups. Recent research that has addressed the issue of savings among the elderly is summarized and four possible explanations for the increase in income from assets found in the decennial census are discussed. We conclude by suggesting the implications of this data for the life cycle theory and public policy.

Notes: This article evaluates the distribution of public expenditure on subsidized goods and services over income categories. It is argued that undifferentiated application of usual measures of dispersion must be rejected when judging the distribution of these expenditures, because there are hardly any subsidized goods and services for which the government aims at equal consumption. Such an application requires a normative distribution of expenditure. The normative distribution of expenditure is derived from a normative distribution of consumption and the distribution of normative charges. Central elements are needs of consumers and their financial capacity. The normative distribution of consumption is based on government intentions with respect to the goods and services under consideration.

Notes: This paper is the concluding part of a project described in an earlier paper in this journal.1 The conceptual partition of government services into intermediate, individual and collective consumption is connected to the framework of the SNA and ESA. The paper shows how elements from both systems can be welded together in order to describe government productive activity more clearly within the general make-use matrix approach. After an attempt to clarify some of the existing terminology, figures are presented which show that the partition is feasible, in principle. The data also support the necessity of distinguishing between individual and collective consumption of government services leading to the concept of total individual consumption. Finally, the paper concludes that intermediate use, if properly defined, should be introduced as a subcategory of government consumption, but not subtracted at present from GDP.

Notes: The banking problem in the National Accounts arises because interest rates paid by banks on deposits are generally lower than the rates charged for loans and service charges levied by banks are generally less than the cost of the banking services provided.This paper offers two explanations for such observations: first there is the new neo-classical theory of private banking and central banking which suggests that they arise because of distorting “taxes” levied by regulating central banks. Second there is the Keynesian theory which accounts for the observations by the fact that the public good services of monetary stabilization supplied directly by the central banks and indirectly by private banks cannot be priced.Both theories account for the empirical observations giving rise to the banking problem. Neither theory lends support to the banking imputation currently carried out in most National Accounts.

Notes: Canadian statistics of the health care delivery system are generated under a variety of concepts, methodologies, definitions, and classifications by the numerous individual units, institutions, and organizations involved. This paper presents an overview and a framework for satellite accounts on health care delivery. Its objective is to enable the organization of economic and financial information on health care delivery activities from different sources into a set of consistent statistics detailing current expenditures, current revenues, purposes of spending, and source and application of funds in the health care delivery system. It is recognized that this economic framework is only a first stage in establishing a complete health information framework which could link economic with social and demographic data. A sample set of accounts for the province of Ontario in the fiscal year 1977-78 is presented to demonstrate the feasibility of establishing such satellite accounts.

Notes: This paper examines the purposes of the SNA and concludes that they frequently conflict with one another. Consequently, the structure of the SNA should be made more flexible. This can be achieved by means of a system of a general purpose core supplemented by special modules. This core is a full-fledged, detailed system of national accounts with a greater institutional content than the present SNA and a more elaborate description of the economy at the meso-level. The modules are more analytic and reflect special purposes and specific theoretical views. It is argued that future revisions will concentrate on the modules and that the core is more durable than systems like the present SNA.

Notes: National accountants, model builders and analysts who work with statistical material that has been compiled without the discipline of well-developed unit standards rules and central register controls may be constructing information systems that are basically unsound because of the uncertain nature of their building bricks of economic units.This paper draws attention to the nature and importance of statistical unit standards and central register systems in the provision of economic statistics for economic accounting, planning and management. These are viewed as essential conceptual and operational tools for compiling economic statistics on an integrated basis and for making progress towards establishing a comprehensive data base with positive links between macro economic analysis and data about individual economic agents. Some of the problems and possibilities for countries who wish to proceed along these lines are discussed, with particular reference to the experience of Australia.

Notes: Human capital theory has motivated a great many empirical investigations into the relationship between education and earnings potential. These studies test refinements of the theory, but do not attempt to value education for the economy as a whole. This study develops series which track human wealth and its educational components for the United States from 1946 to 1980. Three related educational time sequences emerge: (1) schooling wealth, the present value of the current and future contributions of the existing schooling stock to national income; (2) net change in schooling wealth, the amount added to present value in that year; and (3) schooling investment, the present value of the future contributions of the new schooling conducted in that year.One important lesson of this exercise is that the last two series can be quite different as a result of the pattern of appreciation and depreciation of human wealth over the lifetimes of individuals. Moreover, education increases the age of peak human wealth and thus should shorten the period during which individuals save for retirement. This phenomenon may induce a demographic cycle in the nation's savings rate, especially evidenced with the aging of the baby-boom cohort.The magnitudes of the human and schooling wealth estimates are large when compared to financial wealth. For a 4 percent rate, the period-wide average for human wealth is five times-and schooling wealth 2.6 times-the Federal Reserve Board's measure of household net worth. These estimates are naturally sensitive to the discount rate chosen, but show that the gap between human and financial wealth has been widening and that the value of schooling provided in any year greatly exceeds its cost. Schooling represents a form of saving whose value is several times the conventional measure of saving.

Notes: Income inequality in Canada has not changed significantly over the past two decades, though this apparent stability may be surprising in view of the major economic and social changes that occurred over this period. The share of income going to the bottom quintile remains at about four percent while the top quintile continues to receive about 40 percent of income.Social trends such as lower fertility rates have coincided with increased female labour force participation to increase family incomes in the middle and upper-middle parts of the income spectrum. At the same time, the trend for baby boom children to establish their own separate households, and increased divorce and separation rates, have tended to create more small family units with low incomes. These social trends, in isolation of other factors, would have increased income inequality.However, economic factors have apparently offset these tendencies. Since employment income is concentrated in the middle and upper-middle ranges, the relative fall in this source of income over the past two decades tended to be equalizing. Similarly, the fact that a large part of total investment income accrues to the elderly who have below average income implies that the trend towards high interest rates has been equalizing. Finally, the social “safety nets” put in place in the mid-1960s and early 1970s have grown in relative importance, and this too has had an equalizing impact on the distribution of income.Given the overall stability in income inequality, the equalizing tendencies of economic factors such as high interest rates and relatively slow economic growth, with the large automatic responsiveness of governments' social safety net programs, appear to have just about exactly offset the disequalizing social factors of “baby boomers” leaving home, lower fertility, higher divorce and separation rates, and higher female labour force participation.

Notes: Household non-market production is not observed directly and therefore not known. This paper develops a methodological approach to the description of household production functions based on the assumption that household non-market production and household final consumption (as defined in National Accounts) are interdependent. What households produce and the way they produce depends to a large extent on what they may acquire on the market. Empirical data is provided both by the French National Accounts and Household Surveys.The study presents a nomenclature of household output by type of product derived from the nomenclature of household non-market productive activities, to which final consumption products as described in the National Accounting nomenclatures are matched. Final consumption commodities are classified according to the role they play in household non-market productive processes, and subdivided into three categories: “substitute products” which save households from producing similar commodities in the home; “complementary products” which are not produced by households, but serve to produce other goods and services; “pure final consumption products” which are neither produced by households nor serve in any further productive process before being actually consumed in the proper sense of the term.The combination of monetary and non-monetary indicators provides information on household modes of production and on trends of output over the past 15 years. The method is implemented here for all households, in a global approach. It may, nonetheless, be adapted and serve to study disparities among households stemming from their characteristics, or to estimate the implicit price at which household members value the use of their time; it may also be used to assess the impact of market output on the nature of household non-market production. National Accounts supply aggregate data on household final consumption, while time budget surveys constitute the main source of information on their activities.The method used in this study consists of matching the official nomenclatures used to structure the two sets of data, each designed to describe different aspects of one and the same economic unit. To be more precise, this study attempts to establish a correspondence between the nomenclature of activities and products (N.A.P.) [1] used in the French National Accounting System and the nomenclature of activities used in the French Time Budget Survey [2]. This matching procedure aims at showing up the substitutability or complementarity effects between household non-market production and output of the market sector.1The assumption of interdependence between households' final consumption (as defined in National Accounts) and their non-market production leads to a classification of commodities acquired on the market into three categories: “substitute products”, which the household purchases rather than producing them itself; “complementary products”, which the household uses in order to produce other goods; and finally, “pure final consumption products”, which households do not produce (or no longer produce) and which they neither transform nor use in any further productive process.

Notes: National accounts are a powerful means of coordinating different statistical systems. The better their classifications are adapted to the basic statistics or the information blocks one wishes to use, the better the national accounts play their part. This statement explains why, taking the opportunity of revising the whole system, French national accountants tried to improve the concordance between financial operation tables and monetary statistics. Other reasons leading to this attempt can be found in the dissatisfaction of users having to face different and inconsistent financial information such as the monetary statistics on one hand and the financial aggregates of the national accounts on the other; and even more reasons appear in the organizational field since those two statistical systems are issued by two neighbour services of the Banque de France, often depending on the same sources. Further, many propitious factors are converging at the same time: the French financial system is undergoing profound transformations originating as much in the behaviour of economic agents as in the law, and the statistical operations have to adapt to these changes. The national accounts will in the near future include balance sheets in which financial asset holdings are directly comparable to the money supply aggregates. In its first part our paper sets forth the detailed reasons for our attempts, the conditions in which it took place and the present results. We have reached a much better degree of consistency between the two systems, even if the final scheme has not yet been adopted in either the monetary field or in the field of national accounts. But an important question remains open about the durability of the harmonization: we think that it could be relatively uncertain because of the differences in the goals pursued by the two systems and the constraints which they face. That is why in the second part of the paper we tried to review the way such a pragmatic undertaking as ours could call into question the way in which financial operations are described in the system of national accounts. If one agrees with the present boundary between the real and the financial sphere, the articulation must remain somewhat elementary. But if one wants to revise the usual so-called dichotomy between financial and non financial phenomena, we think that a complete rebuilding of the conceptual framework of the accounts has to be done; this would necessitate a considerable amount of theoretical and practical work.

Notes: This paper describes the French enlarged system of national accounts, and discusses its relevance for the revision of the UN System of National Accounts. Part I develops the concept of a “Central System” of national accounts, and sets out its minimum requirements and the margins within which adjustments or variants would be acceptable. This part concludes that the Central System is the basic system of macro-economics, and must meet the needs of macro-economists both as to content and coherence. Part II discusses the issue of the complexity of SNA. It proposes the introduction of a “tableau economique d'ensemble” (TEE) to provide an overview of the Central System, and shows how certain complementary approaches dealing with population, employment, input-output, financial operations, and more detailed presentations of wealth accounts and institutional sector accounts can be related to the TEE. The third part discusses the possibilities of deriving directly the accounts of the Central System from microdata for individual units, concluding that although this may be possible in limited special cases such as central government, it is generally impractical. For certain sectors- especially non-financial corporate and quasi-corporate enterprises-a system of intermediate accounts is proposed, which would reflect the data that can be collected from these units without adjustments and/or corrections needed for the national accounts. For other sectors, notably households, only global treatment seems feasible. Part IV introduces the concept of satellite accounts as a means of extending the coverage of the data system without overburdening the Central System. Annexes illustrate the tableau economique d'ensemble, the intermediate accounts, satellite accounts, and accounts relating to such extensions as natural resources and the ecosystem.

Notes: This paper describes the derivation of a series of equations for estimating mean grass production on cut swards under different fertilizer nitrogen, soil and climatic regimes. Using data from the National Grassland Manuring Trial GM20 for a late flowering perennial ryegrass, equations have been estimated for the individual cuts. On the basis of data from cutting trials at Hurley, equations for extrapolating yields under cutting strategies with different first cut dates and regrowth intervals have been derived. The resultant model for predicting yields has then been tested against data obtained from two separate cutting trials. Although in individual cases significant differences between predicted and observed mean yields were noticed, in general the predicted yields were a reasonable approximation to observed yields. Comparison of the predicted yields with those derived from an earlier study by the authors indicated an improvement in the accuracy of prediction.

Notes: Above ground production of a typical Cortaderia pilosa dominant sward in the Falkland Islands was estimated over one growing season by summing significant positive increments in DM production of various sward components and by sequential cutting to ground level. The standing crop was characterized by a high proportion of standing dead matter at all times of the year. Net herbage production was estimated as 2200 kg ha-1 and 1440 kg ha-1 by the ‘difference’ and “sequential culling” techniques, respectively. The pattern of leaf growth was determined on another site by regular linear measurements of a population of physiologically similar C. pilosa leaves. There was very little early season growth and most of the DM was produced in a short period in the middle part of the growing season. The poor early season growth was attributed to adverse climatic conditions. A significant increase in green matter digestibility in October and November was masked by the low digestibility and high contribution to the overall DM by the standing dead component of the herbage.The implications of these findings are briefly discussed in relation to the increased utilization of C. pilosa by improved pasture management, including burning and possibly reseeding areas with improved species. Tissue turnover studies combined with more knowledge of sheep nutrition cycles would enable grazing systems to be developed on a sounder basis than previously.

Notes: Plants of three varieties of Phleum pratense L. from different latitudes (cv. Engmo, 69°N; cv. S48, 52°N; cv. Motim, 52°N) were grown from the five-leaf stage at 12°C under continuous illumination or 8-h days at essentially identical daily inputs of radiant energy. The responses to daylength extension (increase in plant dry weight, plant height and leaf dimensions and reduction in the number of tillers per plant and in tissue dry matter content) were common to all three varieties and although the enhancement in plant dry weight and in leaf size was greater in the Engmo plants, this was principally the result of poorer growth and smaller leaf size in 8-h days. Marked differences between Engmo and the other varieties in the partitioning of dry matter within the plant were the consequence of differences in the rate of reproductive development. For example, compared with S48 and Motim, first spike emergence and 50% anthesis in the Engmo plants were delayed by 22 and 14 days, respectively, and 40% of the Engmo plants did not become reproductive even after 110 days of long-day treatment. Furthermore, by the time that 50% anthesis of the mainstem spike had been reached by the long-day plants of each variety, significant differences in tiller numbers and tiller fertility had developed between the varieties from high and lower latitudes. These findings and the results of previous studies of Poa pratensis, Dactylis glomerata and Bromus inermis are discussed in relation to the adaptation of high-latitude grasses to the Scandinavian environment.

Notes: The effect of goat slurry on species composition and herbage production as compared to inorganic fertilizer was studied in a natural grassland dominated by warm and cool season perennial grasses in Macedonia, Greece. Goat slurry was applied in early spring every 1 or 2 years at a rate of 40 t ha-1 being equivalent to about 160 kg N ha-1 and 100 kg, P2O5 ha-1. Inorganic fertilizer was also broadcast in early spring at a rate of 80 kg N ha-1 and 100 kg P2O5 ha-1 every 2 years. Measurements of the basal cover of the dominant species or groups of species and herbage yields were taken for 6 years at the end of the growing period in June, while in the seventh year the experiment was grazed with goats. It was found that goat slurry improved species composition more than the inorganic fertilizer by depressing the less palatable warm season grasses and favouring the subdominant cool season grasses and legumes. Goat slurry significantly increased herbage yields in most of the years. It is suggested that the optimum rate of goat slurry is 40 t ha-1 every 2 years as this encourages plants most preferred by goats.

Notes: Seedlings of white clover (cv. Grasslands Huia) were introduced as spaced plants into 3-year-old monoculture plots of eight grass species (Agrostis capillaris, Agrostis stolonifera, Dactylis glomerata, Festuca rubra, Holcus lanatus, Lolium perenne, Phleum pratense and Poa pratensis) during June 1984. In mid-April 1985 plots were split for application of propyzamide at the following concentrations: 0, 0·2, 0·4, 0·6 kg a.i. ha-1.During 1984 differences between clover seedling growth in the different grass species became apparent within 2 weeks; growth was greatest in F. rubra, P. pratensis and H. lanatus and smallest in D. glomerata, L. perenne and P. pratense. During 1985, when more N fertilizer was given, H. lanatus and D. glomerata, were equally competitive and clover contributed only 16–18% of the total herbage yield of 10·4 t ha-1 in them, compared with 33–50% of yields ranging from 9·6 to 119 t ha-1 in the other six species. Propyzamide decreased grass growth in mid-season by more than 50% but there was little overall persistent benefit to clover yield, except for A. stolonifera and P. pratense with 0·4 and 0·6 kg ha-1 treatments. Dactylis glomerata and perenne were least and H. lanatus, F. rubra and P. pratensis most suppressed by the herbicide.Possible reasons for the overall large clover contribution from a very sparse seedling population and the relatively small effects of propyzamide are discussed as well as future work required to improve the predictability of effects of grass suppression.

Notes: Two silages were produced by harvesting grass either unwilted, using a direct cutting flail forage harvester (flail-direct), or wilted following precut-ting and being picked up using a meter-chop harvester (precision-wilted). Formic acid was applied at the rates of 2·45 and 2·9 1 t-1 for the flail-direct and precision-wilted silages, respectively. Weather conditions were difficult, both before and during harvesting with a total of 27 mm rainfall falling on the wilted herbage before ensiling.The in-silo dry matter losses were 199 and 68 g kg-1 for the flail-direct and precision-wilted silages, respectively. The resulting silages had mean particle lengths of 49 and 24 mm, dry matter contents of 186 and 276 g kg--1 and D-values of 068 and 062 for the flail-direct and precision-wilted silages, respectively.During a 141-day feeding period commencing on 19 November, the two silages were offered to 88 British Friesian cows with a mean calving date of 21 January and divided into four groups in a 2×2 factorial design experiment. The silos were divided longitudinally and two groups of cows were self-fed the silages in situ, one for each silage type, while the other two groups were easy-fed the same silages along a feed fence.There were no significant interactions between system of silage harvesting and feeding on any of the measurements of animal performance. Animals on the flail-direct silage consumed 16% less silage dry matter and produced 10% more milk per cow than those on the precision-wilted silage treatment. The overall effect was a 12% greater milk output for each unit of grass dry matter ensiled with the flail-direct than with the precision-wilted harvesting system.System of silage feeding did not significantly influence silage intake or milk output, with the mean milk yields during the final 21 days of the study being 234 and 236 kg d-1 (±0.30) for the self- and easy-feed systems, respectively.The effects of the treatments on milk composition, liveweight change, body condition score and total ration digestibility are also reported.

Notes: Herbage height was measured in ryegrass/white clover (Lolium perenne/Trifolium repens) swards grazed by cattle using the rising plate meter or the sward stick. Ordinary single normal and double normal distributions were fitted to the data obtained. After the first 6 weeks of continuous grazing the double normal distributions fitted data for the taller swards better than the single normal distribution did, but for a short sward there was no improvement. There was no improvement due to the use of the double normal distribution with data for swards grazed by sheep.

Notes: Four experiments were carried out to evaluate effluent from grass silage as a feed for beef cattle. Castrated male cattle (steers) with mean initial live weights of 380,460 and 400 kg in Experiments 1–3 were offered effluent, in addition to a diet of grass silage given ad libitum and supplemented with cereal-based concentrates. The cattle readily consumed effluent in preference to fresh water, the mean intake over the three experiments being 12·71 per head daily containing 0·77 kg dry matter (DM). Supplementation with effluent did not affect silage DM intake and increased total DM intake by 10%. Digestible energy concentrations of 13·1 and 16·6 MJ kg--1 DM and organic matter, respectively, were determined for effluent in Experiment 4. There were no problems of ill health in any of the 69 cattle which were offered effluent. It is concluded that fresh or well-preserved stored effluent from grass silage is readily consumed by beef cattle, is of high nutritive value and could enable savings to be made in total feed costs.

Notes: Lucerne (DM 236 g kg-1, WSC 49 g (kg DM)-1) was ensiled in test-tube silos with or without either glucose or fructose and with or without one of two commercial inoculants. The WSC content of the forage as ensiled was too low to obtain a well preserved untreated silage. By day 4 the pH values of the silages with added sugar or inoculant were significantly lower (P〈 0·001) than the control silage. A satisfactory fermentation was attained only in the silages to which sugar and an inoculant had been added. These silages had a lower pH, more protein-N (P〈 0·001), less ammonia-N (P〈0·001), a faster increase in counts of lactic acid bacteria, and decrease in counts of coliforms than the other silages. Homo-fermentative lactic acid bacteria dominated the fermentation in the inoculated silages while leuconostocs dominated the early stages of fermentation in the control silages. The results indicate that if there is insufficient sugar in the original crop, then the bacteria in an inoculant will not be able to produce enough lactic acid to lower the pH to an acceptable level. This has important implications for the ensilage of lucerne and other highly buffered low sugar crops.

Notes: To determine whether leatherjackets might be controlled by application of a pesticide in summer, before oviposition by crane flies, chlorpyrifos was applied to perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) swards on dates from July to September in anticipation of leatherjacket infestation. Subsequent winter population estimates showed that leatherjacket numbers had been reduced by at least 85% by 0·72 kg chlorpyrifos ha-1 applied on 13 July, and by 0·60 kg ha-1 applied on 3 August or later.The significance of leatherjacket control by pesticide application on these dates is discussed in relation to previously recorded effects of pesticide treatment on other known pests. It is concluded that control of all common arthropod pests of proven significance in established grassland may be achieved with one application of pesticide.

Notes: The effects of three levels of potash, phosphate and lime fertilizers on the yield and mineral content of white clover (Trifolium repens) and on soil nutrient levels were studied in a field experiment over 7 years. The aim of the experiment was to define an optimum fertilizer programme for breeding nurseries and experimental fields.Potash was the main factor limiting production: clover yield was negligible after 2 years where no potassium was applied. Phosphate increased yields after the third year, while liming had no significant effect on clover yield.The soil potassium status improved with the repeated application of potash over the 7–year period, but no consistent pattern was discernible for the phosphate treatments. There was a slight increase in soil pH with liming.Application of phosphate increased the phosphorous content of herbage, but had no effect on other plant constituents for the first 2 years. Subsequent applications increased the calcium and sodium contents. Potash reduced the content of all constituents other than potassium as the treatment levels increased. Lime had little effect on plant constituents other than calcium.

Notes: A field experiment with mixed swards of perennial ryegrass and while clover carded out in 1982–83 using small cut plots is described. With perennial ryegrass, lime slightly decreased annual dry matter (DM) production in 1982 (the sowing year) but increased it in 1983 (the first harvest year) by about 1 t ha-1. Applications of N and P produced small increases in DM in 1982 and greater increases in 1983. In the latter season annual DM production varied from an average of 3·5 to about 10 t ha-1 with 0 or 480 kg N ha-1 applied in three equal-sized dressings throughout the growing season. Application of 40 kg P ha-1 in 1982 increased DM production by about 2·5 t ha-1 in 1983 but higher rates had little effect. Fifteen mg extractable P kg-1 soil seemed sufficient to support levels of production normally expected from ryegrass pastures in upland Scotland, Applications of K did not affect DM production. N increased tiller weight and sward height of ryegrass; lime and P tended to increase tiller weight but this effect was not statistically significant. Leaf appearance and tiller number were not affected by treatments.The white clover content of the pasture was decreased 10-fold by application of N and increased by lime and P (1·45 and 1·46-fold. respectively). The DM response to P was most apparent in limed soil and was also affected by the siting of the plots in the experimental area. Effects of lime and P on growth of white clover were to increase the number of stolon growing points and root nodule numbers per unit area.The results emphasize the importance of lime and P fertilizer for establishment and growth of pasture in this soil and the differences between white clover and ryegrass in their responses to these.

Notes: Book review in this article Pasture Improvement Research in Eastern and Southern Africa Proceedings of a Workshop held in Harare, Zimbabwe, 17–21 September 1984 Edited by J. A. Kategile Grasses of the Soviet Union. Part I and Part II By N. N. Tsvelev, translated by B. R. Sharma A. A. Balkema Flora of Turkey. Volume 9 Edited by P. H. Davis Weeds, Pests and Diseases of Grassland and Herbage Legumes Edited by J, S, Brockman Vegetation Management in Northern Britain Proceedings of a seminar organised by the Scottish Agricultural Colleges and the British Crop Protection Council Edited by R. B. Murray Silage UK By M. Wilkinson

Notes: Field trials were carried out at five sites in southern Scotland to examine the sulphur status of intensively grown grass under varying Inputs of atmospheric and rainfall sulphur. Sulphur budgets were prepared by comparing amounts of sulphur removed at harvest with sulphur inputs from rainfall, the atmosphere and fertilizers.No yield responses to added sulphur were obtained, although soil-derived sulphur was essential for the maintenance of optimal sulphur levels in herbage. Where no fertilizer sulphur was added, mineralization of soil organic sulphur supplied approximately 8 to 18 kg S ha-1 annually during the growing season. Maintenance requirements of 5 to 10 kg S ha-1 annually were indicated at the Dumfriesshire and Midlothian sites and 20 kg S ha-1 annually at the Berwickshire sites to prevent a decline in soil sulphur reserves. Total sulphur concentrations of less than 2 g S kg-1 dry matter were observed in herbage at some samplings indicating marginal sulphur sufficiency. Sulphate levels in herbage, expressed as a percentage of total sulphur, also indicated that sulphur supplies barely matched crop requirements.

Notes: Fifteen varieties of white clover were sown in order to assess the seed yielding ability of new and potential varieties and to examine those plant factors which affect seed yield. Counts were made on number of inflorescences m-2, proportion of ripe inflorescences and other inflorescence and seed characters. The data were used to compute potential seed yields.Average potential seed yields were 276 and 76 kg ha-1 in the first and second year, respectively. The decrease in the second year seed yields underlines the overriding effect of adverse weather conditions during the critical June to August period. The major effect was a reduction in the number of inflorescences produced, the number of florets per inflorescence and seeds per floret.Some of the new listed varieties have a significantly higher seed potential than SI00, e.g. Menna (+ 38%) and Olwen (+28%), and this should facilitate the production of adequate seed supplies of British bred varieties.

Notes: Measurements of sward surface height and of the ratio of light at 660 and 730 nm reflected from a pasture canopy were correlated with measurements of leaf area index (LAI) and herbage mass of two ryegrass dominant swards. Both pastures were continuously stocked by sheep to maintain a range of sward heights from 2 to 6 cm corresponding approximately to LAI 2 to 5.Sward height appeared to be linearly related to both LAI and herbage mass, whereas 660/730 reflectance displayed a non-linear relationship with both parameters. The accuracy of prediction by the two methods over the range LAI 1 to 3 or herbage mass 700 to 1800 kg DM ha-1 was very similar. However, reflectance measurements could not be used above about LAI 3–4 and to this extent were less useful. Nevertheless, reflectance measurements have a potential advantage in their ability to sample large areas of pasture very quickly.