ALBERT

Notes: The Photogrammetric Society was formed in 1952. The Council of the Society considered that the twentieth anniversary was a good point at which to record the events which led to its formation and the significant occasions and decisions which have taken place since 1952. Consequently, Paul Lamboit was invited to compile this History. He has placed the birth and development of the Society within the national and international photogrammetric context and his record of the deliberations which took place between 1947 and 1952 will be of particular interest to historians of our subject.This account was first published in a limited edition in 1971. Sufficient interest has since been expressed to prompt a wider circulation through publication in the Photogrammetric Record.The author served the Society continuously in several official capacities from 1953 to 1969 and he was elected to Honorary Membership in 1969.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméLa Photogrammetric Society a été fondée en 1952. Excellente occasion pour faire le point qu'un vingtiéme anniversaire, a estimé le Conseil de la Société; pour rappeler les circonstances de sa naissance, les étapes de sa croissance et les décisions importantes prises depuis 1952. Ce qu'on invita Paul Lamboit à faire. Son exposé resitue la naissance et le développement de la Société dans le contexte national et international de la photogrammétrie; la relation qu'il fait des décisions prises entre 1947 et 1952 intéressera particulièrement ceux qui s'occupent d'histoire de la photogrammétrie.Ce rapport d'abord publié en édition limitée en 1971, a suscité un intérêt suffisant pour que l'on se presse en le publiant dans le Photogrammetric Record de le porter à la connaissance d'un plus large public.L'auteur a exercé différentes fonctions de 1953 à 1969 dans l'appareil de la Société. Il a étéélu membre honoraire en 1969.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉Zusummenfussung1952 wurde die Britische Gesellschaft für Photogrammetrie gegründet. Der Rat der Gesellschaft erwog, dass der zwanzigste Jahrestag eine günstige Gelegenheit sei, um die Ereignisse, die zur Gründung der Gesellschaft führten sowie die bedeutenden Veranstaltungen, die stattfanden und die Entscheidungen, die getroffen wurden, darzustellen. Aus diesem Grunde wurde Paul Lamboit eingeladen, diesen historischen Rückblick zu schreiben. Er hat dabei die Gründung und die Entwicklung der Gesellschaft in den nationalen und internationalen photogrammetrischen Zusammenhang gestellt nd sein Bericht über die zwischen 1947 und 1972 erfolgten Beratungen wird für an unserer Sache interessierte Historiker sehr aufschlussreich sein.Diese Zusammenstellung wurde erstmals in einer begrenzten Auflage im Jahre 1971 veröffentlicht. Genügend Interesse wurde inzwischen bekundet, um eine weitergehende Verteilung mit Hilfe des Photogrammetric Record zu veranlassen.Der Autor diente der Gesellschaft kontinuierlich in verschiedenen Ämtern von 1953 bis 1969, wo er aum Ehrenmitglied gewählt wurde.

Notes: The geologist's use of air photographs and the characteristics studied by photogeologists are briefly described. The influence of photographic factors such as scale, season, time of day, film type, processing, overlap and dimensional accuracy are considered from the geologist's viewpoint.

Notes: This paper modifies the well-known formula that corrects x-parallaxes for tilt. It shows how we can make significant improvements in accuracy with a no more complicated formula, in which the effects of ground relief are completely removed; and how we can reduce the second-order errors due to lateral (w) tilts by very large factors in favourable cases.

Notes: A scholarly account of the formative discussions, the founding and the first 20 years of the Photogrammetric Society was published in 1971 and republished in 1974. This present review concentrates on the latter years of the life of the Photogrammetric Society prior to its merger with the Remote Sensing Society in 2001.The authors joined the Photogrammetric Society in 1960 and were conspicuous in its affairs for many years. Although both occupied the Society's presidential chair, they also fulfilled several other roles in its efficient management. Atkinson's first contribution to the Photogrammetric Record was published in 1968 and Newton's in 1971.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméOn a publié en 1971 un compte-rendu détaillé des 20 premières années de la “Photogrammetric Society”, à commencer par les discussions qui présidèrent è sa fondation. Ce récit fut republié en 1974. On se focalise dans cet article sur les dernières années d'activité de la “Photogrammetric Society” qui aboutirent à sa fusion avec la “Remote Sensing Society” en 2001.Les deux auteurs adhérèrent à la “Photogrammetric Society” en 1960 et y furent d‘éminents animateurs pendant de nombreuses années. Tous deux occupèrent le poste de président de cette Association mais remplirent égulement plusieurs autres fonctions qui contribuèrent à une gestion efficace. La première intervention d'Atkinson dans le Photogrummetric Record remonte à 1968, et celle de Newton à 1971.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusummenfussungEine wissenschaftliche Abhandlung über die Diskussionen zur Gründung, die Gründung selbst und die ersten 20 Jahre der Photogrammetrischen Gesellschaft wurde in 1971 publiziert und in 1974 wiederholt. Dieser aktulle Rückblick konzentriert sich auf die darauffolgenden Jahre der Photogrammetrischen Gesellschaft bis hin zur Vereinigung mit der Gesellschaft für Fernerkundung in Jahre 2001.Die Autoren wurden 1960 Mitglieder in der Photogrammetrischen Gesellschaft und trugen viele Jahre massgeblich zu deren Aktivitäsidenten der Gesellschaft auch verschiedene andere Aufgaben im Management wahrgenommen. Der erste Beitrag von Atkinson im Photogrammetric Record erschien 1968, der erste von Newton in 1971.

Notes: The determination of the attitude, the position and the intrinsic geometric characteristics of the camera is recognised as the fundamental photogrammetric problem. It can be summarised as the determination of camera interior and exterior orientation parameters, as well as the determination of 3D coordinates of object points. The term “exterior orientation” of an image refers to its position and orientation related to an exterior (object space) coordinate system. Several methods can be applied to determine the parameters of the orientation of one, two or more photos. The orientation can be processed in steps (as relative and absolute orientation) but simultaneous methods (such as bundle adjustments) are now available in many software packages. Several methods have also been developed for the orientation of single images. They are based in general on geometric and topological characteristics of imaged objects.This paper presents a survey of classical and modern methods for the determination of the exterior parameters in photogrammetry, some of which are available as software packages (with practical examples) on the Internet. The methods presented are classified in three principal groups. In the first. a selection of approximate methods for applications that do not require great accuracy is presented. Such methods are also used to calculate values required for iterative processes. In the second group, standard point-bused methods derived from collinearity, coplanarity or coangularity conditions are briefly reviewed, followed by line-based approaches. The third group represents orientation methods based on constraints and on concepts of projective geometry, which are becoming of increasing interest for photogrammetrists. In the last section, the paper gives a summary of existing strategies for automatic exterior orientation in aerial photogrammetry.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméLa détermination de l'attitude, de la position et des caractéristiques intrinsèques de la chambre photographique constitue un problème fondamental en photogrammétrie. Il se résume à la détermination des paramètres de l'orientation de la chambre de prise de vue (paramètres des orientations externe et interne), ainsi qu'à la détermination des coordonnées 30 des points de l'objet. L'orientation externe se rapporte à la détermination de la position et de l'orientation d'une chambre par rapport à un système externe de coordonnées. Différentes méthodes peuvent être utilisées pour calculer les éléments dorientation externe d'une photo, d'un couple ou de plusieurs photos. Le calcul de l'orientation peut être réalisé par étapes (par exemple les orientations relative et absolue) mais les méthodes simultanées (la compensation par faisceaux par exemple) sont actuellement proposées dans la plupart des logiciels. Plusieurs méthodes ont aussi été développées pour l'orientation d'images isolées. Ells sont basées en général sur les caactéristiques géométriques et topologiques des objets photographiés.Dans cet article on présente un ensemble de méthodes classiques et modernes pour la détermination des paramètres de l'orientation externe, certaines d'entre elles étant téléchargeables sous la forme d'applications sur Internet. Les méthodes présentées sont classées en trois groupes principaux. Le premier groupe contient une sélection de méthodes approximatives utilisées d'habitude quand une grande précision n'est pas exigée, ou encore pour calculer des vuleurs approchées des paramètres extrinsèques requises pour les méthodes itératives rigoureuses. Dans le deuxième groupe, on rappelle brièvement les jondements des méthodes basées sur les conditions photogrammétriques fondamentales (la colinéarité, la coplanéité et la coangularité). Dans ce groupe, les méthodes basées sur l'extraction des points ou des lignes sont également abordées. Le troisième groupe traite des méthodes d'orientation basées sur les contraintes et les concepts de la géométrie projective, de plus en plus utilisées par les photogrammètres. Le dernier paragraphe se rapporte aux méthodes destinées à automatiser le calcul de l'orientation externe en photogrammétrie aérienne.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusummenfussungDie Bestimmung der Neigung, der Position und den geometrischen parametern der Kamera wird als das fundamentale Problem der Photogrammetrie angesehen. Es kann zusammenfassend sowohl als die Bestimmung der Parameter der inneren und äusseren Orientierung der Kamera angesehen werden, als auch als die Bestimmung von 3D Koordinaten von Objektpunkten. Der Ausdruck “äussere Orientierung” eines Bildes bezieht sich auf die Lage und Orientierung bezogen auf ein äusseres (Objektraum-) Koordinatensystem. Es können verschiedene Methoden angewandt werden, um die Parameter von einem, zwei oder mehreren Bildern zu bestimmen. Die orientierung kann in Schritten erfolgen, was als Relative und Absolute Orientierung bezeichnet wird, aber auch simultane Methoden, wie die Bündelausgleichung, sind in vielen Softwarepaketen implementiert. Es wurden auch Methoden für die Orientierung von Einzelbildern entwickelt, die geometrische und topologische Eigenschaften der abgebildeten Objekte nutzen. In diesem Beitrag wird Beitrag wird eine Studie klassischer und moderner Methoden der Photogrammetrie zur Bestimmung der Parameter der äßeren Orientierung vorgestellt, wovon einige in Softwarepaketen zur Verfügung stehen, die von praktischen Beispielen im Internet ergänzt werden. Die untersuchten Methoden werden in drei Hauptgruppen eingeteilt. In einer ersten Gruppe werden Näherungslösungen vorgestellt, die für Anwendungen mit geringen Genauigkeitsanforderungen geeignet sind. Diese Methoden werden ansonsten für die Näherngswertberechunggen für iterative Prozesse verwendet. IN der zweiten Gruppe werden zuerst die punktbasierten Standardmethoden vorgestellt, die von Bedingungen zur Kollinearität. Koplanarität und Kowinkligkeit abgeletet sind. Danach folgen linienbasierte Ansätze. Die dritte Gruppe umfasst Orientierungsmethoden, die auf Zwangsbedingungen und auf Konzepte der projektiven Geometrie aufbauen, die für Photogrammeter von zunehmendem Interesse sind, Im letzten Abschnitt wird eine Zusammenfassung existierender Strategien für eine automatische äussere orientierung in der Luftbildphotogrammetrie gegeben.

Notes: The history of the Argentine-Chile frontier is briefly reviewed. The paper then describes the photogrammetric and land-surveying work that formed part of the recent settlement of a section of the frontier, that was referred to the British Government for arbitration.

Notes: Topics of immediate practical interest formed the basis of the Address. Particular emphasis was placed upon problems of point transfer, pre-marking of ground control points, aerial triangulation by observation of independent models, and the status of photogrammetric operators.

Notes: The article describes a method of strip aerial triangulation using the Wild B8 plotter. The principal feature of the method is the transfer of exterior orientation of a camera by measurement of outer orientation parallel to successive airbases.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Broad scope investigations have allowed a study of the intestinal parasitic protozoa of the Kenya baboon Papio doguera in its natural habitat as well as an opportunity to follow the intestinal protozoan populations in these primates held in captivity. Samplings indicate that the amoebae found in the baboon are essentially the same as those which commonly occur in man. Balantidium coli is frequent in wild baboons but is self-limiting in animals after a few weeks in captivity. The flagellates Chilomastix mesnili and Giardia lamblia were detected in captive but not in wild baboons; the presence of the latter constitutes a new record for Papio doguera.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Experimental observation of the pathogenicity of some strains of Hartmannella plus the observation of human meningo-encephalitis due to small amebas which had a structure compatible with that of Hartmannella in the tissues has suggested the concept of respiratory amebiasis followed by cerebral and other complications.Until recently no cultural evidence was available to identify positively the amebas in the human cases. This report summarizes the isolation of Naegleria sp. (HB-1) from human spinal fluid by mouse inoculation followed by tissue culture of the infected mouse brain. C. Butt and his associates, who submitted this material to us, isolated the Naegleria on agar medium with Escherichia coli without antibiotics at 37 C.The new isolate failed to grow on the medium previously suggested by us for Hartmannella. HB-1 is virulent for laboratory animals and has a structure in the tissues which more resembles the amebas in the human tissue than the amebas in experimental Hartmannella infections of mice. Naegleria and Hartmannella are both potential pathogens for normal animals and man. A clinical laboratory method to detect Naegleria as well as Hartmannella is herein suggested.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Reticulocytosis, stimulated by the destruction of red blood cells by phenylhydrazine, altered the course of infection of both Plasmodium chabaudi and P. berghei in the mouse. P. chabaudi, lacking a preference for reticulocytes, was adversely affected when young cells were present in abundance. Parasitemias diminished and most of the animals survived the otherwise fatal infection. P. berghei preferentially invaded reticulocytes to the extent that the parasitemia became contained largely in the reticulocyte population. This was accompanied by a delay in time to death.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Uronema nigricans, a hymenostome ciliate, is redescribed by modern technics. Anatomic studies were made on 4 strains treated primarily with the Chatton-Lwoff silver impregnation technic. Particular attention was given to the buccal apparatus and its importance to generic assignment in the order Hymenostomatida.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A hyperparasite probably related to some lower protistan was found in the cytoplasm of Entamoeba suis Hartmann. These were very minute bodies with a central Feulgen-positive dot, the nucleus, and a bordering cytoplasmic ring with an alcian blue-positive reaction. This organism appeared to interfere with the synthesis of DNA & RNA in the host amoeba as reflected in its relative stainability with Feulgen or pyronin-methyl green. The suggestion is that the parasitized amoebic cysts were most likely rendered nonviable.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Cell-free preparations from Crithidia jasciculata carried out protein synthesis as measured by 14C-leucine uptake (optimum ∼ 10 mM Mg++) and poly U-directed 14C-phenylalanine uptake (optimum ∼ 16 mM Mg++). Characteristics of the system and sucrose density-gradient patterns of ribosomes were investigated. The charging and transfer reactions—the 2 main steps in protein synthesis—were inhibited by stilbamidine, hydroxystilbamidine, pentamidine, quinapyramine (Antrycide), and suramin.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Cohnilembus verminus, a marine hymenostome ciliate, is described from a culture taken at Eniwetok. Anatomic studies were made on specimens treated primarily with the Chatton-Lwoff silver impregnation technic.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Eimeria callospermophili was found in 6 species of ground squirrels and the white-tailed prairie dog. The hosts included Spermophilus armatus from Utah and Montana, S. richardsoni from Montana and Wyoming, S. beecheyi from California, S. lateralis and S. variegatus from Utah, and S. tridecemlineatus and Cynomys leucurus from Wyoming. Infections were generally transmissible from each species of ground squirrel to S. armatus and S. richardsoni. Oocysts from C. leucurus caused infections in S. armatus and S. richardsoni. No infections were found after inoculation of E. callospermophili oocysts into least chipmunks (Eutamius minimus), Mongolian gerbils (Meriones unguiculatus), or laboratory rats; however, excystation occurred in these animals. Resistance to infection did not develop in S. armatus, S. richardsoni, or S. variegatus, but did occur after 5 or more infections in S. lateralis. Eimeria callospermophili had little or no effect on the host in S. armatus, S. lateralis, or S. variegatus, but caused bloody diarrhea in severely infected individuals of S. richardsoni.The oocysts had an oocyst residuum consisting of several distinct bodies, which later coalesced to form a large homogeneous body. Each sporozoite had an unusually large refractile body. In experimentally infected specimens of S. armatus the prepatent period and patent period lasted for 5 and 9 days, respectively. Mature 1st-generation schizonts, first seen 2 days after inoculation, had 8–12 merozoites. Mature 2nd-generation schizonts, first seen 3 days after inoculation, had an average of 18 merozoites which were smaller than those of the 1st generation. Mature gametes were 1st seen 4 days after inoculation. Mature microgametocytes were only slightly larger than mature macrogametes.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The conclusion drawn in 1921 that the large nuclei in the cytoplasmic cortex of Glugea cysts are not vegetative nuclei of the microsporidan but nuclei of the hypertrophied host cell was based on the discovery of early developmental stages in the mesenchyme of stickleback larvae experimentally fed Glugea spores. This observation had been made on serial sections from experiments done in 1912. The intracellular development of the microsporidan could be followed up in this material only thru the 1st stages of schizogony. Renewed infection experiments, done still in 1921 on a much broader basis, have fully confirmed the previous findings, as briefly stated in 1922. On this material, the intracellular development of G. anomala has been followed up in recent years from uninucleate host cells 7 μ in diameter, interpreted as wandering cells in the mesenchyme, until they became macroscopic multinucleate cysts, in which schizogony and sporogony of the microsporidan produced innumerable vegetative stages and spores of Glugea. The details of the developmental processes are described in the present paper.The multinucleate host cell and the intracellular parasites together form one of the symbiotic complexes for which the term “xenom” or “xenoma” has been used by me since 1949. By a sequence of amitotic nuclear divisions, the uninucleate host cell in the Glugea xenomas of Gasterosteus becomes plurinucleate in contrast to the usual structure of other xenomas of fish.Already in 1921, I thought that the host cell in the Glugea xenomas may have phagocytic properties. The observation of accumulation of granules from pigment cells in some of the Glugea xenomas has now verified this supposition.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Eimeria eumopos n. sp. (Coccidiida, Eimeriidae) from a Colombian bat Eumops trumbulli (Chiroptera, Molossidae) is described. This is the first recorded coccidium in a bat from the western hemisphere, and the sixth bat coccidium species described to date. The unsporulated oocysts in the bat feces are 30.9–24.0 by 28.9–23.2 μ (near 28.8 × 26.1 μ). Their outstanding feature is the pronounced pitting of the thick brownish oocyst wall.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. An electron microscope study of Plasmodium coatneyi in the rhesus monkey supplied information on the fine structure of trophozoites, gametocytes and of the host cell. The trophozoites resemble other mammalian malaria parasites. They do not have typical protozoan mitochondria, but instead a concentric double-membraned organelle, which, it is assumed, performs mitochondrial functions. They feed on the host cell by pinocytosis, engulfing droplets of erythrocytes thru invaginations of the plasma membranes at any region of the cell or thru the cytostome. Digestion of hemoglobin takes place in small vesicles pinched off from the food vacuole proper.Gametocytes can be clearly distinguished into macro- and microgametocytes. Macrogametocytes are covered by 2 plasma membranes, the inner one appearing thicker in some places. The cytoplasm is filled with Palade's particles and has numerous vesicles of endoplasmic reticulum and toxonemes. In microgametocytes most of the inner membrane is thickened, the cytoplasm has few Palade's particles and vesicles of the endoplasmic reticulum and does not have toxonemes.Erythrocytes with trophozoites are irregularly scallop-shaped and have elevated points with knob-like protrusions covered by a double membrane. If these protrusions are sticky they might be in part responsible for clumping and arresting the schizonts and segmenters in the capillaries. The host cell contains numerous Maurer's clefts which in some instances are continuous with the membranes of the parasite suggesting that they might originate from them.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Mice, segregated in groups according to sex and age from 5 to 21 weeks, and randomly presented, were inoculated in one continuous process with a trypanosome suspension prepared from a Trypanosoma brucei subgroup stabilate of such a dilution that about 50% of the mice might be expected to become infected. No statistically significant difference occurred between groups, either with regard to sex or to age.Significant alterations in the proportions of mice infected did, however, occur in relation to inoculation order. The inoculation process occupied 12–197 minutes after removal of the stabilate from −79 C storage. Essentially, infectivity rose initially to a peak between 30 and 80 minutes, and then fell off, but was not abolished at the end of the experiment.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Observations were made on the fine structure of Paramecium bursaria and its intracellular Chlorella symbionts. Emphasis was placed on the structure of the algae and structural aspects of the relationship between the organisms.The algae are surrounded by a prominent cell wall and contain a cup-shaped chloroplast which lies just beneath the plasma membrane. Within the cavity formed by the chloroplast are a large nucleus, a mitochondrion, one or more dictyosomes, and numerous ribosomes. The chloroplast itself is made up of a series of lamellar stacks each containing 2–6 or more thylakoids with a granular stroma and starch grains intercalated between the stacks. The thylakoid stacks of mature algae are frequently more compact than those of recently divided algae. A large pyrenoid is located within the base of the chloroplast. It is made up of a granular or fibrillar matrix surrounded by a shell of starch. The matrix is bisected by a stack of 2 thylakoids. Prior to the division of the chloroplast the pyrenoid regresses; pyrenoids subsequently form in the daughter chloroplasts thru condensation of the matrix material and the reappearance of a starch shell. This shell appears to be formed by the hollowing-out of starch grains already present in the chloroplast stroma. Accordingly, in this case, starch moves from the stroma to the pyrenoid.The algae are located thruout the peripheral cytoplasm of the Paramecium. Each alga is located in an individual vacuole except immediately following division of the algae when the daughter cells are temporarily located in the vacuole which harbored the parental cell. Shortly thereafter the vacuole membrane invaginates, thereby isolating the daughter algae into individual vacuoles. Degenerating symbiotic algae are seen; because these are frequently found in vacuoles with bacteria, they are presumed to be undergoing digestion. Due to the conditions of culture these algae could have been either of intracellular or extracellular origin.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Electron-microscopic observations were performed on 2 species of Volvox, one similar to V. globator, the other to V. aureus. The former has distinct protoplasmic connections in the adult coenobium and specific structures, named “medial bodies,” in the connections just at the intersection with the middle lamella. The medial body is disk shaped, about 800 mμ in diameter, and is composed of 3 parts, 2 dense outer layers and an intermediate less dense zone. In the latter species, the connection and medial body were not seen. On the other hand, it was commonly seen in both of them that in younger, dividing gonidia neighboring protoplasts were connected with each other by protoplasmic bridges. The bridges are undoubtedly formed due to incomplete cell separation in the division of a gonidium. The structural difference in the adult coen***bium between the 2 species emerges just after inversion of the coenobium. In the globator type the medial body appears just after inversion, and the connection remains unruptured all thru life. In the aureus type, it seems that the connections are withdrawn or degenerate immediately after inversion. It is discussed whether protoplasmic continuity is really maintained by the connection or not in the freeswimming coenobium of Volvox.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Plasmodium lophurae hemozoin (malaria pigment) is a heme-containing protein which is distinctly different from hemoglobin and hematin by immunologic, spectrophotometric, fingerprint, heme-iron, gel filtration, and starch gel electrophoretic analyses. The calculated average molecular weight of P. lophurae hemozoin is ca. 40,000. Hemozoin contains at least 3 antigenic components and shows some indication of cross-reaction with hemoglobin.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. In tryptone media, optimal growth of nonphotosynthetic Euglena gracilis var. bacillaris on glucose occurred with 1% (w/v) glucose at pH 3.5, and required a previous adaptive period in glucose medium.In short term metabolic experiments, glucose uptake was greatly stimulated by small concentrations of tryptone or succinate; effects of shaking suggested that CO2 has a similar stimulatory effect. Glucose utilization was highly dependent on glucose concentration, with an apparent threshold at about 2 mM and increasing steeply with glucose concentration above this value. In tracer experiments, about 90% of the glucose carbon consumed was assimilated, and about 10% released as CO2.Glucose did not stimulate respiration even during rapid glucose utilization. Tracer studies indicated oxidation of endogenous substrates was depressed by an amount which just compensated for the respiration due to glucose.The conditions which allowed rapid glucose utilization by “resting”E. gracilis var. bacillaris were the same as those known previously to be required for growth on glucose. It was therefore concluded that these factors act directly on the main pathways of glucose metabolism.

Notes: . Microtubule dynamics in Paramecium caudatum were investigated with an anti-α-tubulin antibody and a microinjection technique to determine the function of microtubules on micronuclear behavior during conjugation. After meiosis, all four haploid micronuclei were connected by microtubular filaments to the paroral region and moved close to this region. This nuclear movement was micronucleus-specific, because some small macronuclear fragments transplanted from exconjugants never moved to the region. Only one of the four germ nuclei moved into the paroral cone and was covered by microtubule assembly (the so-called first assembly of microtubules, AM-I). This nucleus survived there, while the other three not in this region degenerated. The movement of germ nucleus was inhibited by the injection of the anti-α-tubulin antibody. The surviving germ nucleus divided once and produced a migratory pronucleus and a stationary pronucleus. Prior to the reciprocal exchange of the migratory nuclei, microtubules assembled around the migratory pronuclei again (the so-called second assembly of microtubules, AM-II). Then, the migratory pronucleus moved into the partner cell and fused with the stationary pronucleus. Thus, microtubules appear to be indispensable for nuclear behavior: they enable migration of postmeiotic nuclei to the paroral region and they permit the survival of the nucleus at the paroral cone.

Notes: . This work reports the characterization of an arginine kinase in the unicellular parasitic flagellate Trypanosoma brucei, the etiological agent of human sleeping sickness and Nagana in livestock. The arginine kinase activity, detected in the soluble fraction obtained from procyclic forms, had a specific activity similar to that observed in Trypanosoma cruzi, about 0.2 μmol min−1mg−1. Western blot analysis of T. brucei extracts revealed two bands of 40 and 45 kDa. The putative gene sequence of this enzyme had an open reading frame for a 356-amino acid polypeptide, one less than the equivalent enzyme of T. cruzi. The deduced amino acid sequence has an 82% identity with the arginine kinase of T. cruzi, and highest amino acid identities of both trypanosomatids sequences, about 70%, were with arginine kinases from the phylum Arthropoda. In addition, the amino acid sequence possesses the five arginine residues critical for interaction with ATP as well as two glutamic acids and one cysteine required for arginine binding. The finding in trypanosomatids of a new phosphagen biosynthetic pathway, which is not present in mammalian host tissues, suggests this enzyme as a possible target for chemotherapy.

Notes: Abstract. This paper compares nitrate leaching losses from organic farms, which depended on legumes for their nitrogen inputs (66 site years) with those from conventional farms using fertilizers under similar cropping and climatic conditions (188 site years). The conventional farms were within Nitrate Sensitive Areas in England, but sites following special practices associated with that scheme were excluded. Nitrate losses during the organic ley phase (including the winter of ploughing out) were similar (45 kg N ha–1) to those from conventional long-term grass receiving fertilizer N inputs of less than 200 kg N ha–1 (44 kg N ha–1) and from the grass phase of conventional ley-arable rotations (50 kg N ha–1). Losses from conventional grass receiving higher N inputs were greater than from organic or less intensive grass. Nitrate losses following arable crops averaged 47 and 58 kg N ha–1 for the organic and conventional systems respectively, with part of the difference being due to the greater proportion of non-cereal break crops in the latter. Thus under similar cropping, losses from organic systems are similar to or slightly smaller than those from conventional farms following best practice.

Notes: Abstract. In the Sahel, promising technologies for agricultural intensification include millet stover mulching and ridging. A four year on-farm experiment was set-up in order to assess the effect of various combinations of these two technologies on crop development and yield in a millet (Pennisetum glaucum (L.) R. Br.) - cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) intercropping system. Treatments included bare surface, ridging, a surface applied banded millet stover mulch (2 t ha–1) and a banded millet stover mulch (2 t ha–1) buried in ridges. The latter three treatments were implemented exclusively in the cowpea rows, with an annual rotation between the millet and cowpea rows. On bare and ridged plots, millet yields fell below 100 kg grain ha–1 after the first year. This was ascribed mainly to soil acidification and loss of soil organic matter rather than to soil physical constraints or water availability despite extensive surface crusting and high soil penetration resistance and bulk density. Compared to the bare plots, ridging increased cowpea hay production by 330% over the four years which was attributed to lower soil penetration resistance and bulk density but also to a reduction of 0.15 cmol+ kg–1 exchangeable acidity in the ridges. Except during the severe drought year of 1997, millet grain yield in the banded mulch treatment remained fairly stable over time at 526 ± 9 kg ha–1. However, a detailed analysis revealed yield compensation mechanisms between various yield components depending on the timing of occurrence of the abiotic stresses. Cowpea productivity was always higher in buried banded mulch plots than in surface applied banded mulch plots but the former treatment appeared unable to sustain millet yields. This decline was attributed to a greater nutrient uptake by cowpea and more rapid acidification in the buried mulch treatment compared to the banded mulch treatment.

Notes: Abstract. Nutrient balance calculations have been advocated as indicators of the risk of nitrate loss from agricultural land. To explore this concept, a spatially distributed UK agricultural nitrogen balance was derived using annually updated statistics. The mean UK N surplus for 1995 was 115 kg N ha–1, made up of 51 kg ha–1for arable land, 140 kg ha–1 for agricultural grassland (excluding rough grazing) and an additional 14 kg N ha–1for agricultural land from pig and poultry units. Nitrogen surpluses were greater in lowland grassland (mainly in western, wetter areas) than in arable areas. However nitrate concentrations in rivers were generally greater in arable areas. The relationship between N balance and nitrate leaching was very different for grassland and arable systems, and was also sensitive to climate, level of inputs and management practices. Nitrogen surplus was therefore weakly or even negatively correlated with river nitrate concentrations or loads. A positive correlation was found only where the comparison was restricted to grassland-dominated catchments. Nitrogen surplus calculations identified areas of very high livestock densities, which would be associated with increased risk of pollution. However their use in isolation as indicators of N leaching, or of progress towards mitigation, could be misleading especially if comparing areas differing in land use, climate or soil type.

Notes: Abstract. Dynamic simulation models are increasingly used in environmental and agricultural science. Here we present a method that allows models to be used to determine optimum timing of sampling for field trials. The model is used to decide when to concentrate sampling effort before the field trial begins. The model chosen to design sampling strategy should include an appropriately sensitive description of all processes that influence measurements significantly. The simulation is run, using predicted weather data, to generate the full time series before the trial begins. Every point in the simulation is considered initially to be a potential sampling point. The potential error due to not including a measurement at each point is calculated using the ‘dot-to-dot’ method of b10Smith et al. (2002) by omitting simulated values consecutively. The calculated potential error provides a measure of the priority that should be given to sampling at each point. Where the error introduced by omitting the simulated value exceeds an acceptable error, the value at the last discernible time step should be measured so that all statistically significant changes in the system can be observed. The output from the calculation is a plan of sampling times needed to capture all statistically significant events that are likely to occur over the course of the trial.

Notes: Abstract. In grazed dairy pasture systems, a major source of NO3– leached and N2O emitted is the N returned in the urine from the grazing animal. The objective of this study was to use lysimeters to measure directly the effectiveness of a nitrification inhibitor, dicyandiamide (DCD), in decreasing NO3– leaching and N2O emissions from urine patches in a grazed dairy pasture under irrigation. The soil was a free-draining Lismore stony silt loam (Udic Haplustept loamy skeletal) and the pasture was a mixture of perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) and white clover (Trifolium repens). The use of DCD decreased NO3–-N leaching by 76% for the urine N applied in the autumn, and by 42% for urine N applied in the spring, giving an annual average reduction of 59%. This would reduce the NO3–-N leaching loss in a grazed paddock from 118 to 46 kg N ha–1 yr–1. The NO3–-N concentration in the drainage water would be reduced accordingly from 19.7 to 7.7 mg N L–1, with the latter being below the drinking water guideline of 11.3 mg N L–1. Total N2O emissions following two urine applications were reduced from 46 kg N2O-N ha–1 without DCD to 8.5 kg N2O-N with DCD, representing an 82% reduction. In addition to the environmental benefits, the use of DCD also increased herbage production by more than 30%, from 11 to 15 t ha–1 yr–1. The use of DCD therefore has the potential to make dairy farming more environmentally sustainable by reducing NO3– leaching and N2O emissions.

Notes: Abstract. In organic farming, potassium (K) deficiency may become a significant problem due to nutrient import restrictions. Knowledge about potential K leaching in systems with different K budgets is therefore important for effective agricultural management. We investigated the effect of four organic farming systems (two livestock densities in combination with two types of organic manure) on crop yields, K leaching and K balances in a six course crop rotation from 1993/94 to 1997/98. Average K concentrations in soil water extracted by means of ceramic suction cups at 1 m depth were 0.6 mg K l−1 corresponding to a K leaching loss of 1.5 kg ha−1 yr−1 which was less than expected from values reported in the literature. Variation in K budgets from −12 to +30 kg ha−1 yr−1 did not affect K leaching. In an additional experiment with application of 988 kg K ha−1 as KCl, K leaching accounted for only 0.2% of the applied K although 40% of the accompanying Cl was leached. The main part of the applied K was retained in the topsoil. It was concluded that K leaching was a result of the fertilizer history rather than of the current K budget.

Notes: Abstract. Nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N) leaching from animal production systems in the northeast USA is a major non-point source of pollution in the Chesapeake Bay. We conducted a study to measure NO3-N leaching from dairy slurry applied to orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata L., cv. Pennlate) using large drainage lysimeters to measure the direct impact of four rates of slurry (urine and faeces) N application (0, 168, 336, 672 kg N ha−1 yr−1) on NO3-N leaching on three soil types. We then used experimentally-based relationships developed earlier between stocking density and NO3-N leaching loss and leachate NO3-N concentration to estimate the added impact of animal grazing. Nitrate N leaching losses from only dairy slurry applied at the 0, 158, 336, and 672 kg N ha−1 yr−1 rates were 5.85, 8.26, 8.83, and 12.1 kg N ha−1 yr−1, respectively with corresponding NO3-N concentrations of 1.60, 2.30, 2.46, and 3.48 mg l−1. These NO3-N concentrations met the 10 mg l−1 US EPA drinking water standard. However, when a scenario was constructed to include the effect of NO3-N leaching caused by animal grazing, the NO3-N drinking water standard was calculated to be exceeded.

Notes: Abstract. The African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) is relatively well adapted to the pedoclimatic conditions of central Amazonia. The clayey upland soils of the region are well supplied with nitrogen, although they are deficient in most other nutrients. Under these conditions, oil palm does not respond to N fertilization with yield increases. In this research, the N status of a central Amazonian upland soil was evaluated after having supported a productive oil palm plantation for 15 years without N fertilization. Mineral N in the upper 2 m of soil showed pronounced spatial patterns, with very low concentrations close to the palms, indicative of efficient N uptake by the palms, and evidence for nitrate leaching into the subsoil in the inter-tree spaces despite the near-absence of a leguminous cover crop during the previous ten years. The pronounced increases of mineral N with increasing tree distance were explained by increases in N mineralization and a strong decrease in fine root length density of the palms, especially in the subsoil. Failure of the palms to fully occupy the available soil volume with their roots was apparently related to fertilizer placement close to the stem base, which over the years had led to steep fertility gradients between the soil under the trees and the inter-tree spaces. Broadcast fertilization would have presumably favoured a more extensive lateral root development of the palms, and consequently improved nutrient and water uptake from the inter-tree spaces. The incomplete soil occupation by the palm roots also suggests that young oil palms can be associated with shade tolerant crops without much risk of root competition. These conclusions may be valid also for other tree crops and may help to reduce nitrate leaching and consequently the need for N fertilization in Amazonian tree crop agriculture.

Notes: Abstract. Four experiments studying ground preparation for the restoration of disturbed land to a woodland cover are described. They provide consistent evidence to suggest that methods of soil replacement which minimize compaction are preferable to conventional methods followed by deep ripping to relieve compaction induced in the placement operation. In addition, soil loosening using an excavator is more effective than that achieved by ripping. The research supports modern guidance which advocates ‘loose tipping’ as the best method of ground preparation for a woodland or forestry after-use on sites reclaimed after dereliction or mineral extraction.

Notes: Abstract. Denitrifying enzyme activity (DEA) declined to a greater extent and was more variable in soils stored air-dried for 6 months than after storage at 4 °C. DEA was greatest in fertilized soils. The relative differences in DEA between soils were maintained after storage at 4 °C. We suggest that storage at 4 °C is more appropriate than air-drying.

Notes: Book reviewed in this articles: Agriculture, Fertilizers and the Environment. Edited by M. Lægreid, O. C. Bøckman and O. Kaarstad. Ramiran 98. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference of the FAO European System of Co-operative Research Networks in Agriculture (ESCORNENA) on Management Strategies for Organic Waste Use in Agriculture. Edited by J. Martinéz & M.-N. Maudet.

Notes: Abstract. The incidence of soil water erosion was monitored in 12 erosion-susceptible arable catchments (c. 80 fields) in England and Wales between 1990 and 1994. Factors associated with the initiation of erosion were recorded, and the extent of rills and gullies measured. Approximately 80% of the erosion events were on land cropped to winter cereals. In 30% of cases, the initiation of erosion was linked to valley floor features, which concentrated runoff. Poor crop cover, wheelings and tramlines were also assessed as contributory factors in 22%, 19% and 14% of cases, respectively. In c. 95% of cases rainfall events causing erosion were ≥10 mm day−1 and c. 80% were 〉15 mm day−1. Erosion was also associated with maximum rainfall intensities of 〉4 mm h−1 for c. 90% of cases and 〉10 mm h−1 for c. 20%. Mean net soil erosion rates were approximately 4 t ha−1 per annum (median value 0.41 t ha−1 per annum) and associated mean P losses 3.4 kg ha−1.

Notes: Abstract. A study of the leaching losses of nitrate under urine patches in irrigated and non-irrigated dairy pastures in the South East of South Australia was undertaken with repacked and monolith lysimeters 1 m deep, and with monolith lysimeters 150, 300 and 450 mm deep. The aim was to quantify differences in measurements of drainage and nitrogen fluxes for these different lysimeters. Drainage of water and N flux were found to vary significantly between types and depths of lysimeters. Drainage volumes in repacked lysimeters were 78% and 33% more than in monolith lysimeters in irrigated and non-irrigated paddocks, and N fluxes were 5 and 3 times higher in repacked lysimeters respectively. The results indicate that lysimeter estimates of recharge rates and N fluxes to water tables are best determined by leaching studies which are longer term, and use deep monolith lysimeters. Shorter term studies and the use of shallow or repacked lysimeters have potential to distort conclusions.

Notes: Abstract. Under the Kyoto Protocol, the European Union is committed to an 8% reduction in CO2 emissions, compared to baseline (1990) levels, during the first commitment period (2008–2012). However, within the overall EU agreement, the UK is committed to a 12.5% reduction. In this paper, we estimate the carbon mitigation potential of various agricultural land-management strategies (Kyoto Article 3.4) and examine the consequences of UK and European policy options on the potential for carbon mitigation.We show that integrated agricultural land management strategies have considerable potential for carbon mitigation. Our figures suggest the following potentials (Tg yr−1) for each scenario: animal manure, 3.7; sewage sludge, 0.3; cereal straw incorporation, 1.9; no-till farming, 3.5; agricultural extensification, 3.3; natural woodland regeneration, 3.2 and bioenergy crop production, 4.1. A realistic land-use scenario combining a number of these individual management options has a mitigation potential of 10.4 Tg C yr−1 (equivalent to about 6.6% of 1990 UK CO2-carbon emissions). An important resource for carbon mitigation in agriculture is the surplus arable land, but in order to fully exploit it, policies governing the use of surplus arable land would need to be changed. Of all options examined, bioenergy crops show the greatest potential. Bioenergy crop production also shows an indefinite mitigation potential compared to other options where the potential is infinite.The UK will not attempt to meet its climate change commitments solely through changes in agricultural land-use, but since all sources of carbon mitigation will be important in meeting these commitments, agricultural options should be taken very seriously.

Notes: Abstract. A method to predict field-saturated hydraulic conductivity (Kfs) from soil structure, as described in soil profile descriptions, was developed using 627 Kfs measurements. As the soil structure classes used are very similar to an international classification (FAO, 1990), the derived relationships (class pedotransfer functions) could be widely applicable. A total of 49 unique combinations of primary and secondary structures were identified but the relationship between these structures and Kfs was poor. However, this relationship became clearer when the structures were grouped according to both the ped size and ped orientation. It improved further with the removal of data from horizons with significant amounts of vertically orientated angular stones or very coarse roots. Soils with vertically orientated peds larger than 50 mm had a geometric mean conductivity of 0.33 cm day−1 while those with fractures in both the horizontal and vertical planes had a geometric mean conductivity of 4.1 cm day−1. Soils with peds between 20 and 50 mm had a geometric mean conductivity of 17.9 cm day−1 and those with peds 〈20 mm had a geometric mean conductivity of 53.0 cm day−1. Those soils with only horizontally orientated structures proved to be anomalous in that the conductivity increased as ped size increased.

Notes: Abstract. Bacterial contamination of water is a problem worldwide and is often acute in developing countries where human and animal waste is disposed of on land for use as fertilizer or because of poorly developed sanitation systems. Studying leaching risk through soils is difficult when no suitable microbiological laboratory is available. A method using the movement of ZnO particles through soils as a surrogate for studying bacteria directly was tested. ZnO particles with a similar size to bacteria can readily be detected by chemical analysis. For a range of nine different soil textures, leaching rates of ZnO particles under near saturated conditions were significantly correlated with leaching rates of Escherichia coli cells (P=0.013). For both ZnO and E. coli, leaching was generally greatest through fine textured soils.

Notes: The satellite accounts illustrated in this paper reflect the household's role as a producer and an investor in durables as well as a consumer by modifying the NIPA's to (1) incorporate the value of nonmarket (unpaid) household work into GDP; and (2) treat expenditures on consumer durables as investment and measure the value of the services those durables provide. Additionally, an Input–Output (I–O) model highlights the household's functions as a producer and investor in much greater detail for the year 1992 by incorporating a household industry for each time-use activity and by showing the inputs to and outputs from each household industry's production.

Notes: Taking advantage of consistent poverty and income inequality data for 12 Latin American countries between 1970 and 1994, we analyze the determinants of changes in the incidence of urban and rural poverty and in Gini coefficients over spells of years, stressing in particular the role of aggregate income growth. We find that income growth reduces urban and rural poverty but not inequality. We also find that income growth is more effective in reducing urban poverty if the levels of inequality and poverty are lower, and the levels of secondary education higher. We show that there is an asymmetry in the impact of growth on poverty and inequality, with recession having strong negative effects on both poverty and inequality. Since growth does not reduce inequality, economic cycles create ratchet effects on the level of inequality. However, post-structural adjustment growth is quite effective at reducing poverty, particularly if inequality is low.

Notes: In this paper we compare the progressivity of different government transfers made to households in Romania. We use distribution free standard errors to examine the difference between concentration curves that may be correlated, and thereafter employ statistical tests that take into account the covariance matrix for the ordinate estimates. In addition, we estimate extended Gini coefficients for the same transfers to check their consistency with the tests of inequality dominance. The results show that almost all transfer payments in Romania are progressive, and that they have an important effect on the distribution of income. Rankings among different transfer payments are, however, not robust. In particular, sensitivity analysis using different household equivalence scales indicates that many results are not consistent across scales, and that lower size elasticities contribute to changes in ranking of Ginis and loss of statistical significance in dominance tests.

Notes: We propose a new approach to national accounts compilation, which also serves as a formalization of current compilation practices. When formalizing the procedure, a distinction is made between (basic) data, national accounts identities and so-called indicator ratios. The latter are ratios of or percentage relations between national accounts variables, such as the relation between output and value added. Indicator ratios are currently used in national accounts compilation practices in order to make adjustments to the basic data or to fill in missing data. The latter use is particularly relevant when basic data are scarce, which is the case not only in many developing countries, but also in developed countries when annual accounts are compiled for recent periods. The (basic) data, indicator ratios and identities together are used in a Bayesian approach to estimate the values of national accounts variables and analytical indicator ratios based thereon. The amendment of the current practices consists in introducing reliability intervals of basic data and indicator ratios, which allows for the use of a much larger number of indicator ratios in the compilation and checking of national accounts data. The Bayesian compilation approach makes it possible–in contrast to current practices–to use indicator ratios both as priors and as analytical indicators.

Notes: The definitions of goods and services have been debated among economists for more than two centuries. This article seeks to consider the definitions currently used from a critical perspective and to offer a new general definition of services that is compatible with the existence of several demand rationales.

Notes: Official and semi-official estimates of New Zealand's national income are available on an annual basis for the years since 1932. Retrospective, non-official, estimates are available from 1859. Chiefly these are constructed following Doblin's (1951) pioneering use of money stock data, velocity, and the implications of the Quantity Theory of Money, and include the estimates of Hawke (1975), Rankin (1992) and Cashin (1995).This paper estimates New Zealand real GDP per capita with monetary data using valid, intervention-free, cointegration methods. The new measures avoid the ad hoc adjustments found in Rankin (1992), yet unlike Cashin (1995), they incoporate specific New Zealand monetary features. The new time series conform well with independent benchmarks and the historiography of the pre-1914 period. Alternatively, they suggest an interpretation of New Zealand's growth experience for years around World War One which differs from that of Australia, and from the findings of Rankin (1992) and Cashin (1995).

Notes: Over the last twenty-five years, the economy of the Republic of Korea achieved a remarkable growth rate of 7 percent per year in real per capita income, causing it to be labeled, justifiably, as a “miracle economy.” This exceptional economic growth has beenpp accompanied by an even more exceptional fall m labor income inequality. Using a newly-developed methodology, we use data from Korea's Occupational Wage Surveys to quantify the importance of various factors that have contributed to the fall in labor income inequality in Korea. We find the most important factors explaining the level of income inequality are job tenure, gender, years of education, and occupation, while those that are most important in explaining the change in income inequality are years of education, industry, occupation, and potential experience.

Notes: When measuring poverty over time analysts must choose the value of the income elasticity of the poverty line, which essentially determines whether an absolute or relative poverty line is being used. The choice of this parameter is ultimately a value judgement, but this paper suggests an approach which has some empirical basis. Borrowing from the life-style and deprivation approach to poverty, various dimensions of poverty and deprivation are identified and the income elasticity of these items is used as the income elasticity of the poverty line. Data from the 1987 and 1994 Irish Household Budget Surveys suggest an upper bound of 0.7 for this parameter. Poverty measures using a number of values of the income elasticity of the poverty line are presented and test statistics are presented to determine whether observed differences in poverty measures are statistically significant.

Notes: Our aim in this paper is to show how recent developments in the theory and methods of poverty measurement can be applied to provide more accurate descriptions of poverty trends to the typical consumers of these statistics—policy analysts, policy-makers and their critics. Since Amartya Sen's (1976) classic critique of the “headcount” approach to poverty measurement, considerable progress has been made in constructing axiomatically-driven measures of “poverty intensity.” These measures have had little influence outside the small world of experts who devised them largely because their mathematical representation has made their meaning obscure to potential users. We focus on the Sen-Shorrocks-Thon (SST) index and its elaboration by Osberg and Xu which provides the information contained in the index in a format that is easily accessible within traditional categories of poverty analysis. The SST index and its decomposition provide an analytical framework for discussing the underlying components of aggregate trends that allows for unambiguous answers to the usual policy-related questions concerning the components of change as well as their magnitude and direction.

Notes: This paper, based upon a case-study of three Indian villages, studies whether households within the same market pay different prices for identical goods. It is found that not only are unit prices for food heterogeneous, but that the poor pay more for the same goods than the rich. This is because liquidity constraints force poorer households to purchase goods in small quantities and consequently subject them to quantity premiums. Household specific index numbers are used to adjust nominal incomes to real values and it is found that Gini coefficients of real incomes are between 12 percent to 23 percent greater than the Gim for nominal incomes. An econometric analysis of the determinants of prices shows that incomes are negatively correlated with prices, as is family size, but that the amount of land owned shows a positive relationship.

Notes: The article concerns Bulgarian statisticians' work on accounting of national income within the first half of the 20th century. Basic concepts of these authors are described, and aggregate data sets derived by them presented. The trend of economic growth in Bulgaria is analyzed, mainly from 1924 to 1945. The statistics of industrial and agricultural change, as well as the foreign trade activity are considered. An historical interpretation of that change is given.

Notes: The focus of the literature on the effect of job changes has been on the consequences of job destruction on the individual worker. In this paper we analyze the impact on the earnings distribution of both job creation and job destruction. We establish a link between job reallocation and the movement of workers into and out of the tails of the earnings distribution. Both job creating and job destroying employers shed jobs mostly from the middle and lower tails of the earnings distribution, although this is cyclically very sensitive. Labor mobility (triggered by job reallocation) is risky: mobile workers will generally end up in the upper or lower tail of the distribution rather than in the middle. If workers move across industry boundaries, they typically move to the lower tails of the distribution. In sum, the fortunes of workers depend on the fortunes of their employers.

Notes: The theoretical basis of a practical method of accounting for depletion of mineral resources is presented. Rent rises at the rate of interest, but depletion does not. Rent is equal to the sum of depletion and depreciation less any opportunity cost of present production as compared to waiting. Depletion follows a path which is dependent on the depreciation formula chosen by the accountant. The approach is compared to the methods proposed by the BEA in 1994.

Notes: This paper surveys the issue of public spending on pensions. Drawing on evidence from systems around the world, but particularly in Britain, we outline the arguments for different types of public and private provision of pension income and consider how far they go towards meeting the objectives of pension provision. We discuss past trends in spending and look at future projections.

Notes: This paper uses a sample of lone mothers (and former lone mothers who are now repartnered) drawn from the 1997 Family Resources Survey to analyse the potential effects of reforming the UK system of child support. The main deficiency of the data is that non-resident fathers cannot be matched to the mothers in the data, and this is overcome by exploiting information from another dataset which gives the joint distribution of the characteristics of separated parents. The effects of reforming the child support system are simulated for the amount of maintenance liabilities, the amount paid and the net incomes of households containing mothers-with-care and of households containing non-resident fathers. The likely effects of the reform are simulated at various levels of compliance. The analysis highlights the need for further research into the incentive effects of child support on individual behaviour.

Notes: Abstract. This paper describes a study of 37 farms in the Batinah region of Oman where fodder crops and date palms are grown using saline irrigation water. Soil water salinities (εs) range from 2 to 50 dS m–1. Soil water salinity depends on irrigation water quality and management factors such as the amount and frequency of irrigation and the area of the irrigation basin relative to the vegetation canopy. An irrigation management model for soil salinity control IMAGE has been developed, based on the salt balance of the profile assuming that the εs is in equilibrium with the irrigation water. The input parameters required to run the model include the annual water application, irrigation interval, soil textural class, potential evaporation, the ratio of crop canopy to irrigation basin area and the salinity of irrigation water. Verification of the model using rather uncertain data from a survey of the farms showed that this simple approach predicted εs to within 2.5 dS m–1 in 82% of cases. The model showed that εs was highly sensitive to the size of irrigation basin and the amount and scheduling of irrigation, and so provides a tool for optimizing salinity management.

Notes: Abstract. There is increasing evidence that phosphorus (P) can be transferred to surface waters by leaching as well as by erosion and surface runoff. Recently it has been suggested that P soluble in 0.01 m CaCl2 may be a good indicator of the specific Olsen-P concentration (usually termed the ‘Change Point’) at which the rate of P leaching from soil suddenly increases and poses a greater threat of eutrophication to standing waters. We know that these ‘Change Points’ vary from soil to soil but, so far, we do not fully understand the mechanism(s) involved. Here, we combine methods for assessing isotopically exchangeable P and P sequential fractionation to gain an insight into the processes which cause this sudden increase in P solubilization. We suggest that Change-Points simply define the asymtote of rapid desorption isotherms relating to that P which is most readily isotopically exchangeable (i.e at 24 h –33P24) with the soil solution. This involves ligand exchange at hydroxyl sites associated with Fe and Al cations, which is kinetically governed by the concentration of surface complexes on soil minerals. Individual Change-Points reflect the mineralogy and surface chemistry of different soil types. Laboratory and field measurements of the Olsen-P Change-Point reflect these surface phenomena and are similar. Olsen-P extracts the portion of the exchangeable pool that most readily controls solution P, and the Olsen-P/33P24 ratio is linearly related to Olsen-P Change-Points. This may provide a method for estimating P Change-Points where gradients of soil P are not available.

Notes: Abstract. Soil removed on sugarbeet (Beta vulgaris L.) at harvest may be an important factor in soil degradation causing significant decline in soil productivity. This study evaluated soil losses on sugarbeet and estimated the cost of plant nutrients lost by this process. The losses were calculated using data from the agricultural reports published by the General Directorate of the Turkish Sugar Industry. Organic matter and plant available nutrient contents of soils removed from sugarbeet fields were determined. It was estimated that approximately 30 000 t of soil is lost annually in Erzurum, and 1.2 million t in the whole of Turkey. The cost of N, P and K losses is approximately 60 000 US$ annually for the study area.

Notes: Abstract. Inputs and outputs of sulphur (S) were quantified over a three year period using field lysimeters containing undisturbed 60 cm deep soil monoliths of a sandy loam. There were four treatments, including a control (no S) and three forms of sulphur fertilizers: ammonium sulphate (AS); micronized elemental sulphur (MS0); and bentonite clay and elemental sulphur mixture (BS0). Sulphur was applied at the beginning of the experiment in autumn at 50 kg ha–1. Atmospheric deposition varied between 6.7 and 7.8 kg S ha–1 yr–1. Leaching losses of S ranged from 35 kg ha–1 in the control to 83 kg ha–1 in the AS treatment over three years, with dissolved organic S accounting for 6–10% of the S leached. In the first year, 7, 26 and 72% of the applied S was lost to drainage water in the BS0, MS0 and AS treatments, respectively, and the percentages increased to 33, 75 and 96% by the end of year 3. No significant differences in sulphur uptake by herbage were found in any of the harvests except a significant increase in the BS0 treatment in the second cut of the second year. Over three years, total S outputs exceeded total S inputs in all treatments, with the control and the AS treatments showing a larger S deficit (34–35 kg ha–1) than the MS0 (23 kg ha–1) and BS0 (7 kg ha–1) treatments. The deficits indicate a depletion of soil S, probably through net mineralization of organic S. The results confirm that sulphate was highly mobile and prone to leaching under the experimental conditions, whereas the slow release characteristics of elemental S, particularly BS0, led to smaller leaching losses and larger residual values.

Notes: Nitrate and Man: Toxic, harmless or beneficial? By J. L ‘Hirondel and J-L L ‘Hirondel.

Notes: Abstract. In general, agricultural management has focused on differences between fields or on the gross differences within them. Recent developments in agricultural technology, yield mapping, Global Positioning Systems and variable rate applications, have made it possible to consider managing the considerable variation in soil and other properties within fields. This system is known as precision agriculture. More precise management of fields depends on a better understanding of the factors that affect crop input decisions. This paper examines the spatial variation in crop yield, soil nutrient status and soil pH within two agricultural fields using geostatistics. The observed properties vary considerably within each field. The relation between yield and the measured soil properties appears to be weak in general. However, the range of spatial correlation for yield, shown by the variogram, is similar to that of the soil chemical properties. In addition the latter changed little over two years. This suggests that information on the scale of variation of soil chemical properties can be derived from yield maps, which can also be used as a guide to a suitable sampling interval for soil properties.

Notes: Abstract. This study employed both natural and social sciences to examine the relationship between resources and economic development in the Red Soil Zone along the coast of South China. Based on the data collected by field investigation and laboratory analysis as well as from literature sources, the authors discuss the environmental problems and the main factors influencing them by using the case of Guangdong province. The results indicate that there are three important problems of Red Soil utilization: soil degradation and pollution, soil erosion and geological hazards. The main reasons for these problems involve the physical and chemical characteristics and mineral composition of the soil, climate and meteorological changes and human activities. The latter is currently the dominant factor influencing the change and deterioration of the Red Soils.

Notes: Abstract. The dual porosity soil water and contaminant transport model MACRO was tested for its suitability to represent water flows and leaching of phosphorus (P) through field drains following spreading of slurry. These flows are characterized by very high loadings of P, including a high proportion in colloidally attached form, for about one week following winter spreading of slurry, followed by quite a rapid decline to the low background level. Use was made of the option in MACRO for representing colloid facilitated contaminant transport. The model simulates transport through macropores and soil matrix pores (micropores) of contaminant carrying colloids, as well as trapping of colloids by straining and filtration using an adaptation of standard filtration equations. Calibration involved selecting soil hydraulic parameters, colloid filtration coefficients and P sorption characteristics for two soils from measured and literature values. Both P in solution and P attached to colloids were represented in simulated outputs. Reasonable agreement was found between simulated and measured water and leached P flows. Work with the model suggests that macropore flow through the soil to field drains of colloidally transported P is an important component of water pollution associated with slurry spreading

Notes: Abstract. Rising atmospheric CO2 concentrations and their association with global climate change have led to several major international initiatives to reduce net CO2 emissions, including the promotion of bioenergy crops such as short rotation coppice (SRC) willow. Although the above-ground harvested bio-fuel is likely to be the major contributor to the CO2 mitigation potential of bioenergy crops, additional carbon may be sequestered through crop inputs into plantation soils.  Here, we describe a process-based model specifically designed to evaluate the potential for soil carbon sequestration in SRC willow plantations in the UK. According to the model predictions, we conclude that the potential for soil carbon sequestration in these plantations is comparable to, or even greater than, that of naturally regenerating woodland. Our preliminary, site-specific model output suggests that soil carbon sequestration may constitute about 5% of the overall carbon mitigation benefit arising from SRC plantations. Sensitivity analyses identified the following factors as the principal controls on rates and amounts of soil carbon sequestration under SRC: carbon inputs (net primary production), decomposition rates of the major soil carbon pools, initial soil carbon content (an inverse relationship with rates of soil carbon sequestration), crop/plantation management, and depth of soil being influenced by the bioenergy crop. Our results suggest that carbon sequestration potential is greatest in soils whose carbon content has been depleted to relatively low levels due to agricultural land use practices such as annual deep ploughing of agricultural soils.

Notes: Abstract. Leaching of phosphorus (P) from agricultural land is the major cause of eutrophication of surface waters in Northern Ireland. However, soil testing using the Olsen method has shown that while soil P in some catchment areas of the Province is low, surface waters within these catchments are, nonetheless, every bit as eutrophic as other local catchments where soil P is high. Soil P measurements on over 6000 samples from Northern Ireland soils (A horizon only) have indicated that Olsen-P values of improved grassland on most parent materials are linearly related to animal intensification. Exceptions are soils derived from peat, marl and basalt. For each of the latter soils, the measured Olsen-P was shown to be around 10 mg L–1 lower than expected for farms with similar intensification on other parent materials. In particular, the mean Olsen-P values of samples from basaltic soils under grass with total Fe above 62 g kg–1 and total Mg above 16 g kg–1 were significantly lower than those from basaltic soils with low total Fe (〈37 g kg–1) and total Mg (〈8 g kg–1). As a result of the depressed Olsen-P value, excessive quantities of P may be applied to these soils to maintain a recommended soil P index thereby enhancing the potential for nutrient enrichment of adjacent surface waters. In such cases, coworkers have shown that acid ammonium oxalate may be a better extractant than bicarbonate as an indicator of plant-available P.

Notes: Book reviewed in this articles: Soil Microbiology. Second edition 2000. By Robert L. Tate

Notes: Abstract. The effect of drought between summer 1995 and 1997 on stream and river nitrate concentrations was investigated using sites close to the long-running meteorological station in Oxford, UK. Nitrate concentrations in the River Windrush were relatively low during the drought, but after it had ended reached the highest level since records began in 1973. The low concentrations during the drought probably reflect a reduced contribution from agricultural runoff. High nitrate concentrations were found in a field drain at Wytham Environmental Change Network site during and after the drought, but discharge was greatly reduced. A woodland stream at Wytham had much lower nitrate concentrations than the field drain but these similarly increased during and after the drought. There was evidence that both a concentrating effect of low water volumes and enhanced soil nitrogen mineralization and nitrification rates were causing concentrations to rise. The effects of mineralization and nitrification were more important in woodland than agricultural land. Nitrate load over the course of a year was determined largely by discharge, but steeper gradients for the relationship between cumulative load and cumulative discharge were seen during and after the drought than before, reflecting the higher concentrations.

Notes: Abstract. A survey was undertaken in 1996, by postal questionnaire sent to a stratified sample of 1500 pig producers in England and Wales; 576 (37%) responded. The survey provided data on manure production, manure storage and application strategies (timing, techniques and nutrient recycling to crops).Total pig manure production, in England and Wales is estimated to be at about 10.03 m t per year, with about 45% as slurry and 55% as FYM, according to this survey, where calculations have been based on undiluted outputs of excreta. About 45% of slurry is stored in above-ground tanks or earth-banked lagoons. Above-ground tanks most commonly held an amount of slurry equivalent to 3–6 months production, but earth-banked lagoons were more variable in capacity and over 20% could hold more than 9 months production of slurry.Annual statistics on fertilizer use indicate that farmers make little allowance for the nutrient content of manures. However, the results of this survey suggest that farmers generally make a genuine effort to allow for the nutrients applied, but that they currently fail to be assured by the advice available to them or their confidence is lacking for other technical reasons. Autumn represents the peak period for spreading, with 30% of slurry and 50% of FYM applied at that time.

Notes: Book reviewed in this articles: Pollution by heavy metals in the soil - plant system. By Chen Huaiman et al.

Notes: Book reviewed in this articles: Managing Risks of Nitrates to Humans and the Environment Edited by W.S. Wilson, A.S. Ball and R.H. Hinton

Notes: Abstract. Land disposal of sewage sludge in the UK is set to increase markedly in the next few years and much of this will be applied to grassland. Here we applied high rates of digested sludge cake (1–1.5×103 kg total N ha−1) to grassland and incorporated it prior to reseeding. Using automated chambers, nitrous oxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) fluxes from the soil were monitored 2–4 times per day, for 6 months after sludge incorporation. Peaks of N2O emission were up to 1.4 kg N ha−1 d−1 soon after incorporation, and thereafter were regularly detected following significant rainfalls. Gas emissions reflected diurnal temperature variations, though N2O emissions were also strongly affected by rainfall. Although emissions decreased in the winter, temperatures below 4 °C stimulated short, sharp fluxes of both CO2 and N2O as temperature increased. The aggregate loss of nitrogen and carbon over the measurement period was up to 23 kg N ha−1 and 5.1 t C ha−1. Losses of N2O in the sludge-amended soil were associated with good microbial conditions for N mineralization, and with high carbon and water contents. Since grassland is an important source of greenhouse gases, application of sewage sludge can be at least as significant as fertilizer in enhancing these emissions.

Notes: The paper estimates a variety of inequality measures for three sub-samples of the German population using cross-sectional data on equivalent income from the German Socio-Economic Panel (GSOEP). The sub-populations under consideration are residents of West Germany including foreigners for the years 1984 to 1996, residents of East Germany for the years 1990 to 1996 and a comprehensive German population for the years 1990 to 1996. Bootstrap methods are applied to test whether changes in inequality are statistically significant. In order to account for panel attrition and over-sampling, sample weights are incorporated into the estimation procedure. The empirical results confirm the relative stability of the West German income distribution. While income inequality in West Germany has generally not altered in an economically relevant way over the period 1985 to 1996, inequality in East Germany has increased after reunification. Despite this increase, inequality remains substantially higher in the western part of the country. Convergence of eastern mean income to the western level generally overcompensated the rise in inequality in East Germany, so that the level of inequality in unified Germany is lower in 1996 than in 1990.

Notes: This paper compares a standard expenditure-based poverty measure with a specifically created composite measure of deprivation using household survey data from South Africa. While there is a strong overall correlation between expenditures and levels of deprivation, the correlation is much weaker among the worst-off South Africans. In addition, the two measures differ considerably in the impact of race, headship, location (urban, rural), and household size on expenditure poverty versus deprivation. In general, the deprivation measure finds more Africans, rural dwellers, members of de facto female-headed households, and members of smaller households deprived than expenditure poor. Only the differences in the effect of household size on poverty are sensitive to assumptions about equivalence scales. As a result, the two measures diverge greatly in identifying the poorest and most deprived sections of the population, which may have considerable consequences for targeting.

Notes: This paper evaluates the accuracy of estimates of pension wealth based on self-reports by comparing them to estimates based on provider data. Using data from the Health and Retirement Study, we found that few workers are well informed about their future pension benefits. Self-reports were often incomplete and typically varied widely from those based on information from providers. In defined benefit (DB) plans, discrepancies were greatest for workers who had limited education, earned low wages, and did not expect to retire soon. Differences in median pension wealth were smaller at the aggregate level than the individual level, because individual differences tended to offset each other when aggregated. Provider data appear better than self-reports for DB plans, but not for defined contribution (DC) plans. Where both are available, the best method of computing pension wealth may be to estimate DB wealth from provider data and to estimate DC wealth from self-reports.

Notes: Traditional cross-sectional research is unable to measure the degree of income mobility in an income distribution. Using longitudinal data and various income stability indices, this paper measures the level of permanent inequality (immobility) in Spain for the period 1985–92. Results indicate that the transitory component of inequality is large and the level of income mobility increases over time while income inequality decreases slightly. More stability is found at the top than at the bottom of the income distribution and the range of the registered movements is rather short.