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  • Articles  (22,115)
  • 1980-1984  (12,732)
  • 1970-1974  (9,383)
  • 1925-1929
  • 1984  (12,732)
  • 1973  (9,383)
  • Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition  (11,416)
  • Economics  (11,406)
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  • 1980-1984  (12,732)
  • 1970-1974  (9,383)
  • 1925-1929
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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    SPACE AND TIME COMPARISONS OF PURCHASING POWER PARITIES AND REAL VALUES (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 30 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: The calculation of purchasing power parities and quantity comparisons for a given year provides interesting information about the relative importance of countries. However, it is necessary to make these estimates annually in order to enable users to apply these parities for international comparison of annual data expressed in national currency. The paper deals with the problems related to merging spatial comparisons and temporal volume and price movements for the countries of the European Community. For these countries full information was collected in 1975 and in 1980, whereas in the intermediate years some price data were collected and price indices at a detailed level have also been collected. First the theoretical problems of consistency between the spatial results and temporal indices are discussed. Because no immediate consistency can be obtained, several methods are proposed to achieve consistency, by estimating one unique set of spatial and temporal indices. The available information for the period 1975-80 has been used in order to test the numerical differences between two sets of parities and price indices over time. Besides theoretical reasons for inconsistency, it is also necessary to take into account errors in the price observations or in the price indices. The results presented in the paper should be considered as provisional and further work will be undertaken to obtain better insights into the inconsistency between these sets of data.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00477.x
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    THE HIDDEN ECONOMY: STATE AND PROSPECTS FOR MEASUREMENT (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 30 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: To know the size and development of the hidden or underground economy is important for policy making, mainly because the measures undertaken may be misdirected if they are based on biased official statistics. The hidden economy can be measured by considering indicators. The direct methods are based on voluntary surveys and on tax auditing and other compliance methods. The indirect estimation methods rely on the identification of residuals with respect to income and expenditures, as well as in the labor and money markets. The strengths and weaknesses of each of these measurement approaches are discussed and the resulting estimates of the size of the hidden economy are compared. A different approach to measurement is to look at the determinants leading to the existence and growth of the hidden economy. Finally, the method of “unobserved variables” allows the combination of the two approaches by simultaneously considering the determinants and indicators of the under- ground economy. The results show a considerable range of sizes for a given country and year. Though there is a broad range of size estimates, there is general agreement that the hidden economy's size has been growing for all countries over recent decades. Further progress in quantitative knowledge about the hidden economy requires the development of a theoretical model which analyses the interdependencies between the official private sector, the hidden economy, and the public sector.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00474.x
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  • 3
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    DECOMPOSING THEIL'S INCOME OF INCOME INEQUALITY INTO BETWEEN AND WITHIN COMPONENTS: A NOTE (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 30 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00479.x
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  • 4
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    THE EFFECTS OF MACROECONOMIC FLUCTUATIONS ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF INCOME (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This study develops a microanalytic simulation model to examine the effects of macroeconomic fluctuations on the distribution on the distribution of income. A representational sample of the population of the United States is linked with equations determining the variability of various types of factor income. Each family's income experience is simulated under alternative aggregate conditions, and the income distributions arising under these conditions are compared. The main results are similar for alternative specifications of the model. The incidence of a downturn in economic activity, whether accompanied by changes in the rate of inflation or not, and measured in terms of the loss of factor income, leaves the upper middle class relatively better off than before and leaves most others relatively worse off. The very rich bear the heaviest burden.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1973.tb00898.x
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
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    THE TREATMENT OF STOCK APPRECIATION IN THE MEASUREMENT OF NATIONAL INCOME (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: In the latest official national income publication the Australian Commonwealth Statistician has altered the treatment of stock appreciation in the measurement of national income at current prices. Previously, stock appreciation had been included in both national expenditure and national product. Now the amount of stock appreciation (the difference between the change in the value of stocks and the value of the change in stocks) has been deducted from investment in stocks, and consequently national expenditure, and from trading incomes, and consequently national income. The former procedure (including stock appreciation in national expenditure and national product) had been advocated by the present author, when editor of the first official national income publications issued by the Commonwealth Statistician. In this note an attempt is made to set out the reasons for this view. A new approach is also suggested for handling the item of stock appreciation in national income accounts, which does not rest on the assumption that stock appreciation is a capital gain which should be excluded from trading incomes and national product.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1973.tb00900.x
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
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    DATA REVISIONS AND FORECASTING ACCURACY: AN ECONOMETRIC ANALYSIS BASED ON PRELIMINARY AND REVISED NATIONAL ACCOUNTING ESTIMATES (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This paper entails an investigation of the effects of data revisions on forecasting accuracy, through use of preliminary and revised national accounting data compiled by the United Nations. A small model was estimated for each of fourteen countries and ex post“forecasts” generated for each country and each year of the period 1957–1964, using first preliminary and then revised data.A prior analysis of the data revisions indicated a strong and widespread tendency for the preliminary estimates to understate both levels and year-to-year changes. This is consistent with the findings of other studies.Two sets of forecasts obtained from the reduced form of the model were considered in relation to “actual” levels and changes, obtained from the revised data, and also in relation to each other. A strong downward bias was observed in the forecasts of levels based on preliminary data, and a weaker one in the forecasts of changes. The forecast discrepancies for different variables were found to be significantly correlated.The results suggest that a tendency toward understatement in preliminary data may account in part for the general tendency toward understatement in forecasts noted in other studies.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1973.tb00901.x
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
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    SIZE-DISTRIBUTION OF EARNINGS AND HOUSEHOLD INCOMES IN SMALL SOCIALIST COUNTRIES (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: Part I: Availability and meaning of East European distributional statistics are discussed. Part II: Measures of inequality to be used in this study are examined: the Gini coefficient of concentration, though superior to some other single indicators, is found to be an unreliable comparative measure of inequality, and is therefore supplemented by a set of ratios of selected percentiles to the median. Part III: Inequality of full-time gross monthly earnings is measured for (almost) the whole civilian working population and for some subpopulations (selected industries, men, women) in Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia through 1970, in Hungary through 1968: the observed inequality appears to be less than in small capitalist countries, in spite of the reversal of the socialist egalitarian trend in the 'sixties. The main factor of equalization of socialist earnings are small interoccupational and interregional differentials and a very flat age profile. Part IV: The socio-economic structure of households, the size of samples underlying the distributional statistics, and the composition of household “revenues” (wage and salary earnings, agricultural incomes, social security payments, relatively unimportant property incomes, as well as non-income cash flows) are examined. Inequality coefficients are estimated for per capita revenues of all households as well as subpopulations of households in Czechoslovakia and Hungary, and some information is given on the distribution of household incomes in Yugoslavia. Part V: Limits of desirable equalization of earnings are discussed. With very narrowly dispersed short-term earnings, lifetime earnings tend to be rather unequally distributed because of the variation of earning years among occupations. With largely equalized primary incomes, per capita household incomes tend to be more unequally distributed, in spite of massive transfers, because of the varying ratio of earners to dependents within households. The need of income differentials as incentives to work, the probable trade-off between income equality and economic growth, and socialist distributive principles are outlined.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1973.tb00899.x
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
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    ANNOUNCEMENTS (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1973.tb00904.x
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
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    OUTPUT AND PRICES IN THE INTERNATIONAL COMPARISON PROJECT (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: In this paper we discuss a few of the problems that have been encountered in defining output and in comparing prices for the International Comparison Project (ICP). We report also on the way in which these problems are being met.The ICP has for its purpose the establishment of a systematic set of procedures for making international comparisons of gross domestic product (GDP) and of the purchasing power of currencies. Substantive work on comparisons involving Colombia, the European Economic Community (EEC), Hungary, India, Japan, Kenya, the United Kingdom and the United States is also being carried on with the aid of the statistical services of the countries and of the EEC. It is hoped to expand the comparisons beyond these countries as rapidly as possible.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1973.tb00873.x
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  • 10
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    PROBLEMS OF INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS OF NATIONAL ACCOUNTING AGGREGATES BETWEEN COUNTRIES WITH DIFFERENT ECONOMIC SYSTEMS (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This paper discusses a number of problems arising in comparisons of levels of national accounting aggregates between countries with different economic systems, notably between countries with market economies and countries with centrally planned economies. It considers problems arising from differences in the national accounting concepts used and problems arising from institutional differences, both of which are viewed as relating to the concepts on which the comparison should be based and the adjustment of national data to these concepts. The final section considers index number problems.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1973.tb00874.x
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  • 11
    Electronic Resource
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    ON CONSISTENT INTERGROUP COMPARISONS OF PURCHASING POWER OF MONEY (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: There is some advantage in comparing price levels using consistent methods because this gives unique results. This paper examines some available methods of consistent comparison, pointing out difficulties associated with heterogeneous data, and suggesting adaptations yielding better comparisons. Next, the problem of non-availability of price and quantity decomposition is considered. Another problem relating to non-identical lists of commodities and quality differences is tackled by using linear programming instead of regression methodology, both methods using some transformed variables. The procedure suggested is likely eventually to be useful for comparison of dissimilar countries. Computations on some Indian population groups illustrate the findings.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1973.tb00872.x
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
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    WEIGHTING OF INDEX NUMBERS IN MULTILATERAL INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: The article reviews the methods used in practice and/or proposed by various authors for compiling indices in multilateral international comparisons. The various procedures are examined in the light of the following requirements: characteristicity (i.e. the weights should be characteristic to the countries which are compared), unbiasedness, circularity, internal consistency and factor relations.There is no perfect solution since characteristicity and circularity are always and unbiasedness and internal consistency often in conflict with each other. The indices which are best for bilateral purposes are not transitive and the basic problem of multilateral comparisons is to obtain circularity, without losing too much of the characteristicity of the bilateral comparisons. Different compromises between the two requirements are possible and this is first of all what distinguishes the various methods used in practice.Two main types of solution are applied in the various international comparisons. The first is based on the inter-spatial Fisher's ideal formula (e.g. the Eltetö–Köves–Szulc method, the van Yzeren method, the “central country” solution); the second type uses some kind of average prices (e.g. the Geary–Khamis method).In the author's view there is no best method in absolute terms. Every method has some weaknesses and which of these weaknesses is the easiest to accept depends to a large extent on the actual aims of the comparison and on various other circumstances.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1973.tb00871.x
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  • 13
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    Capital Transfer Tax: Adieu (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-5890
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1984.tb00589.x
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  • 14
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    The Impact of the 1984 Budget on the Household Sector (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-5890
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1984.tb00387.x
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  • 15
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    Progressivity and Graduation in Income Tax (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-5890
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1984.tb00392.x
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  • 16
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    The 1984 Budget, the Finance Bill and Corporate Finance: A Correction (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-5890
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1984.tb00395.x
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  • 17
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    Inequality in Family Earnings (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-5890
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1984.tb00587.x
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  • 18
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    After Dawson (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-5890
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: At the first residential conference of the Institute for Fiscal Studies, which was held at St. Edmund Hall, Oxford, in September 1983, Mr Stewart Bates, QC, spoke on the implications of the decision of the House of Lords in the case of W. T. Ramsay Ltd v CIR. A report of those proceedings was held over until the decision of the House of Lords in the case of Furniss, v Dawson was known. The following report is based upon Mr Bates' address and the comments of Mr Stephen Oliver, QC, Mr John Avery Jones and Mr Adrian Shipwright who spoke at a lunchtime seminar convened by the IFS on 9 March 1984 to consider the decision in Furniss v Dawson. This report does not reflect the opinions of the IFS, which has no corporate views.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1984.tb00585.x
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  • 19
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    The Analytical Foundations of the Medium-Term Financial Strategy (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-5890
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1984.tb00384.x
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  • 20
    Electronic Resource
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    The Chancellor's Arithmetic (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-5890
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1984.tb00388.x
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  • 21
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    The 1984 Budget, the Finance Bill and Corporate Finance (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-5890
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1984.tb00389.x
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  • 22
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    Privatisation: Analysing its Appeal and Limitations (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-5890
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1984.tb00376.x
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  • 23
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    Government and the New Hybrids: A Trail of Unanswered Questions (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-5890
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-5890.1984.tb00380.x
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  • 24
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    THE STRUCTURE OF AMERICAN INCOME INEQUALITY (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 30 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: Income inequality is examined using the Panel Study of Income Dynamics and a consistent decomposition analysis. I only use inequality measures that satisfy the Principle of Transfers, have the property that a ceteris paribus increase in inequality within any subgroup increases overall inequality, and are independent of the scale of income and population. Decompositions are carried out by family size and by age of head for several definitions of income and income recipient. Whilst changing the time unit over which income is measured has a substantial impact on inequality, the effect of removing the between-age-group component of inequality is relatively slight.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00556.x
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  • 25
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    ICP 1980—A BRIEF ACCOUNT FROM AUSTRIA (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 30 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This paper discusses Austria's experiences in connection with the 1980 round of the UN International Comparison Project, in which comparisons were first made within regions and the regions then linked. Austria played a dual role, as (a) the linking country between Group I (the European Community) and Group II (selected middle and eastern European countries), and (b) the base country for Group II. The paper consists of two principal parts. The first part reports, at the 3-digit commodity level, on the success achieved in finding comparable items, both within Group II and between Austria and Group I. The second part discusses a number of methodological problems that were encountered in carrying out the comparison. Chief among these was the treatment of social services that are marketed in some countries and provided free of charge or at nominal prices in others. Other questions touched upon include the treatment of output for own consumption, rents, drugs and medicines, and tourist expenditures.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00484.x
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  • 26
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    HUMAN CAPITAL INVESTMENT IN HEALTH: A MEASUREMENT FRAMEWORK AND ESTIMATES FOR THE UNITED STATES, 1952–78 (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 30 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: Lack of a conceptual basis for measuring human capital investment in health has hampered efforts to expand national accounting systems to include human capital investment. This paper presents a conceptual basis for developing estimates of this health investment, an estimation methodology consistent with the conceptual basis, and preliminary estimates for the United States for 1952-78.While much work remains to be done before comprehensive estimates of investment in health are achieved, it is clear that previous estimates based on answers to the question, “What improves health?” have included some inappropriate expenditures while excluding others that should be included.The conceptual basis presented here leads to a methodology for separating health care costs (not the costs of illness) into maintenance and gross investment. Gross investment can be further separated into net investment and the sum of damages and depreciation but empirical implementation of this step is not attempted here.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00476.x
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  • 27
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    QUANTITY AND PRICE EFFECTS IN AN ANALYSIS OF WORLD TRADE BASED ON AN ACCOUNTING MATRIX (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 30 (1984), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This paper describes the construction of an accounting matrix for the world economy in 1977, cast along similar lines to SNA National Accounts, but one in which trade flows replace inter-industry flows as intermediate demand. The matrix distinguishes ten regions. Institutional accounts are presented for three of these, the European Community, North America and Japan. This matrix is used to provide the basis of a linear model in which average propensities to import and consume are replaced by estimated marginal propensities. Use is made of standard estimates of the income effects of terms of trade changes in order to distinguish substitution from income effects in the model, and a means is suggested for separating the full as well as the impact effects of a terms of trade change into income and substitution effects. The estimated import equations are used to derive estimates of regional growth rates compatible with external balance in each region. Multiplier matrices are calculated from the model showing regional interdependence of the world economy reflecting the pattern of trade which is identified in the marginal propensities to import.The effects of various aid policies are calculated using the model. It is shown that the cost of aid to any region is radically altered by taking into account the feedback effects of changes in demand. A policy of tied aid pursued by EEC, North America and Japan can actually lead to an improvement in Japan's balance of payments position. Finally the effects of movements in relative prices are illustrated by means of two examples.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00478.x
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  • 28
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    RETURNS TO SCALE IN RETAIL TRADE (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
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    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This paper attempts to estimate genuine scale effects in retail trade from a cross section of retail stores in Israel. This is done by estimating a simple production function for several retail branches and employing the faithful old direct Cobb-Douglas structure with value added as output and labor and capital inputs. And indeed despite the well-known peculiarities of the retail industry, a cross section estimation produces “normal” production-function estimates with reasonable input elasticities. The estimates also identify marked increasing returns-to-scale parameters, higher in food and lower in branches less affected by consumer participation and geographical dispersion. These increasing returns may explain a good part of the increase in sales per unit of inputs observed in time series.
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    PRICE DIFFERENTIATION AND COMPUTATION OF NATIONAL ACCOUNTS FIGURES AT CONSTANT PRICES (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
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    Topics: Economics
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    ON NATIONAL ACCOUNTS AT CONSTANT PRICES (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
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    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
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    REFLECTIONS ON NATIONAL ACCOUNTING (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
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    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This article consists of a description and critical analysis of two important works on national accounting which have appeared fairly recently—see footnotes 1 and 2. There are fundamental differences between the systems of accounts proposed in these two works, the author tending to prefer the Ruggles system. While full of admiration for the thoroughness and other qualities of the new SNA, the author finds the system it proposes over-elaborate as a programme for national statistical offices. In his view decision as to which is the “best” system is still wide open, despite the acceptance of the new SNA by the UN Statistical Commission. In the article there is bare mention of a new (1972) book Economic Accounts and Their Uses by J. W. Kendrick which the author has since read. All three works help in determining the best practical system of accounts. It is hoped that this article (in its small way) will also make a contributionThe subject of national accounts at constant prices is not dealt with at all in any of the three works despite the fact that it has received considerable attention at various meetings of IARIW. Accounts at constant prices and their concomitant price indexes are more important in these days of the curse of inflation than are accounts at current prices. Of course the new SNA deals with items at constant prices but the author finds the treatment rather inadequate.It is satisfactory that the new SNA provides for input-output but the author agrees with the Ruggles view that the textual treatment in SNA is somewhat incomplete.The article gives the author's views on many other topics relevent to national accounting (which encompass all economic statistics!) including price index number making, inaccuracies in data, delays in availability of so-called “current” statistics, and treatment of financial intermediaries.
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    ANNOUNCEMENTS (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
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    ON THE APPROPRIATE MODEL FOR ANALYZING INVESTMENT IN HUMAN CAPITAL WHERE THE CAPITAL MARKET IS IMPERFECT (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This paper suggests a modification of the Becker–Chiswick model for analyzing investment in human capital where the capital market is imperfect. The modification essentially involves the addition of a consumption function to the model. As a result it is possible to include the effects of human capital investment on a student's income expectations, on consumption, and thereby on the availability of funds for the student to finance investment in human capital.
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    U.S. INCOME, SAVING, AND WEALTH, 1929—1969 (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: The objective of this paper is to present income and expenditure accounts, accumulation accounts, and the asset side of the wealth accounts for the U.S. private national economy in current and constant prices. These accounts are integrated with the production and factor outlay accounts for the U.S. private domestic economy in current and constant prices given in our earlier papers. Taken together, these accounts constitute a complete accounting system in current and constant prices for the private sector of the U.S. economy.Our complete accounting system incorporates a new concept of the standard of living, defined as the ratio of the quantity index of gross private national expenditures to the quantity index of gross private national consumer receipts. Our concept of the standard of living is similar but not identical to our concept of total factor productivity. Changes in the private standard of living reflect both changes in total factor productivity and changes in the proportion of the total product consumed in the public sector.
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    CONSIDERATIONS ON THE CHOICE OF PRICES OR UNIT VALUES AS DEFLATORS FOR THE CENSUS BENCHMARK PRODUCTION INDEXES (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
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    THE USE OF UNIT VALUES TO MEASURE DEVIATIONS OF TRANSACTION PRICES FROM LIST PRICES (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: The results reported in the Searle report have stimulated me to carry out an extensive study of unit value indices, based on a much more extensive body of data and much improved procedures as compared to the preliminary evidence contained in my “Measurement Bias in Price Indices for Capital Goods,” published in this journal in June, 1971. Once again, the new study confirms the hypothesis that transaction prices of capital goods exhibit procyclical fluctuations relative to list prices. Machinery prices appear to have been considerably more flexible downward during the period of weak investment demand between 1957 and 1963 than indicated by the Wholesale Price Index (WPI), and more flexible upward during the subsequent expansion during 1963–1969. This brief paper is a summary of the study. A complete and detailed report or results is contained in my forthcoming monograph, Measurement of Durable Goods Prices, to be published by the National Bureau of Economic Research.
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    SOCIAL INDICATORS—SYSTEMS, METHODS AND PROBLEMS (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: Professor Moser regards the purpose of social indicators as being to aid the policy maker by summarizing the state and changing conditions of society, pinpointing the outstanding existing and emerging social problems and monitoring the effects of social policies and programmes. Thus social indicators will frequently, though not necessarily, be normative and they will often, though again not necessarily, be concerned with outputs rather than inputs. Although many writers regard social indicators as being combinations of series, the problems of construction are substantial. Central to the idea of a social indicator, however, is that it should represent or summarize a broader concept than itself and that it should belong to a structure or system of series. Although there are no social theories about society in general on which a structure of indicators can at present be based there are a number of middle range theories relating to specific fields or sectors, such as occupational mobility, education, migration, mental health, etc., around which quantitative relationships and models can gradually be be built to give insight into social changes and perhaps eventually into the manipulation of policy instruments for the improvement of social conditions.
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    THE TREATMENT OF IMPORT DUTIES IN NATIONAL ACCOUNTS, A COMMENT ON A. L. GAATHON: EXCHANGE RATE PROBLEMS IN NATIONAL ACCOUNTING OF DEVELOPING COUNTRIES (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
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    FILES OF INDIVIDUAL DATA AND THEIR POTENTIALS FOR SOCIAL RESEARCH (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
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    Notes: In a statistical file system, data collected from different sources and at different dates are stored at an individual unit level. Thus, they may be linked and used for the preparation of statistics and for analytical purposes as the need arises. The statistical file system will provide a much improved data basis for empirical research in the social services including demography, economics, economic geography, sociology, education, labour, social medicine, criminology and social psychology.
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    INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION FOR RESEARCH IN INCOME AND WEALTH (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    INDIAN SAVING BEHAVIOR: A RECONCILIATION OF TIME SERIES AND CROSS SECTION EVIDENCE (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
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    Notes: Serious doubts have been raised as to the validity of using cross-sectional estimates of the average propensity to consume over time. These d⊙ubts are based on empirical evidence for the United States presented by Kuznets and Goldsmith. This paper extends these considerations to developing countries by looking at the evidence for India. Simple statistical techniques, including ordinary least squares regression, Chow tests, and t-tests, are used in the estimation of the consumption functions and the formulation of hypotheses. Both India and the U.S. are seen to exhibit the same characteristic secular constancy in the average propensity to consume. For India the average propensity to consume is about 0.95 and is maintained in the face of no substantial secular increases in per capita income during the period under study (1919–1960).The same inconsistencies between time series and cross-section evidence on the average propensity to consume are found to exist for India. The permanent income theory suggested only a partial explanation of these inconsistencies and the reconciliation was achieved by a Duesenberry type explanation based on evidence for a shifting cross section consumption function over time. The date was provided by a set of Family Living Surveys for Industrial Workers: 1926, 1933–1935, 1950–1952, 1958–1959.Finally it was noted that the cross-section consumption function in India had shifted both upwards and downwards over the period under study, in contrast to the strict upward shift for the U.S. In an economy such as India's, where secular growth is by no means assured, it is not always likely that consumers can avoid lowering previously achieved consumption standards in the face of cyclical economic conditions.
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    EXPERIENCE IN MEASUREMENT OF WELFARE COMPONENTS AND THEIR REGIONAL IMPLICATIONS (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 19 (1973), S. 0 
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: The paper relates the Swedish discussion and criticism of national accounting statistics, especially GNP, as a measure of welfare. It describes some results of recent Swedish attempts to find practicable measures of welfare components, i.e. the investigations of the Low Income Commission and of the Expert Group on Regional Development Research. In both cases the regional aspects of welfare are emphasized in the paper.The results are presented as a sign of important needs for new methods and new systems of concepts in measuring welfare. The Expert Group has for instance in different ways tried to map and compare the “service structure” of separate parts of Sweden. The Low Income Commission has principally studied the position in Swedish society of low income recipients and has not been working particularly on the illumination of regional differences, but since different types of region are included as a background variable, the investigations also give certain measures of the regional aspects of welfare.In the last part of the paper some of the risks that seem to be difficult to avoid in trying to use welfare measurements are pointed out.
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    Macroeconomic Aspects of the 1984 Budget (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
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    Savings Taxation: The Chancellor's “Middle Way” (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
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    Does Dividend Policy Matter? (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    What is the Public Sector Worth? (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Fiscal studies 5 (1984), S. 0 
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    The 1984 Corporation Tax Reform (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Has Nigel Lawson Really Reformed Business Taxation? (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    The Effect of Increasing Tax Thresholds on the Poverty and Unemployment Traps (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Airlines and Airports: Privatisation, Competition and Regulation (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    GROWTH ACCOUNTING AND PRODUCTIVITY MEASUREMENT (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This paper compares the growth accounting approaches to aggregate productivity measurement and analysis of three major researchers: E. F. Denison, D. W. Jorgenson, and J. W. Kendrick. The investigetors are compared in terms of their treatment of a number of crucial elements, including measurement of output and of capital and labor inputs (including composition or quality changes), total factor productivity growth, economies of scale, and intensity of demand (for output). Judged by the standard of the neoclassical economic theory of production-the only generally accepted basis for input aggregation-Denison departs significantly from the production theory framework in his measurement of output and capital input, Kendrick to some degree in his measure of capital input, and Jorgenson not at all. The effects of these departures are illustrated with reference to the recent productivity slowdown. The probable near-term future utility of growth accounting methods for productivity analysis is assessed, and some related econometric modeling issues are noted.
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    MEASURING ECONOMIC GROWTH—A CRITIQUE OF THE VIEWS OF FELL AND GREENFIELD (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    PROCEDURES FOR UPDATING THE RESULTS OF INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This article reviews the problems involved in updating the results of international comparisons, in terms of an analytic framework focusing upon the sources of differences between various forms of extrapolation and direct comparisons. The factors identified as important are conservation of prices of the base period and weight inconsistency. The reliability of updating is undoubtedly affected by the length of the period over which the data are extrapolated. A program of regular benchmark comparisons at approximately five-year intervals with updating for the intervening years is attractive, since it permits checking by forward and backward interpolation. Where there are large deviations, however, averaging is not an acceptable solution.
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    ON THE ACCURACY OF INDEX NUMBERS (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: Index number accuracy is affected by formula specification and sampling error. The authors argue that an index formula should be “ideal” and “exact” (with reference to the range of economically plausible aggregator functions) to be economically justified. These indices are invariant in the homothetic case, as well as in certain non-homothetic scenarios. Empirically, based on foreign trade data for Egypt from 1885-1961, the set of economically justified indices are virtually identical, supporting the theoretical argument that “instrumental error” or “formula variance” should be a negligible factor contributing to index number error. In a discussion of sampling error, on the other hand, the authors criticize earlier work and propose an upper and lower bound. Using the same data, these limits imply that sampling error may be a serious problem for many indices.
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    AN ALTERNATIVE TO THE CURRENT TREATMENT OF INTEREST AS TRANSFER IN THE UNITED NATIONS AND CANADIAN SYSTEMS OF NATIONAL ACCOUNTS (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Notes: The United Nations (SNA) and the Canadian (CSNA) Systems of National Accounts treat interest as a factor return to capital. The difficulties arising from the use of this concept cast doubt upon the basic premise. For example if the usual method of measuring value added by the summation of primary inputs is applied to industries mainly engaged in the lending of money, the results show negative production. This has led to the necessity of imputing bank interest in order to avoid negative income originating in the banking industry. Arguments are being put forward to extend this practice to certain other financial non-bank areas as well to offset the negative product emerging with increasing frequency as a result of higher levels of interest transactions.The proposed alternative is based on the contention that interest paid and received for the borrowing and lending of money should be treated in the same manner as the purchase and sale of other services. For the production accounts, for example, this would mean that interest paid by business would be treated as an intermediate expense of the paying industry and as revenue of the receiving industry. The adoption of this approach would therefore eliminate the need for the imputation of banking services and clear up the ambiguities encountered in treating interest on the public and consumer debt, issues which are also not unrelated to the present treatment of interest.
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    ANNOUNCEMENTS (1984)
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    ESTIMATES OF CAPITAL STOCK BY INDUSTRIES FOR AUSTRIA (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: The present investigation is the first attempt to calculate gross capital stocks for 19 industries which together cover the whole Austrian economy. A production-oriented concept of capital formed the basis of the investigation; the estimation procedure follows that of C. Almon et al. In contrast to the traditional perpetual-inventory methods, Almon's modified estimation technique combines the advantages of differentiated cumulation containing a logistical retention function with relatively moderate requirements with respect to investment data. A thorough description of this estimation technique is given in the third section of the paper, combined with a number of comparative model calculations. These demonstrate very clearly that capital stock figures calculated according to the Almon method rarely deviate from those found with the help of the traditional inventory method, which requires considerably more information and uses more complicated calculation procedures. Finally, the sectorally disaggregated capital stock estimates calculated according to the Almon method are presented with some interpretative remarks.
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    INTRODUCTION: THE SPECIAL CONFERENCE ON PURCHASING POWER PARITIES (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
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    THE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF PERSONAL WEALTH IN FRANCE (1977): A FIRST ATTEMPT AT THE ESTATE DUTY METHOD (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Notes: This paper reports upon the first official application of the estate multiplier method of estimating the wealth distribution to French data. It is based upon a sample of estate duty returns filed during the period September-December 1977. The sampling rate was 5 percent for estates under one million francs, and 100 percent for estates over this level, giving a total of 5031 records. The data available did not permit a breakdown by type of asset. It did, however, permit classification of estates by age, sex, and occupation of decedent. Experiments were conducted using five different sets of mortality multipliers. The set of mortality multipliers judged most appropriate leads to an estimate of aggregate net wealth that is 77 percent of that given in the national balance sheet of the national accounts. Comparison of the distributions of wealth derived in these estimates suggest that the figures are consistent with those found in other countries.
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    CLARIFICATION OF MILLER ON CAPITAL AGGREGATION IN THE PRESENCE OF OBSOLESCENCE-INDUCING TECHNICAL CHANGE (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    A BALANCED SYSTEM OF NATIONAL ACCOUNTS FOR THE UNITED KINGDOM (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This paper describes the construction of a disaggregated system of 262 national accounts for the U.K. economy in 1975. The objective is to remove the discrepancies between income, expenditure, production and financial estimates which occur in practice. This is done with the aid of a generalized least squares algorithm for adjusting national accounts with subjective estimates of reliability of the various account items. The balanced system of accounts provides the cross-section data base needed for the estimation of a consistent multisectoral dynamic model of the U.K. economy and yields the classification converters and input-output tables necessary for such a model.
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    AN ESTIMATE OF THE SIZE ANL STRUCTURE OF THE NATIONAL PRODUCT OF THE EARLY ROMAN EMPIRE (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Notes: On the basis of rough estimates from the expenditure as well as from the income side, it is suggested that the national product per head of the Roman Empire at the death of Augustus (AD 14) was somewhat below 400 sesterces (31 g gold) yielding an aggregate national product of fully HS 20 billion for a population of 55 million and that these figures were approximately valid from the late first century BC to the mid-second century AD. The share of government expenditures in national product was very low, probably not above five percent, and that of gross capital expenditures even lower, probably not in excess of two percent. An attempt is also made to appraise the concentration of personal income and it is estimated that the 600 senatorial families, representing approximately the top 0.04 per m of the population, received about 0.6 percent of total personal income while the share of the top three percent of income recipients was in the order of 20–25 percent of total personal incomes. The second part of the article compares these estimates as well as a few indicators of the standard of living and of welfare in the early Roman Empire with the corresponding figures for a few countries before the industrial revolution and for mid-20th century less developed countries.
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    THE VALUE OF SERVCES PROVDED BY THE STOCK OF GOVERNMENT-OWNED FIXED CAPTAL IN THE UNITED STATES, 1948–79 (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Notes: Expanded measures of government product normally include imputations for the services of government capital. This article discusses several approaches to measuring the value of the services of government capital and focuses on the conceptual and empirical difficultes associated with making such imputations. In addition, four sets of alternative estimates for 1948–79 are presented.
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    ON THE ESTIMATION OF PURCHASING POWER PARITIES ON THE BASIC HEADING LEVEL (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: The estimation procedure for purchasing power parities is generally divided into two parts, one for calculating transitive PPP's within basic headings and a second beyond this most detailed level up to gross domestic product. This paper only concerns the first step. It provides a description of the work carried out by the European Communities in 1980 within the United Nations International Comparison Project (ICP) framework. The estimated PPI's for basic headings are put forward together with the procedures for product selection and specification, the classification used for these purposes and the impact on the estimation of transitive PPP's. Instead of the country-product dummy (CPD) method used in the ICP, a revised Elteto-Köves-Szulc (EKS) procedure is proposed in which the estimation method and product selection constitute one integrated procedure.
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    IMPROVED INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS OF REAL PRODUCT AND ITS COMPOSITION: 1950–1980 (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: A set of international comparisons is developed for 124 countries over the three post World War II decades, 1950-80. A Data Table is presented which gives, for most countries and most years, real product estimates for three different national income concepts and for the major subaggregates consumption, investment, and government. Detailed comparative price level estimates are provided as well.
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    ANNOUNCEMENTS (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    A SYSTEM OF SOCIAL MATRICES (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: The paper is concerned with a method of organizing and analyzing information relating to human stocks and flows. The kind of statistical reporting system envisaged is of a traditional kind, but extended so as to record year-to-year changes of state. Life is divided into a number of sequences, each with its own set of characteristic classifications, to avoid an excessive proliferation of categories and so enable many analyses to be made with the kind of statistics already avilable in a number of countries. The need, for some analytical purposes, to combine classifications from different sequences is fully recognized; and this need indicates a direction in which statistical reporting systems should move in the future.The main analytical tool is a set of linear difference equations which, under suitable conditions, can be interpreted either in terms of an input-output system, as in economics, or in terms of an absorbing Markov chain, as in probability theory. A simple regression model is used to link characteristic classifications.About half the paper is taken up with numerical examples, mainly connected with the British educational system as it was in the mid-1960's. An application is also given to movements into, through and out of a psychiatric service system in Scotland.
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    NOTES ON DEVELOPING COUNTRIES AND THEIR STATISTICS—COMMENT (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    ANNOUNCEMENT (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    INTERNATIONAL PRICE COMPARISONS BASED UPON INCOMPLETE DATA (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This paper is directed at the following question: given an incomplete set of price data relating to goods or services in some category of output for each of a number of different countries, what arithmetic should be performed on the prices to get a meaningful representation of the relative category price-levels of the countries? In the course of developing an answer to the question, some broader matters are considered and illuminated. A comparison of category price-levels for different countries is analogous to a commonly-encountered problem in many areas, that of ranking ordinally or cardinally in one dimension a group of “entities”—persons, households, firms, industries, etc.—on the basis of sets of measurements associated with the individual entities. It is this point of view which dominates the following presentation.
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    PROBLEMS OF COMPARISONS IN AFRICA WITH SPECIAL REGARD TO KENYA (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Notes: In order to obtain the information needed to include Kenya in an international comparison of income and purchasing power, it was necessary to collect some data to supplement the regularly collected statistics. Special collection was particularly important for capital goods prices and rural consumer goods prices. The remainder of the work involved using unpublished data available from the Kenyan Statistical Division, either to obtain additional detail required by the comparison, or to maintain international consistency in concept and estimating procedures.
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    PRICE, PURCHASING POWER AND REAL PRODUCT COMPARISONS IN LATIN AMERICA (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: The paper begins with a discussion of the concepts used and the scope of their application. Then the purchasing power parity rates for LAFTA countries in 1968 are presented and analyzed. With the aid of such rates the real gross domestic products of these countries in 1968 are estimated. Among other conclusions, it is found that these differ quite importantly from GDP calculations using foreign exchange rates, even within the LAFTA area. Finally, the levels of consumer prices in the region in 1968 are compared, and these are contrasted with the results of a similar survey undertaken in 1960.
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    A COMPARISON OF SOME SHORT-CUT METHODS OF ESTIMATING REAL PRODUCT PER CAPITA (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: Several recent studies of short-cut estimates comparing real income (on a purchasing power basis) of countries are reviewed, including methods comparing real income based on indicators, like electricity consumption. New estimates are presented for 101 countries which had a tradition of conventional national income estimates in 1965, and for 40 countries without extended national income series. One conclusion from the empircial analysis was that until there exist a large number of countries for which purchasing power estimates of real income are available, it is difficult to discriminate between alternative short-cut methods using indicators, and difficult to estimate real per capita incomes of low income countries without substantial errors of estimate. The paper advocates more purchasing power estimates, and institutionalizing the collection of international prices of specified items so that abbreviated market baskets can be readily compared across countries.
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    THE INADEQUACY OF UNIT VALUE INDEXES AS PROXIES FOR CANADIAN INDUSTRIAL SELLING PRICE INDEXES (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This paper considers the adequacy of unit value indexes as proxies for industrial selling price indexes in Canada, in light of the considerations raised in the Searle report for the United States (summarized elsewhere in this issue). Some 3,237 regressions are run using the industrial selling price index for a commodity group as the dependent variable and the corresponding unit value index as the independent variable. The unit value indexes perform poorly as predictors of the I.S.P.I.; the overall tendency is for the unit value index to overestimate changes in the I.S.P.I.; and to explain on average only about 30 percent of the total variance of the I.S.P.I.
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    HUMAN CAPITAL: DETERIORATION AND NET INVESTMENT (1973)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Notes: The current practice in national accounting is to exclude from national product investment in schooling and on-the-job training, except for direct costs of schooling which are included in consumption. Foregone earnings, which form the major part of investment in human capital, go unrecorded.Much is to be gained in consistency and analytical clarity by treating human capital like physical capital in national accounting. Estimating the amount of foregone earnings net of deterioration, that is, net investment, is a step in this direction.Using the framework of the life-cycle hypothesis of earnings, and assuming declining-balance deterioration of human capital, estimates of deterioration rates in respect of American males by race and education level are computed for 1960. Every such d is, however, the minimum consistent with the respective costs and benefits profile. Hence an upper limit d is assumed. The model generates for each costs and benefits profile and in respect of either d, a year-by-year series of net investment in human capital. These are used to obtain two estimates (which turn out to be close to each other) of aggregate net investment in American white males in 1960. On the basis of these estimates, aggregate net investment in human capital is found to be about equal to net investment in physical assets (including consumers’durables).It is also found that the Denison method of estimating the contribution of the increase in human capital to economic growth understates this contribution by a ratio approximately equal to net investment in on-the-job training to returns to human capital. This was about 16 percent in 1960.
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    REPLY (1973)
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    REPLY (1973)
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    Notes: Since Dr. Bartsch has gone only partially into the history of the United Nations definition of employment and unemployment, let me pursue it a bit further. To begin, the ILO is a Member Agency of the UN and thus automatically subsumed under the latter. I am fully aware that the ILO segment of the UN was given the area of labor statistics as its domain, and hence draws up official definitions, etc. (Except for the industrial composition classification of the economically active, which area was assigned to the UN Statistical Office.)
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    Tax Reform in Ireland (1984)
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    Organising the Finance of Hospitals by Simulated Markets (1984)
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    Privatisation Techniques and the PSBR (1984)
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    Privatisation, Regulation and Competition (1984)
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    Express Coaching since 1980: Liberalisation in Practice (1984)
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    Policy Towards Contracting-Out: The Lessons of Experience (1984)
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    On the Reform of the Taxation of Husband and Wife: Are Incentives Important? (1984)
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    Tax Evasion and Avoidance on Earned Income: Some Survey Evidence (1984)
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    Deep Discount Bonds—Or How to Get an Interest-free Loan (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    The Budget and the Economic Strategy (1984)
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    TRENDS IN THE CONCENTRATION OF PERSONAL WEALTH IN THE UNITED STATES, 1958 TO 1976 (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Notes: The trend in the concentration of U.S. wealth from 1958 through 1976 is examined in some detail and summary data are used to extend the period over which the trend is observed back to 1922. The data suggests a long-run secular decline in the concentration of U.S. wealth with a rather sharp decline in 1976, the last year for which measurements were made. Although the secular decline in wealth concentration is supported by numerous observations across 50 years, the precipitous decline measured between 1972 and 1976 should be interpreted with caution because it undoubtedly reflects the substantial downward revaluation which occurred in the stock market from 1972 (most recent previous observation) to 1976. This is not to argue that wealth holders at the top of the distribution were not made significantly less affluent by the revaluation, but that the 1976 observation includes a large cyclical component. Future observations which include the subsequent upward revaluation in the stock market are expected to show levels of concentration comparable to or only slightly below those for 1958 through 1972.
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    NEW DEVELOPMENTS TOWARDS RESOLVING THE COMPANY-ESTABLISHMENT PROBLEM (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
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    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: The paper begins by stating various aspects of the national economic accountant's “company-establishment problem.” Six possible approaches to the problem are briefly outlined. The paper concentrates on one approach based on new developments in business accounting theory and practice, namely divisional-reporting procedures. The division represents the smallest operating entity capable of reporting both a complete set of production (income) statistics and a set of related financial (balance-sheet) statistics. When companies are owned and controlled by the same interests, namely the enterprise, each division reports on an enterprise-wide basis. In this important case, the traditional company-establishment problem has an enterprise-division-establishment resolution.There is considerable emphasis on clarifying the issues needed for systematic development of divisional-reporting to meet the requirements of a national statistical agency. Key aspects are the provision of appropriate conceptual distinctions relating to statistical structure of corporate organizations and patterns of intercorporate ownership consolidation. Practical experience gained by the U.S. Federal Trade Commission's line of business reporting program is also highlighted. Two tables show details with respect to a proposed divisional income statement and balance-sheet statement that a systematically developed division-reporting unit can provide. The tables are related to existing statistics yielded by traditional company- and establishment-reporting units. In effect the paper is part of a movement giving national economic accounting more microdata dimensions. Future research must integrate the proposed new statistical reporting unit within systems of national accounts presently constructed on the basis of a dual sectoring classification.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00490.x
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  • 90
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    International Meeting on “Problems of Compilation of Input-Output-Tables” (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 30 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00494.x
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  • 91
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    ON AGGREGATION METHODS FOR INTERNATIONAL COMPARISONS (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Review of income and wealth 30 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1475-4991
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Economics
    Notes: This paper brings together discussions of Geary–Khamis indexes now available only in scattered sources, and considers their application to a range of uses. The first section traces the development of the method from its initial proposal by Geary in 1953, with the aid of a numerical example illustrating differences among various formulations. The second section considers the least squares properties of Geary-Khamis indexes and some related variants. The final section considers adjustments to the method required for regionalization and spatio-temporal bilateral and multilateral comparisons, as well as to take account of the nature of available data.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-4991.1984.tb00485.x
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  • 92
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    The impact of low numbers of leatherjackets on grass yield (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Grass and forage science 39 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1365-2494
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Experiments were carried out on seven sites in Fermanagh to investigate the yield loss caused by leatherjackets in grassland. Populations on the sites ranged from 65,000 to 865,000 ha−1 and significant damage was recorded from all sites except the least populated. Greater yield increases were obtained by controlling leatherjackets in September when compared with control in March. Regression models were fitted and it was found that 125,000 leatherjackets ha−1 in March caused a yield loss of 50 kg herbage dry matter (DM) ha−1 by mid-May. Based on these figures the average yield loss to leatherjackets in Northern Ireland, from 1965 to 1982, was 208 kg DM ha−1. Controlling leatherjackets in September, rather than March, increased the potential avoidable yield loss by a factor of 2.72. The average yield loss at first silage cut is therefore 566 kg DM ha−1. On average, 100,000 ha grassland in Northern Ireland may be suffering an annual loss of 1t herbage DM ha−1.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.1984.tb01705.x
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  • 93
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    The utilization of sown and indigenous plant species by sheep and goats grazing hill pastures (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Grass and forage science 39 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1365-2494
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The utilization of sown and indigenous plant species was studied in three experiments in which plots were stocked with similar live weights of sheep and goats. In the first experiment the animals grazed plots containing 0–5 ha of rush (Juncus effusus)- infested reseeded pasture and 0–5 ha of unimproved blanket bog. The second and third experiments took place on old rush-infested improved pasture; in one experiment two levels of herbage mass of grass were provided while in the other the rushes were cut in spring or remained uncut.The goats grazed the rushes readily in all three experiments. Reduction in herbage mass of grass increased utilization of rushes by goats although these animals still grazed rushes when grass supply was plentiful. Sheep scarcely grazed J. effusus even when hard-pressed by shortage of grass. Both sheep and goats grazed J. acutiflorus.In Experiment I sheep utilized reseeded pasture more heavily than did goats. Sheep grazed similar proportions of the leaves of grass and clover while goats grazed a lower proportion of clover leaves as compared with grass. Among the grasses sheep discriminated in favour of Lolium perenne whereas goats did not. On the blanket bog vegetation, Eriophorum vaginatum and Calluna vulgaris were grazed both earlier in the season and more heavily by goats than by sheep.The relationships between sward structure and grazing height in accounting for differences in species selection by sheep and goats are briefly discussed. The possibility of using goals to control coarse weeds in hill pasture and for strategic grazing to manipulate floristic composition is outlined.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.1984.tb01708.x
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  • 94
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    A comparison of a rising-plate meter and an electronic capacitance meter for estimating the yield of pastures grazed by dairy cows (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Grass and forage science 39 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1365-2494
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The performances of a rising-plate meter and a single-probe electronic capacitance meter were compared for estimating the herbage mass of irrigated pastures both before and after grazing by dairy cows. Mean CV for the rising plate meter and the single-probe meter were 12.7% and 13.3% respectively when herbage mass was measured before grazing, and 21.8% and 15.4% respectively immediately after grazing. These coefficients of variation indicate that while the performance of the two meters was similar when herbage mass was measured before grazing, the single-probe meter was a more precise instrument for estimating herbage mass after grazing.Trampling of herbage prior to measurement had a major effect on the regressions of both meters; the regression intercept was increased by 2800 kg dry matter (DM) ha−1 for the rising-plate meter and by 2580 kg DM ha−1 for the single-probe meter. The slopes of the graphs, however, remained unchanged.It was concluded that while the single-probe meter performed better than the rising-plate meter for estimating the mass of post-grazing herbage when trampling was negligible, the large effect that trampling had on the post-grazing calibration regressions precluded both instruments from general use in dairy cattle research. This indicates that another technique is required in circumstances in which pastures are heavily trampled.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.1984.tb01711.x
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  • 95
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    Potential pasture production in the uplands of Wales (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Grass and forage science 39 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1365-2494
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Only a very limited number of species, including red fescue (Festuca rubra), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), timothy (Phleum protense) and white clover (Trifolium repens) are considered as suitable for wet hill land. Detailed comparison of red fescue, perennial ryegrass and timothy on contrasting acid brown earth and stagnogley soils from 1966 to 1969 at Pant-y-dŵr Hill Centre (305 m OD) highlighted the advantages of red fescue in annual DM production and its more even distribution over a longer growing season but also indicated drawbacks of slow initial establishment and lower feed quality. In vitro DOMD of red fescue averaged 645 g kg−1 over the year compared with 690 g kg−1 for perennial ryegrass and timothy. Assessment of a narrow range of species under surface seeding conditions on a stagnogley soil from 1971 to 1975 confirmed the value of red fescue in DM production and persistence. The results are discussed in relation to the characteristics required in herbage species for hill land improvement.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.1984.tb01687.x
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  • 96
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    Orchardgrass and perennial ryegrass with applied nitrogen and in mixtures with legumes (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Grass and forage science 39 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1365-2494
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: High-yielding grass-legume mixtures play an important role in forage-animal systems but finding compatible and adapted species can sometimes be difficult. The objective of this study was to examine productivity of perennial ryegrass and orchardgrass in pure stands with N and in mixtures with legumes.Broadcast sowings were made on conventionally prepared seedbeds in August 1979 and May 1980 on a Hagerstown silt loam soil (fine, mixed mesic Typic Hapludalf). When sown alone orchardgrass cv. Pennlate and perennial ryegrass cv. Reveille received rates of N ranging from 0 to 448 kg ha−1 a−1. The grasses were also grown in mixtures with alfalfa cv. Arc, red clover cv. Arlington, or birds foot trefoil cv. Viking. The same legumes were sown alone. Four legume seed rates were used in both the pure legume and mixed stands.Orchardgrass-N swards were more productive than ryegrass-N swards over 3 years. More dry matter (DM) was harvested from pure stands of
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.1984.tb01690.x
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  • 97
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    The effect of autumn fungicide application on spring dry matter accumulation in perennial ryegrass cv. S24 (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Grass and forage science 39 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1365-2494
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Fungicide applied to plots of perennial ryegrass cv. S24 in the autumn of 1981 significantly increased tiller number and total dry matter accumulation in February and March of 1982. However, fungicide application in the autumn of 1982 failed to increase tiller number or dry matter accumulation in the spring of 1983. It is suggested that fungicide application in autumn 1981 prevented the death of tillers caused by fungal attack after snow covered the plots in December 1981.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.1984.tb01695.x
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  • 98
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    Errata (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Grass and forage science 39 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1365-2494
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.1984.tb01698.x
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  • 99
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    The effect of stocking rate and fertilizer usage on income variability for dairy farms in England and Wales (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Grass and forage science 39 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1365-2494
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: A mathematical model of grass production and utilization on a dairy farm is described. Using the model an assessment has been made of the extent to which financial uncertainty arising from year-to-year variability in grass yields, coupled with a preference among farmers for minimizing risks, may explain the relatively low stocking rates and observed nitrogen usages on many dairy farms in England and Wales. The degree of risk has been equated with the probability of profits in a particular year being less than those required to cover the consumption needs and short-term borrowing requirements of the farmer. The results of the analysis indicate that a strategy of minimizing risks may lead to a significantly lower stocking rate than one of maximizing profits. Thus, considerations of risk may lead to stocking rates which are suboptimal from the viewpoint of economic and biological efficiency. However, there is no evidence to suggest that the comparatively low average usage of nitrogen on dairy farms in the UK is determined by risk considerations. On the contrary, increasing nitrogen usage lowers the apparent financial risk at a given stocking rate.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.1984.tb01673.x
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  • 100
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    Dry matter and quality of herbage harvested from Holcus lanatus and Lolium perenne grown in monocultures and in mixtures (1984)
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Grass and forage science 39 (1984), S. 0 
    Details
    ISSN: 1365-2494
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The herbage dry matter (DM) harvested, N response and herbage quality of monocultures and mixtures of Holcus lanatus (local ecotype) and Lolium perenne (cv. S24) were compared in a field experiment. The species were seeded in the proportions 100:0, 75:25, 50:50, 25:75 and 0: 100; three rates of N were applied (150, 300 and 450 kg ha−1) and five or six cuts were taken in each of four harvest years. H. lanatus established poorly in the seeding year and in the first full harvest year L. perenne contributed 1, 54, 76, 89 and 99% of the total herbage DM harvested from the five sward types (mean of N treatments). Only a small decline in the L. perenne content of the swards occurred during the experiment.Total amounts of herbage harvested were significantly lower for H. lanatus monoculture than for the other sward types in three of the four harvest years However, L perenne monoculture yielded significantly more total DM than mixtures with H lanatus in only one of the four harvest years. The five sward types did not differ overall in response to N fertilization. Nitrogen, phosphate and potassium content of the herbage was greatest for H. lanatus monoculture and decreased with increasing proportions ofL perenne present in the mixtures.Thus the presence of a high proportion of H. lanatus in mixture with L. perenne cv. S24 had
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2494.1984.tb01677.x
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