ALBERT

Notes: The author has been involved in the manufacture of photogrammetric instruments for nearly 30 years. In particular, he was associated with the Thompson-Watts plotter and, at the present time, is concerned with the production of the CP1 and EMPD instruments which owe a great deal to his design and innovatory skills. This paper summarises his experiences and views of the production of photogrammetric equipment in England.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméPendant 30 ans l'auteur a participéà l'élaboration d'appareillages pour la photogrammétrie: en particulier les restituteurs Thompson–Watts; et maintenant les appareils CP1 et EMPD qui lui doivent beaucoup. Il condense ici l'expérience et les idées qu'il a dans ce domaine.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDer Autor ist seit fast 30 Jahren an der Herstellung photogrammetrischer Auswertegeräte beteiligt. Insbesondere verbunden war er mit dem Thompson–Watts Plotter und befasst sich gegenwärtig mit der Fertigung der Geräte CP1 und EMPD, an denen er durch seine schöpferischen Fähigkeiten grossen Anteil hat. In dem Artikel werden seine Erfahrungen und Ansichten bei der Produktion photogrammetrischer Geräte in England zusammengefasst.

Notes: An application of photogrammetry in the measurement of palatal surface area is described. The accuracy of the photogrammetric method in such applications is also discussed.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméDétermination par photogrammétrie de l'aire du palais buccal; indications sur l'exactitude obtenue.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDie Anwendung der Photogrammetrie zur Vermessung der Gaumen-oberfläche wird beschrieben und die Genauigkeit photogrammetrischer Verfahren bei solchen Messungen werden diskutiert.

Notes: A camera calibration method for object distances of 1 m to 4 m is described.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméOn décrit une méthode d'étalonnage de chambres de prise de vues pour des distances de prises de vues de 1 à 4 mètres.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDiskussion eines Verfahrens zur Kammerkalibrierung für Aufnahmeentfernungen von 1 m bis 4 m.

Notes: Stereophotography with a pair of 35 mm cameras and stroboscopic illumination was used to record, reconstruct and measure the trajectories of falling hailstones under extremely adverse natural conditions. Since it was not possible either to fix or to measure precisely the camera positions and orientations, a method was devised to obtain both the three dimensional hailstone co-ordinates and the camera positions and orientations by making use of the otherwise redundant information contained in the stereo-photography.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméOn a utilisé deux cameras de 35 mm et un éclairage stroboscopique pour enregistrer en vue de leurs restitutions les trajectoires de grêlons; ceci n'a pu être réalisé que dans des conditions difficiles. Comme il n'était pas possible de stabiliser les cameras et de déterminer les coordonnées des points de station, on a mis au point une méthode spéciale.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDie Stereophotographie mit einem Paar von 35 mm Kameras und stroboskopischer Beleuchtung wurde angewendet, um die Kurven fallender Hagelkörner unter extrem von den natürlichen abweichenden Bedingungen zu registrieren, rekonstruieren und zu vermessen. Da es nicht möglich war, die Kammerstandpunkte und -orientierungen zu fixieren oder exakt zu vermessen, wurde ein Verfahren abgeleitet, um sowohl die dreidimensionalen Koordinaten der Hagelkörner als auch die Kammerparameter durch Verwendung der durch die Stereophotos gelieferten redundanten Informationen zu erhalten.

Notes: The Ordnance Survey's approach to the revision of the 1: 2500 scale series is discussed, with particular emphasis on the variety of photogrammetric methods which are used. The special problems of re-casting existing maps onto the National Grid projection, without losing the value of the existing detail, are outlined whilst emphasising the need to complete the revision with maximum speed to an adequate accuracy for a minimum cost.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Résumé On expose les méthodes de l′ Ordnance Survey en matière de révision des levés au 1: 2500; on examine le problème de l'adaptation des levés existants au système cartographique national, sans qu'il y ait perte de richesse.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉Zusammenfassung Es wird ein Versuch des Ordnance Survey zur Laufendhaltung der Karte 1: 2500 beschrieben, wobei die verschiedenen photogrammetrischen Verfahren, die angewendet wurden, besonders betont werden. Die speziellen Probleme der Einpassung bestehender Karten in das Nationale Gitternetz ohne den Verlust der vorhandenen Details werden skizziert, wobei hervorgehoben wird, dass die Revision mit maximaler Geschwindigkeit ohne Genauigkeitsverlust bei minimalen Kosten durchgeführt werden muss.

Notes: Microrelief mapping of the sea bed can only be carried out by photo-optical methods. It is shown that suitable equipment, bought off the shelf, can produce useful results. The paper describes equipment performance trials and a practical application in a study of large scale sea bed topography.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméLa cartographie du microrelief de fonds sous-marins ne peut être faite qu'à partir de photos. On montre, qu'avec un appareillage convenable on peut obtenir des résultats intéressants. On décrit les tests, ainsi qu'un travail pratique d'application à un levéà grande échelle de fonds sous-marin.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDie kartographische Darstellung des Mikroreliefs des Meeresbodens kann nur auf photo-optischem Wege durchgeführt werden. Es wird gezeigt, dass mit einer geeigneten Ausrüstung günstige Ergebnisse erzielt werden können. Im Artikel werden Versuche zur Testung der Ausrüstung und eine praktische Anwendung zum Studium einer grossmassstäbigen Meerestopographie beschrieben.

Notes: : Productivity measurements of organisms attached to artificial substrates ranged from 6.5–7.6 mg C/m2/hr and were 17-65% greater in stirred bottles (simulated flow) than under static conditions. Carbon-14 was used to determine the effect of current on the primary productivity of these organisms in six artificial streams at the Flowing Streams Laboratory on the Savannah River Plant (U.S. Energy Research and Development Administration, Aiken, South Carolina, U.SA.). Seasonal changes in dominant organisms were monitored from June 1973 to March 1974. Estimates of productivity, accumulated biomass, and levels of chlorophyll a were compared for possible correlation. Production of chlorophyll a ranged from 50 to 381 mg/m2, and accumulated biomass ranged from 45 to 181 g/m2 on the artificial substrates (glass microscope slides) during the period of study. Productivity of attached organisms was generally an order of magnitude greater than productivity of phytoplankton or tychoplankton. The consistently higher productivity in simulated flowing systems than in static systems tends to cast some doubt on values obtained when lotic communities have been enclosed or isolated in chambers or bottles without inducing a current or stirring action.

Notes: : Principal component analysis is used to incorporate the effects of several socioeconomic variables into an index of watershed socioeconomic change. The index is then used as a basis for delineating economic sub-areas within the Tennessee River basin.

Notes: : A study was undertaken to see if benefits from water supply could be increased by utilizing price-usage information in reservoir design studies. Three pricing policies were examined. The first policy assumed no price-use relationship, and quantity demanded was based on existing community usage with a low water rate. The price of water was set to recover system costs. A price-use relationship was assumed in the second policy and the water rate was constant. The price of water was determined from the associated system which provided maximum expected net benefits. The third policy assumed the price-use relationship and the price charged for water during each billing period was a non-linear function of storage which increased as the amount of water in storage at the beginning of the period decreased.It was found that the use of the conservation pricing policies substantially reduced storage requirements while providing demonstrable net benefits to the community and a large average supply. The conservation pricing policies substantially lowered the average price paid for water. The effect of uncertainty in consumer response to changes in price was studied by using a probabilistic price-use relationship. This uncertainty did not significantly reduce the effectiveness of the conservation policy. It was concluded that demand management by the use of a proper pricing policy could significantly increase net water supply benefits to a community.

Notes: : The time variation in the temperature distribution of a static water impoundment is predicted. The body of water is modeled as a discrete number of horizontally isothermal layers and the energy equation is solved using an implicit numerical scheme. Vertical energy transport mechanisms included are solar absorption, molecular diffusion, and convective mixing due to nocturnal turnover. The latter mechanism, called diurnal mixing, is found to have a profound effect on the stratification, particularly in the eplimnion patterns for a typical deep static impoundment.

Notes: : For many years, Federal water resources projects have been subjected to benefit-cost analysis to establish their economic feasibility. Several years ago social well-being was added as a consideration. This paper discusses the state-of-the-art in analyzing and evaluating aspects of social well-being. It stresses current short-falls and advocates a direction for further efforts.

Notes: Normal analytical photogrammetric methods are applied to Mariner 9 A pictures of the Martian volcano identified with the spot known as Nix Olympica in the classical Mars maps. The positions on the television-type images are determined by counts of rows and columns rather than by comparator measures. The method shown in this paper is general and may be used to survey a planetary body with a known rotation period. The small image scale and narrow field characteristics impose definite limits on the precision attained, despite some redundancy. Radii are determined to ± 20 km and relative altitudes to ± 4 km. The solutions based on the use of the telemetered camera orientations, without use of the correspondence conditions, are as good as the photogrammetric solutions. The results indicate the need for larger scales (larger focal lengths) and more convergence. Nix Olympica rises about 20 km to 23 km above the surrounding plain and is encircled by a basal cliff about 3 km high.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméOn décrit l'application des méthodes de la photogrammétrie analytique à l'exploitation des clichés Mariner 9 A du volcan martien qui coincide avec la tache baptisée Nix Olympica sur les cartes classiques. Les coordonnées des points-image sont déterminées par comptage de rangs et de colonnes plutôt que par mesures-comparateur. La méthode décrite est générale et peut s'appliquer à la cartographie de tout corps planétaire de période de rotation connue. La très petite échelle des clichés, et l'étroitesse du champ limitent l'exactitude obtenue, à± 20 km pour les distances et ± 4 km pour les dénivelées. Les solutions basées sur Vemploi des éléments connus de l'orientation externe des caméras et non plus sur la notion des points-image homologues sont ici aussi satisfaisantes que les solutions classiques. On conclut qu'il faudrait des clichés à plus grande échelle (focale plus longue) et plus de convergence. Le volcan domine la plaine de 20 à 23 km; il est entouréà sa base d'une falaise haute de 3 km environ.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDie bekannten Verfahren der analytischen Photogrammetrie wurden auf Mariner 9 A Photos des Martian Vulkans angewendet, der mit Hilfe des in klassischen Marskarten als Nix Olympica bekannten hellen Fleckes identifiziert wurde. Die Positionen der Fernsehbilder wurden durch Auszählen von Zeilen und Spalten und nicht durch Komparatormessungen bestimmt. Die in diesem Artikel dargestellte Methode ist allgemein und kann zur Vermessung eines planetaren Körpers mit bekannter Rotationsperiode verwendet werden. Der kleine Bildmassstab und die Schmalwinkel-Charakteristika begrenzen die erreichbare Präzision trotz einer gewissen Redundanz. Die Radien werden auf ± 20 km und relative Höhen auf ± 4 km bestimmt. Die Lösungen, die auf der Verwendung telemetrisch bestimmter Kammerorientierungen ohne Verwendung von Schnittbedingungen basieren, sind dem photogrammetrischen ebenbürtig. Die Ergebnisse besagen, dass grössere Massstäbe (längere Brennweiten) und bessere Konvergenz benötigt werden. Nix Olympica erhebt sich 20 km bis 23 km über die umgebende Ebene und wird von einem etwa 3 km hohen Felsriff umgeben.

Notes: The author is one of the members of the International Committee for Architectural Photogrammetry (CIPA) which met in London during European Architectural Heritage Year. He describes architectural applications of photogrammetry in Poland.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméL'auteur est membre du Comité International de Photogrammétrie Architecturale (C/PA) réuni à Londres à l'occasion de l'Année du Patrimoine Architectural Européen. Il donne des exemples d'applications de la photogrammétrie à l'architecture en Pologne.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDer Autor ist eines der Mitglieder des Internationalen Komitees für Architekturphotogrammetrie (CIPA), das während des Europäischen Jahres für Denkmalpflege in London tagte. Er beschreibt Anwendungen der Photogrammetrie in der Architektur in Polen.

Notes: The author was involved in the early stages of commercial air survey in England. He recounts some of his experiences of this formative period.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméL'auteur a participé récemment à des stages de formation au levé aérien commercial en Angleterre. Il livre son sentiment la dessus.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDer Autor war zu Beginn der kommerziellen Luftbildmessung in England engagiert. Er rekapituliert einige seiner Erfahrungen aus dieser Pionierzeit.

Notes: Rewind processing of aerial films will continue, at least on overseas survey operations, until a similarly portable alternative is available. This paper reports a series of practical tests which compare the method with the use of a continuous film processing machine. Comparisons are also made with an earlier report on the same subject. Variations obtained along the length and across the width of 240 mm wide film are given. Whilst indicating the methods for obtaining optimum results, the shortcomings of the rewind method are acknowledged.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméOn continuera à développer les films par la méthode traditionnelle, au moins pour les levés outre-mer, tant qu on ne pourra utiliser des méthodes plus modernes au moins aussi commodes. On analyse ici des tests de comparaison avec la méthode où on utilise une machine à développement continu, et on complète un rapport récent sur le même problème. On donne les erreurs à craindre dans le sens longitudinal et transversal (largeur 240 mm). On décrit toutes les insuffisances de la méthode classique, tout en donnant des indications sur la meilleure façon de l'utiliser.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDie Umspul-Entwicklung von Luftbildfilmen wird weiter angewendet werden, zumindest bei Arbeiten in Übersee, Solange nicht eine transportable Alternative existiert. Im vorliegenden Artikel wird eine Reihe praktischer Tests beschrieben, bei der die Umspulentwicklung mit der Verarbeitung in einer kontinuierlichen Durchlauf-Entwicklungsmaschine verglichen wird. Es Werden auch Vergleiche zu einem früheren Bericht über den gleichen Gegenstand gezogen. Die Fehler in Filmrichtung und quer dazu bei einer Breite von 240 mm werden angegeben. Während die Verfahren zur Erlangung optimaler Ergebnisse aufgezeigt werden, werden gleichzeitig die Unzulänglich-keiten der Umspulverfahren anerkannt.

Notes: Book review in this ArticleORDNANCE SURVEY MAPS. A DESCRIPTIVE TEXT. By J. B. Harley. Ordnance Survey, Southampton, 1975.AERIAL PHOTOGRAPHY IN ANTHROPOLOGICAL FIELD RESEARCH. Edited by E. Z. Vogt. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1974.THE MAP MARKET IN GREAT BRITAIN. By B. D. Drewitt. Ordnance Survey Professional Paper No. 28, Ordnance Survey of Great Britain, Southampton, 1975.PHOTOTRIANGULATION. By S. K. Ghosh. D. C. Heath and Co., Lexington, Massachusetts and Farnborough, Hampshire, 1975.

Notes: Antarctica, with its vast areas of snow, presents unusual problems to the photogrammetrist and the cartographer. The paper describes two methods used by the Directorate of Overseas Surveys to overcome these problems and to produce 1: 250 000 scale mapping. The first part of the paper gives an account of the use which was made of tricamera photography, with particular emphasis on the adaptation of Williamson multiplex equipment to operate with the oblique elements of tricamera photography. The second part of the paper, after outlining some of the fundamental principles of ERTS 1 (Landsat) imagery, goes on to describe the application of these principles when utilising imagery in the production of much needed image and line maps of Antarctic areas. Accuracies achieved by the two methods and their relative economies are discussed.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Résumé L'Antarctique, avec ses vastes étendues de neige, pose des problèmes particuliers au photogrammètre et au cartographe. On décrit ici deux méthodes utilisées par le Directorate of Overseas Surveys pour produire la carte au 1: 250 000. La première consiste à employer pour la prise de vues une chambre triple, associée pour la restitution à un multiplex Williamson modifié pour I'exploitation des vues obliques. La deuxième consiste en une tentative d'utilisation des images satellitaires ERTS 1 (Landsat). On analyse Vexactitude et le prix de revient des deux méthodes.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉Zusammenfassung Die Antarktis bietet dem Photogrammeter und Kartographen mit ihren riesigen Schneeflächen ungewöhnliche Probleme. Im Artikel werden 2 vom Directorate of Overseas Surveys angewandte Verfahren beschrieben, um diese Schwierigkeiten zu überwinden und Karten im Massstab 1: 250 000 herzustellen. Im 1. Teil der Arbeit wird über die Anwendung von Dreikammer-Aufnahmen berichtet, wobei insbesondere auf die Adaption des Williamson-Multiplexgerätes zur Auswertung der dabei mit aufgenommenen Schrägbilder eingegangen wird. Im 2. Teil des Artikels werden die grundlegenden Prinzipien der ERTS (Landsat)-Aufnahmen skizziert und deren Anwendung zur Herstellung der dringend benötigten Bild- und Linienkarten antarktischer Gebiete beschrieben. Die mit den beiden Verfahren erzielten Genauigkeiten und ihre relative Wirtschaftlichkeit werden diskutiert.

Notes: Book review in this ArticleMANUAL OF REMOTE SENSING. Edited by R. G. Reeves, A. Anson and D. Landen. American Society of Photogrammetry, Falls Church, Virginia, 1975.ARCHITECTURAL PHOTOGRAMMETRY. By R. W. A. Dallas. Commonwealth Association of Architects, London, 1975.BIBLIOGRAPHIA CARTOGRAPHICA, 1—1974. International documentation of cartographical literature. Edited by L. Zögner. Verlag Dokumentation Saur K.G., Pullach bei München, 1975.PICTURE PROCESSING AND RECONSTRUCTION. By S. S. Sandler. D. C. Heath Ltd., Lexington, Massachusetts and Farnborough, Hampshire, 1975.PHOTO RECONNAISSANCE. By A. J. Brookes. Ian Allan Ltd., London, 1975.FURTHER RESULTS OF THE PHOTOGRAMMETRIC TESTS OF “OBERRIET” OF THE COMMISSION C OF THE OEEPE. By R. Förstneret al. Publication Officielle No. 10 de l'Organisation Européenne d'Études Photogrammétriques Expérimentales. Published at the Institut für Angewandte Geodäsie, Frankfurt a.M., 1975.

Notes: Research and development at the Royal Aircraft Establishment leading to the Type 11, Type 12 and Compact processors for 70 mm and wide film are reviewed, stressing the importance of the balance between photographic considerations of image quality and consistency and the engineering and performance requirements of minimum size and logistics necessary for mobile equipment. In order to obtain the high output rates which are demanded, the efficiency of the various processes was investigated and future prognostications are attempted. The use of the machines for survey and colour processing is also described.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Résumé On décrit les recherches effectuées par le Royal Aircraft Establishment pour mettre au point le Type 11, le Type 12 et le Compact processor (machines à développer); on insiste sur le compromis àétablir entre les exigences de qualité photographique et celles dues au fait que l'appareillage doit être mobile. On examine aussi le rendement de ces machines, et on décrit enfin le cas du développement des émulsions couleur.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉Zusammenfassung Es wird ein überblick über Forschungen und Entwicklungen beim Royal Aircraft Establishment gegeben, die zu den Entwicklungs-maschinen vom Typ 11, 12 und Compact für Film von 70 mm und grösserer Breite führten, wobei die Bedeutung des Gleichgewichts zwischen der photographischen Bildqualität und deren Beständigkeit und den technischen Anforderungen an minimale Grösse und Einfachheit, die für eine mobile Ausrüstung nötig sind, betont werden. Um die geforderten hohen Ausgaberaten zu erreichen, wurde die Leistungs-fähigkeit der verschiedenen Prozesse untersucht und es wurde versucht, Prognosen zu geben. Die Verwendung der Maschinen zur Verarbeitung von Vermessungs- und Farbfilm wird ebenfalls beschrieben.

Notes: Accounts of the high resolution of satellite-borne cameras, notably the Apollo moon mapper, have stimulated interest in the possibility of similar resolution for general air survey photography. The trend towards higher resolution since the Second World War and the special features of the Apollo camera are analysed. It is concluded that resolutions of the Apollo standard are unlikely to come into use for general purpose mapping or earth resources photography from aircraft.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméL'excellent pouvoir séparateur des caméras portées par satellite, notamment de celles avec lesquelles on dresse les cartes lunaires (Apollo) a fait se demander dans quelle mesure on ne pourrait pas les utiliser dans les levés aériens ordinaires. On analyse, en ce qui concerne le pouvoir séparateur, les progrès des caméras depuis 1945, et on décrit certains dispositifs spécifiques des caméras Apollo. On conclut qu'il est peu vraisemblable qu'on puisse les utiliser avec fruit dans l'exploitation des couvertures aériennes classiques.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungBerichte über das Auflösungsvermögen von Satellitenkammern, insbesondere der bei der Mondkartierung beim Apollo-Unternehmen benutzten, haben das Interesse an der Möglichkeit geweckt, eine ähnliche Auflösung für die allgemeine Luftbildaufnahme zu nutzen. Der Trend in Richtung einer höheren Auflösung seit dem 2. Weltkrieg und die speziellen Charakteristika der Apollo-Kammer werden analysiert. Es wird geschlussfolgert, dass es als unwahrscheinlich anzusehen ist, dass ein Auflösungsvermögen vom Apollo-Standard Eingang in die allgemeine Luftbildaufnahme für die Kartenherstellung oder die Erforschung von Ressourcen finden wird.

Notes: A great many papers have been written on aerial triangulation but in recent years they have tended to deal with the purely technical details of the methods of solution of large sets of equations. This paper is concerned with a review of the problem that has to be solved and gives an outline of some current methods. The author's views, which do not always agree with generally accepted notions, are an important part of the text.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméPresque tous les papiers publiés en aérotriangulation analytique depuis quelques années traitent de détails purement techniques des méthodes de résolution des grands systèmes linéaires. Dans ce papier au contraire on passe en revue les problèmes non resolus et on donne le principe de quelques méthodes courantes. L'auteur expose également un certain nombre d'idées parfois anti conformistes.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungUber die Aerotriangulation wurde ausserordentlich viel geschrieben, aber die in den letzten Jahren veröffentlichten Arbeiten tendierten dazu, die rein technischen Details der Verfahren zur Lösung grosser Gleichungssysteme zu behandeln. Die vorliegende Arbeit befasst sich mit einer Übersicht des zu lösenden Problems und gibt einen Überblick über einige gegenwärtig praktizierte Verfahren. Die Ansichten des Verfassers, die nicht immer mit den allgemein existierenden Vorstellungen übereinstimmen, sind ein wichtiger Teil des Artikels.

Notes: The paper describes the operation, output rate and uses of the G-2 Stereocord stereoplotter, made by Zeiss (Oberkochen) and designed for simple plotting work. The basic equipment of the Stereocord consists of an opto-mechanical unit for viewing and measuring stereopairs, the electronic Direc-1 unit for counting and displaying image co-ordinates x′ y′, px and a commercial desk calculator for computing the X, Y, H ground co-ordinates. With suitable programs that can be directly selected by pressing a key on the Direc unit, a multitude of calculations can be made in conjunction with calculator controlled measurement. A wide choice of peripheral units for the Stereocord and the desk calculator makes the equipment suitable for many different plotting jobs and above all when used in the point by point mode. As a result, the instrument will not only be of great use in quantitative photo-interpretation, but also in many areas of photogrammetric work which do not require the ultimate in precision.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméL'exposé décrit le Stereocord G-2 développé par Zeiss (Oberkochen) comme simple appareil stéréorestituteur. Il mentionne son principe de fonctionnement, son rendement et ses possibilités d'emploi. Le Stereocord G-2 se compose d'une unité de base optique-mécanique pour l'observation et la mesure des couples de clichés stéréoscopiques, d'une unitéélectronique Direc-1 pour le comptage et l'affichage des coordonnées-image x′ y′, px et d'un calculateur de table de type courant pour le calcul des coordonnées-terrain X, Y, H. Avec des programmes adéquats choisissables à partir de l'unité Direc-I au moyen d'une touche, on peut exécuter des multitudes de calculs à partir des valeurs que fournissent les mesures pilotées par le calculateur. De nombreuses unités périphériques sont disponibles pour le Stereocord G-2 et pour le calculateur de table. Elles offrent des possibilités de restitution très variées, la plupart point par point. Le Stereocord G-2 se révèle particulièrement utile pour les photointerprètes chargès de travaux quantitatifs, ainsi que pour les táches secondaires de la photogrammétrie〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDie Abhandlung beschreibt das Handhaben, die Ausgabeart und die Anwendung des Zeiss (Oberkochen) Stereocord G-2. Das Grundgerät besteht aus einer optisch-mechanischen Einheit zum Beobachten und Messen von Stereogrammen, einer elektronischen Einheit Direc-1 zum Zählen und Anzeigen von Bildkoordinaten x′, y'und der Parallaxe px und einem handelsüblichen Tischrechner zum Berechnen der Landeskoordinaten X, Y, H. Mit entsprechenden Programmen, die über Programmtasten am Direc-1 aufgerufen werden, können eine Vielzahl von Berechnungen durchgeführt werden. Mit den entsprechenden Peripheriegeräten für den Tischrechner ist das Stereocord G-2 für viele Auswerteaufgaben geeignet, besonders auch für punktweise Auswertungen. Das Gerät kann daher nicht nur für quantitative Photointerpretation, sondern auch für viele photogrammetrische Aufgaben eingesetzt werden.

Notes: : Agricultural lands (including most forest lands) make up almost four-fifths of the total land area of the United States and include, or are traversed by, perhaps an equal proportion of our ground and surface waters. Therefore, a very large part of our environment is directly “agriculture-related” in any consideration of the discharge of pollutants.Several important Federal and State laws relate to the control or abatement of agriculture-related pollution. Existing legislation generally mandates the control or abatement of pollution (from point or nonpoint sources) or authorizes the use use of public funds or other resources for such purposes. Some of these laws can be effective instruments in keeping pollutants from being discharged into surface or ground waters or into the air, but the degree to which some pollutants originating from agricultural lands and operations constitute a serious environmental hazard in waters remains controversial.Although most of the technology exists to reduce greatly the movement of these pollutants, investments are often required which benefit the nonfarm public without economic returns to the farmer. Whether a zero discharge is either an environmentally or economically feasible alternative to more limited or selective control, is explored. However, if the public is willing to bear its reasonable share of the cost for clean air and water, the needed basic legislation already largely exists. Under it, agricultural land holders may apply program standards and use their own and available program resources to bring about effective control or abatement of pollutants.

Notes: : Space autocorrelation techniques have been used to reveal the nature and spatial distribution of precipitation in the Texas High Plains. Correlation in precipitation amounts varies with both distance and direction, dropping off rapidly with distance, particularly during the warm season. The analyses can be used to estimate storm characteristics in conjunction with a wide variety of problems dealing with irrigation, crop yields, drainage and water supply, and evaluation of artificial weather modification efforts.

Notes: : Micro-relief surface depression storage is one of the components of the rainfall-runoff process. The quantification of surface depression storage values and a depth-storage model to describe the storage was the subject of this study. Point measurement data were collected on 258 surfaces of 5 soils and three artificial surfaces. Five methods of computing storage, 15 depth-storage models, two depth increments, and six grid spacings were investigated. The 1-inch grid computational method, 0.1-inch depth increment, and 1-inch grid spacings were recommended. The surface depression storage function is best described by the model S = aDb, which relates surface depression storage as a function of depth with two equation parameters. Equations for describing the surface depression storage model parameters have been developed.

Notes: : Since nitrogen is a nutrient frequently in short supply in coastal ecosystems, an estimate of the nitrogen input via rain was made for the Georgia coast. Water samples collected in 34 separate storms during a 12 month period were analysed for concentrations of ammonia, nitrate plus nitrite, and dissolved organic nitrogen (DON). The range and average concentration in micromoles of nitrogen per liter was 0.0 to 137 (6.3) for ammonia, 1.0 to 21 (7.9) for nitrate plus nitrite, and 0.0 to 13.6 (4.0) for DON. DON, not usually measured in rain, comprised up to 62% of the total nitrogen content. The annual amount of nitrogen contributed by rain to the coast was about 0.3 g N/m2. This value is a small fraction of the calculated nitrogen requirements of coastal plants. More than half the rain samples had pH values less than the CO2 equilibrium pH of 5.6. Values as low as 4.2 were in the range of pH values reported for acid rain in Europe and the northeastern U.S. Total titratable acidity was measured for 12 summer rainwater samples. The results fox 7 individual storms showed a highly linear relation between hydrogen ion concentration and total acidity. However, the elope of the regression line indicated that increases in acidity were not a result of addition of strong acid alone.

Notes: : Porous ceramic cups under constant tension (0.45 bar) were used to extract solutions from undisturbed soil columns. Solution concentration changed with length of extraction time. Significant relationships were found between extraction time and concentrations of P, Ca, and K in soil solution for two sample depths in an Omega loamy sand soil column. At two extraction time classes and at two sample depths, combined data from 12 soil columns representing two soil series reinforce the relationship. As time to extract a sample increases, the sample probably represents solution held by soil at tensions approaching those applied to the ceramic cup. We recommend that the choice of an extraction tension be given consideration in studies using porous ceramic cups under constant tension for monitoring constituents of soil solution. In addition, care must be taken to attain good physical contact between the cups and the soil material.

Notes: : Snails, Goniobasis livescens (Menke), were exposed to acutely sublethal concentrations of p-nitrophenol and the lampricide, 3-triflourmethyl-4 nitrophenol(TFM), and then to acutely lethal thermal shocks. The same species were also exposed to acutely sublethal concentrations of zinc followed by exposure to acutely lethal concentrations of p-nitrophenol; and to acutely sublethal concentrations of TFM followed by exposure to acutely lethal concentrations of zinc. Brown trout, Salmo trutta, were exposed to acutely sublethal concentrations of TFM and then to an acutely lethal thermal shock. Results of these experiments indicate that prior exposure to acutely sublethal toxicant concentrations may reduce survival time for a subsequent exposure to acutely lethal concentrations of a second toxicant (e.g., snails exposed to Zn++ then p-nitrophenol) but neither prior or concomitant exposure to acutely sublethal toxicant concentrations insures that the median survival time for a lethal exposure will be significantly altered (e.g., snails exposed to 0.2 × 48 hour LC50 for TFM then Zn++). However, some acutely sublethal concentrations of a toxicant may significantly alter survival time of snails to a lethal concentration of a different toxicant (e.g., exposure to 0.4 × 48 hour LC50 TFM then a lethal dose of Zn++). The brown trout exposed to an acutely sublethal concentration of TFM and then an acutely lethal thermal shock did have significantly altered survival patterns.

Notes: : Northridge Lakes, in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, receive runoff from a 3.8 square kilometer drainage area. Almost 30% of the watershed is covered by shopping centers, apartment buildings, and roadways. Deicing agents used on the paved areas, primarily NaCl with some CaCl2, dissolved in surface runoff and entered the lakes during the winter season. This highly saline inflow was denser than the receiving lake water and formed a saline-water stratum at the lakes' bottom. The salinity stratification remained stable until the spring thaw when a rapid decay began. After the stratification had disappeared, the lakes continued to act as a storage site for dissolved salts. Chloride concentrations in the lakes remained well above the levels found in natural lakes until the advent of the next salting season. Furthermore, outflow from the lakes also showed abnormally high salt concentrations year-round.

Notes: : A convenient method for the statistical analysis of hydrologic extremes is to use probability papers to fit selected theoretical distributions to extremal observations. Three commonly accepted statistical distributions of extreme hydrologic events are: the double exponential distribution, the bounded exponential distribution, and the Log Pearson Type III distribution. In most cases, probability papers are distribution specific. But, for the Log Pearson Type III distribution, the probability paper is characterized by a population-specific parameter, namely, the coefficient of skewness. It is not practicable to procure probability papers for all possible values of this parameter. Therefore, a computer program is developed to generate population-specific probability papers and to perform statistical analysis of the data using computer graphics. Probability papers covering return periods up to 1000 years or more are generated for the three distributions mentioned above. Using a plot routine, available extremal observations are plotted on selected probability papers and a linear regression analysis is used to fit a straight line to the data. Predictions of hydrologic extremes for higher recurrence intervals can be made by extrapolating the fitted straight lines.

Notes: Book reviewed in this article:Water Resources Instrumentation, Two Volumes, Raymond J. Krizek, Emil F. Mosonyi, Yu-Si FokGeothermal Energy, Review of Research and Development, H. Christopher, H. Armstead, Robert L. Callery

Notes: : The search for an adequate methodology to quantify environmental trade-offs led to a simulation technique, the Priority Evaluator Technique (PET). The PET was applied to determine values and trade-off preferences for environmental variables related to a proposed reservoir project. The PET simulates real world situations and allows the respondents to evaluate their preferences within a fixed cost framework. It systematically checks the respondents's perception of the existing conditions and compares the changes sought. From the responses obtained via interviewing, one can establish the extent to which respondents are satisfied with the prevailing conditions, the magnitude and direction of changes sought, the quality trade-offs, and the relative value of different situations. The PET is flexible and can accommodate alternative planning decisions, prices, incomes, and end factors. The promise shown by this application of the PET should encourage further exploration and evaluation.

Notes: : The Environmental Protection Agency administers a construction grant program to encourage abatement of wastewater pollution by sharing with municipalities the costs of wastewater treatment facilities. The enabling legislation (P.L. 92–500) specifies that EPA's cost share will be 75% of construction costs. It further requires municipalities to collect user fees from industrial users of the facilities to repay that part of the federal grant allocable to the treatment of industrial wastewater. The municipality must return half of the user fees collected to the U.S. Treasury; the municipality is allowed to retain the remaining half. Retention by municipalities of these user fees lowers their effective cost shares and results in the following consequences: (1) a bias for municipalities to select certain kinds of abatement techniques regardless of whether or not they are the least-cost techniques from the national perspective; (2) a bias for municipalities to select larger-than-optimal scales of abatement facilities; (3) a hidden federal subsidy to industry; and (4) grants that favor industrial communities. This article examines the legislative and regulatory requirements for user charges, derives the algebraic expressions for calculating the real federal, municipal, and industrial cost shares with user fees; computes municipal cost shares for selected values of the determinant factors; evaluates efficiency and other consequences of current user fee arrangements; and concludes that the efficiency distortions brought about by the impacts of user fees on cost sharing could be eliminated by requiring that all user fees collected from industry against the federal cost share be returned to the U.S. Treasury.

Notes: : The drainage system for an ash basin serving a coal-fired power plant at the Savannah River Project, Aiken, South Carolina, has been studied for 15 months to determine abiotic and biotic characteristics and mechanisms of pollutant removal. Measurements made included temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity, alkalinity, conductance, flow rate, sulfate, nitrate, and phosphate. In addition, neutron activation analysis was employed to determine concentrations of 40 chemical elements in water, benthos, bacterial, plant, invertebrate, and vertebrate samples collected at six sampling stations. Five-day toxicity tests were performed using organisms from within and from outside the system.Conductance, pH, alkalinity and sulfate concentration varied little throughout the system. Temperature, dissolved oxygen, turbidity, nitrate, phosphate, and flow rate decreased at stations farther removed from the ash basin.Concentrations of most chemical elements measured were greatest in benthos (75 percent of total) and least in water (less than one percent of total), indicating that a major removal mechanism was sedimentation of suspended particulate matter. Eight elements (Br, Ca, C1, Cd, Na, Sb, Se, and Zn) were more highly concentrated in one or more biotic forms than in benthos. Among heavy metals only Cr was concentrated to a greater extent by plants than by animals. Midges were the greatest concentrators of Fe, Cu, Cr, Hg, Co, Sb, and As among all organisms. Plants concentrated only 15 percent of the total heavy metal concentration found in the benthos.Light, metals were more highly concentrated in animals than in plants, although all plants were found to possess 19 percent of the concentration present in the benthos and water. As and Sb were in low concentration within the system; however, on a percentage basis, these potentially toxic elements were relatively highly concentrated by a number of organisms. Active metals (Ca, Na, and K) and halogens (CI, Br, and I) were highly concentrated by most organisms. Active metals were more concentrated in crayfish and mosquito fish, Gambusia affinis, than in benthos, whereas most organisms had higher concentrations of halogens than were found in benthic sediments. Primary producers within the system were least efficient in concentration of all elements except Mn. Consumers (invertebrates and vertebrates) were found to possess highest concentrations of all other elements.Organisms found within the drainage system were observed to be able to survive a five-day toxicity test at any point within the system, whereas organisms not existing within the system were observed to vary in their resistance to the drainage system environment.The findings of this study demonstrate the necessity for the operation of entire food chains in pollutant removal and indicate potential means for increasing cycling efficiency by selective addition of resistant consumers to such a system.

Notes: : A variable change is used to convert drawdown formulas for isotropic aquifers for use where the aquifer is anisotropic. Contours of the cone of depression assume an oval configuration with the major and minor axes oriented in the directions for which the permeability is greated and least. The case of a well pumped at a constant rate, the case of a well drawing water at a constant rate from an aquifer with a leaky roof and the flowing artesian well case are treated. In all cases the well is considered to completely penetrate the aquifer.

Notes: : The equations of transient and steady-state flow in two-dimensional artesian aquifers are approximated using finite differences. The resulting linear difference equations, combined with other linear physical and management constraints and a linear objective function, comprise a linear programming (LP) formulation. Solutions of such LP models are used to determine optimal well distributions and pumping rates to meet given management objectives for a hypothetical transient problem and for a steady-state field problem.

Notes: : This study proposes that demand management through pricing policies can be used in conjunction with supply management to solve water supply problems. Economic principles are shown to apply to rural residential water use. A demand function for water was developed based on cross-sectional water use data collected in Kentucky. Price was found to be a significant determinant of the quantity of water demanded. A constant price elasticity of -0.92 was found. The demand function was used in a simulation analysis to determine reservoir capacity needed to supply water needs of a rural community. The simulation revealed that price can significantly affect required reservoir storage.

Notes: : Law and hydrology are inextricably woven together in the pattern of water resource development in the west. The former attempts to allocate a limited and valuable resource as the latter tries to define the limits of the resource. In the past an inadequate data base has made hydrologic estimates difficult and political factors have pushed the law into possibly conflicting commitments in the Colorado River Basin.Through the use of tree-ring research, hydrologists have produced a more definitive data base and placed water allocations such as the Colorado River Compact of 1922 in a clearer long-term perspective. This data base leads to the conclusion that the surface-water supply is about 13.5 million acre-feet per year. This hydrologic limit must be apportioned within an existing legal framework - the “Law of the River.” As development approaches the resource limit in the Upper Colorado River Basin, lawyers and hydrologists must act in concert toward the equitable solution of allocation and reallocation problems.

Notes: : The cost of the liquid wast treatment measures required to meet federal as well as typical state and local regulations was examined for dairy processing plants of various sizes. Federal effluent standards were found to produce higher estimated capital costs per unit of raw material for smaller plants, even with relaxed requirements for smaller plants. State regulations limiting the effluent BOD5- concentration were also found to result in inequitable costs for smaller processors. These inequities result from economies of scale and not such factors as level of process technology employed or amount of waste produced per unit of raw material. In contrast, applying an example sewer surcharge formula did not produce inequities from economies of scale.

Notes: : Two types of organizational systems provide most of the water service in the United States. The investor-owned firm operates on a profit basis generally subject to state commission regulation. The government-owned firm is generally confronted by local control. The comparative efficiency of private versus government firm provision of water services is essentially an empirical issue. Unit costs and other operating statistics are examined for water firms of each ownership form. The analysis shows that private firms tend to have higher operation costs than do government firms, possibly attributable to wage-salary differentials. The analysis also indicates that capital investment in large government firms may result in diseconomies. The analysis creates serious doubt as to whether efficient provision of water services can be better facilitated by large mergers of either ownership form.

Notes: : The distribution of costs and benefits among groups in society of alternative flood management actions is examined in terms of their final incidence or resting place-their influence on real estate values. The alternatives examined include structures, disaster relief, floodproofing, watershed land treatment, floodplain zoning, and flood insurance. The impact of each alternative on the amount of flood disability cost paid by the landowner is examined and variations among alternatives are used to explain the past political success of structures and relief as compared to zoning, floodproofing, and insurance.

Notes: : Fish hatcheiies for cold water species (e.g., salmonids) require water below a certain specified optimum temperature. Deep lakes and reservoirs, which are thermally stratified, will have cold water below the thermocline suitable for fish hatchery supplies. Proper management will require withdrawal of water at different depths and a mixture of correct proportions can yield water at desired temperatures and quality. For preliminary studies, a mathematical model can be used to show by a comparatively simple computation the effect of different withdrawal rates of cold water and to check if the situation is critical. A critical situation may warrant the application of sophisticated computer models and/or the use of chilling at the hatchery. The method is illustrated by a case study for a small lake in the Province of Nova Scotia.

Notes: : During the last 27 years of independence, a large number of inter-state water disputes cropped up over the use of rivers. Surprisingly enough, more disputes developed in this short period than in the earlier 200 years of the development of irrigation and so far none of the disputes has been permanently solved. The major rivers of India are all inter-state rivers and this is one of the more important reasons why some of them are not yet fully developed for irrigation or power production. The Union Government has set up, so far, only three tribunals to adjudicate inter-state disputes. But the problems do not end simply by setting up the tribunals. In practice, it has also proved a dilatory process. None of the tribunals has been successful in settling any dispute in the long years of their existence. There is no codified law prescribing rights and the notion of “equity” has come to prevail restraining the upper states from drawing such quantities of water as would injure the interests of the lower states. Though the general principle of equitable apportionment had been advocated many times, in practice each contending state had given this principle an interpretation that suited it. The basic principle would be to harness the rivers not for the benefit of a particular state but for the maximization of agricultural, industrial, and navigational potential in the areas served by the rivers.

Notes: Book reviewed in this article:Disinfection, Water and Wastewater, edited by J. Donald Johnson