ALBERT

Notes: Book reviewed in this article:Regional Development Policy: A Case Study of Venezuela, by John Friedmann.Human Capital in Southern Development: 1939-1963, by Marshall R. Colberg.Supply and Costs in the u. S. Petroleum Industry - Two Econometric Studies, by Franklin M. Fisher.?Research and Education for Regional and Area Development, by Iowa State University Center for Agricultural and Economic Development.The Elderly in Older Urban Areas: Problems of Adaptation and the Effects of Relocation, by Paul L. Niebanck and John B. Pope.Regional Development and Planning: A Reader, edited by John Friedmann and William Alonso. Cambridge: The M.I.T. Press, 1964, xviii + 722 pages, $9.75.Metropolitan Transportation: 1980, by the Comprehensive Planning Office, Port New York:

Notes: Book reviewed in this article:The Spatial Dynamics of U. S. Urban-Industrial Growth, 1800-1914, by Allan R.City and Regional Planning in Poland, edited by Jack C. Fisher.Open Space For Urban America, by Ann Louise Strong.Development Planning: The Essentials of Economic Policy, by W. Arthur Lewis.Yugoslavia–A Multinational State: Regional Difference and Administrative Response, by Jack C. Fisher.

Notes: This paper is a part of a larger study of economic growth in Canada, following the methods developed by Edward Denison in his book The Sources of Economic Growth in the United States and the publication Why Growth Rates Differ. The new material in this paper relates to Canada and the Canadian/U.S. comparison, while the material on Northwest Europe is drawn from the Brookings study.The present paper sets out the results to date on the differences in real output per employed person between Canada and the United States for one year, 1960. At this stage in our research the results indicate that the level of real output per employed person in Canada was about 20 per cent lower than in the United States in that year. On the basis of historical output data, it would appear that this margin of difference in Canadian/U.S. product levels has persisted throughout the present century.The central part of this paper examines the significance of differences in factor inputs in Canada and the United States and their contribution to the difference in income. The level of inputs per employed person in Canada accounts for only about 2 percentage points of the income difference between Canada and the United States. These results indicate that the overwhelming part of the difference in output per employed person between the two countries reflects the differences in output in relation to total factor inputs, rather than the magnitude of other factor inputs used in combination with labour.This result is consistent with earlier studies by Denison and others which have indicated the crucial importance of output in relation to total factor inputs, both in output growth over time and intercountry comparisons of output level.The body of the paper can give only brief attention to the numerous conceptual and statistical questions that arise in such a wide-ranging study, and the authors do not pretend to have tackled, let alone resolved, all of the wide range of problems related to this study. Nor do they claim any high degree of precision for the results, especially in the light of the statistical limitations of the basic data.

Notes: Dudley Seers and his colleagues in working with various less developed economies have proposed a modified version of an input-output table for making projections and tests of consistency in planning. The table includes only the important inter-sectoral flows. By making a simplifying assumption with regard to the non-included inter-sectoral flows, an algebraic formulation of the modified input-output table is possible. The resulting matrix of input-output coefficients and final demands can be transformed into a Leontief input-output matrix which is block triangular and composed of two-blocks, one of which is diagonal. Given a set of final demands it is very easy to solve for the total output of each of the sectors. The amount of computation involved is directly related to the number of intersectoral flows included in the original modified input-output table.

Notes: Capital requirements may be expressed in various ways but when comparisons are to be made between situations of great variety it is best to express them per unit of annual product. The definition of product also raises difficulties. Here it is measured net of agricultural inputs but still gross of industrial inputs. The study approaches the problem by first considering the capital requirements of the simplest types of agriculture and then moving up the scale towards the more advanced. Simple forms of crop culture using hand tools may require only 0.1 to 0.2 of a year's product in the form of capital. These requirements increase when livestock are added, either for draught power or for their products. Increases also occur when tree and bush crops are introduced. In the less favourable climates, capital is also needed for the provision of shelter. When comparisons are possible between farms of different sizes, the greater capital requirements per unit of product for the smaller farms are clearly to be seen. In general the amount of capital per unit of product in agriculture is tending to fall, both through improvements in techniques and through an increase in the average size of holding.

Notes: The purpose of the paper is to describe current and constant price estimates of Japanese central and local government postwar domestic expenditures by economic type and function recently completed by Miss Yoshiko Kido, International Christian University, Tokyo, and myself. The rationale of the functional classification is to estimate those government expenditures which enhance the economy's productive capacity.Expenditures are divided into four broad functional categories: developmental, disaster repair and prevention, social welfare, and general government. These four categories are subdivided to two levels of disaggregation. We were able to break down government fixed investment, government enterprise inventory investment, current domestic transfers and subsidies into 42 functional components. For constant price series, each functional component by economic type was deflated by separate price indexes. We followed the Economic Planning Agency's procedure for the official national accounts of assuming no productivity change in the provision of government services.Our results are generally comparable to the official national accounts estimates. The major difference is that we attribute considerably more fixed investment to local governments, and correspondingly less to the central level.Government expenditures had the following characteristics. Growth was rapid; in real terms the public sector use of the economy's resources in 1963 was 2.2 times more than in 1952. The elasticity of government expenditures to GNP was unity in current prices, slightly less in real terms. The government postwar share in GNP has been smaller than in European nations and, unlike them, was not rising. This reflects the underlying growth strategy of emphasis upon private business fixed investment. Government consumption expenditures declined relative to GNP, and investment rose.Developmental expenditures comprised the largest share (40–45 per cent) of the government total. The elasticities to GNP of government expenditures by economic and functional categories are provided and discussed.A simple test was made of the cyclical relationship of government expenditures (both total and by category) to GNP. The results suggest that government expenditures, rather than contra-cyclical, were pro-cyclical in effect.

Notes: Economic planning can in principle be seen as consisting of two phases: first a description of all possible development paths, and second a choice of “the best one” from among these possibilities. In the present paper the measurement of real capital is discussed in relation to the needs of the first of these two phases. In section 2 of the paper it is argued that the most relevant measure of capital for this purpose is the gross value of the existing capital stock, i.e. the total value without accounting for depreciation. In section 3 of the paper different ways of estimating this gross capital stock are discussed. In sections 4, 5 and 6 there follows a discussion of how one can correct the capital measures for changes in efficiency with age, for “embodied technical progress” and for different durabilities. The latter correction leads to concepts which are equivalent to measuring “capital services” as a factor of production. The treatment of maintenance and repair will be important for the interpretations of some of these “corrections.” The final section of the paper suggests a model which requires data on vintages of capital.

Notes: The technique of national income accounting is a part of what Hicks has termed “The Fixprice Method”. Deflation is an attempt to approximate a real economy to a fixprice economy. It is shown that if the propositions of macro-dynamics are to hold, this deflation cannot be done in accordance with the price structure prevailing at any particular historical time, but must use that given by the capital theory of value, viz., when returns to labour are equal to zero. For a labour-abundant developing economy this will correspond to prices based on opportunity cost principles.As an illustration, sectoral incomes on this basis have been calculated for the industrial sector of the Indian economy for the years 1951 to 1965.

Notes: Economists' use of the term “equality” in reference to a distribution of incomes has historically been in the sense of a consensus for some statistical characteristic(s) of the distribution rather than a firm concept of equality. Of course such a concept rests on appropriate welfare assumptions about income and its distribution, assumptions which, for the most part, have been left implicit (and unknown) in discussions of income equality in the literature.Our purpose in this paper is dual: first, we wish to discover an unambiguous, welfare-related equality measure. This we accomplish through suitable assumptions on a social welfare function. What is produced is an “index” of equality which describes the performance of a given distribution relative to the maximum welfare derivable from the total income it represents. The measure thus depends functionally on the welfare attributes of income, something which in reality we know little about.This impasse leads us to inquire into the sensitivity of the index over specifications of the welfare function, which is done by comparing equality ranks for the states of the United States for 1960 under various functional forms and among curves within a given form. As an interesting secondary issue, the performance of traditional equality measures is tested relative to the welfare-oriented index to discover implications about their welfare content.It is found that the equality index is, in certain ranges for the welfare function, insensitive to its specification. The findings lead directly to conclusions concerning traditional equality measures, their usefulness in correctly accounting for equality differences among alternative income distributions and, concomitantly, their implicit welfare inputs.

Notes: The paper is concerned with non-monetized transactions which are dimensionally important in developing countries. The notion of degree of monetization attaches to all real flows. It is necessary to analyze non-monetized transactions in order to a have a better understanding of the producing and consuming activities of households which contribute a large part of national product in less developed countries. Among different non-monetized flows, particular attention is paid to the use of the output of own production for different purposes. A survey of Indian information on the degree of non-monetization shows that it is different for different flows: highest for consumption, intermediate for current inputs and lowest for investments. Cross section Indian data indicate that the degree of non-monetization is expected to fall with the improvement in the average household expenditure and urbanisation but it may rise if development occurs largely through agricultural improvement. Some of the Indian findings may apply to other developing countries as well. Normally, estimates of expenditure elasticities based on cross section data are obtained from consumption expenditure on a particular item (e) and the aggregate consumption expenditure (E) without going into the question of the degree of non-monetization of either element. Since traditional models of consumer behaviour apply only to the relation between money expenditure on a particular item (em) and the aggregate money expenditure (Em), it is suggested that the relation between e and E should be broken down into relations between (i) em and Em, (ii) ek and Ek where these are the corresponding kind elements and (iii)among E, Em and Ek. Some estimates of elasticity based on this scheme are presented indicating that the procedure is reasonable and suggesting that this type of analysis would probably furnish a suitable framework for answering relevant questions in the field.

Notes: This article discusses the problem of compiling a balanced set of national accounts at constant prices. The method adopted is based on earlier work on this subject by Burge and Geary. Commodity flows, which are uniquely deflatable, are expressed at constant prices and savings in constant prices is obtained by preserving a balanced set of equations in real terms. The deflation of the external account is discussed.A method is suggested for expressing the national income account in real terms and an “income gain” is deduced for each industrial sector which represents the difference between real income and real product in that sector. The sum of the income gains for the domestic sectors is zero.The constituents of the income/expenditure accounts of households, corporations and general government are expressed at constant prices by selecting suitable deflators in a consistent manner. The accounts in real terms are now unbalanced and are balanced again by inserting a balancing item which is shown to represent a gain to the sector arising from changes in the terms of trade between the sectors. This item is called an “expenditure gain”. The sum of the expenditure gains for the institutional sectors is zero.The system suggested can be extended to cover additional items in the accounts and thus a complete set of national accounts in real terms can be derived.

Notes: This paper presents the results of an investigation of the distribution of Yugoslavia's national income by social classes in 1938. The population in mid-1938 was apportioned among social classes as follows: proletariat 34.6 per cent, middle classes 59.2 per cent, bourgeoisie 5.3 per cent, 0.9 per cent unallocated. About three-quarters of the population was rural. The proletariat amounted to 5.2 million persons, of which 3 million were peasants living on dwarf holdings and 2.2 million were rural and urban wage earners. Unemployment in the non-agricultural sector was 10 per cent; if the agricultural sector is added, overall un- and under-employment amounted to 31 per cent. The bourgeoisie consisted of 0.8 million persons, of which two-fifths were rich peasants. Of the 9 million persons in the middle classes, 7 million were peasants with small and medium holdings. The remainder were mainly minor entrepreneurs in the non-agricultural sector. The proletariat accounted for 35 per cent of total population but only 18 per cent of aggregate income, whereas the bourgeoisie with 5 per cent of the population received 26 per cent of aggregate income. The distribution of income among the various groups of the non-agricultural population was more unequal than among the groups of the agricultural population. Estimates are preesented of the distribution of income by various types and sources, for agricultural and non-agricultural population, together with income per capita, average earnings per employed worker, labor productivity, and capital intensity, the last by industrial branches as well as social classes.

Notes: The interrelation between changes in the economic structure, i.e., industrial distribution of income and labor force, and the size distribution of income is studied in this paper in a case study of India (1951–1960).The change in the size distribution of income is the sum of changes due to (1) inter-sectoral factors and (2) intra-sectoral factors. The need for this distinction is emphasized by the result obtained for India, that 85% of the changes in the size distribution may be assigned to inter-sectoral factors, and only 15% to intra-sectoral factors. Since the inter-sectoral factors are significantly influenced by changes in the industrial distribution of income and labor force, our result points out a relation between economic growth and the size distribution which quite often is overlooked in studies of the size distribution.The results obtained in this paper support several cross-section results of Professor Kuznets. In particular some of these are: (a) inter-sectoral inequality in the economic structure widened with economic growth, (b) the inequality in the size distribution of India widened, (c) the level of inequality in India is higher than in any of the eight developed countries considered.

Notes: This report summarizes the proceedings of a series of meetings called by the Conference on Research in Income and Wealth of the National Bureau of Economic Research in June of 1966. The major conclusions of the conference, as transmitted to the Statistical Office of the United Nations, were as follows: (1) The aim of integrating the various parts of the system of national accounts, including input-output and financial transactions, is to be welcomed. (2) The more recently developed parts of the system need considerably more work to reach the same level of clarity and usefulness which the national income and product accounts have acquired. (3) Some simplification of the proposed basic system should be considered, involving the identification of a minimum of information that should and could be provided by all countries. (4) In line with the conference's overriding interest in national accounts as an instrument for economic analysis and a means of more informed policy formation, the proposed system needs considerable strengthening in the field of income distribution.

Notes: One of the most characteristic features of Japan's public sector is the predominant role of the Treasury system, which operates not only budgetary funds of the central government but also various other funds such as Postal Savings Funds and surplus funds of public corporations.Among the general account and 45 special accounts of the Treasury system, the Foodstuff Control, the Foreign Exchange Fund and the Trust Fund play important roles, both through their intra-governmental transactions and through their transactions with private sectors. Particularly noticeable is the role played by the Trust Fund Bureau, which serves as a financial institution for government agencies. Surplus and accumulated funds in the Postal Savings and other special accounts of the Government are deposited in the Trust Fund Bureau, which employs these funds for intra-governmental ways and means loans, and for government loans and investment programs.Another feature of Japan's Treasury system is that it deposits all the Treasury funds solely with the Bank of Japan.The activities of local authorities and local public enterprises are also largely financed by Treasury funds, and are intertwined with the Treasury system.The statistical systems for monetary and financial flow analysis developed by the Bank of Japan, therefore, place stress on the analysis of flows of Treasury funds, and are based on an institutional sectoring to reflect the flows of funds as they actually take place. One exception is the Monetary Survey compiled in accordance with the IMF formula, which adopts a kind of functional sectoring for international comparison purposes.In the last three years, Japan's public sector, which had long stood rather neutral in the financial patterns of the economy, has begun to show an increasing financial deficit. With the increasing financial deficit of the sector, the financial patterns of the nation as a whole are undergoing remarkable changes.

Notes: South Korea began its measurement of Gross National Product during the turbulent 1950's, a period of postwar rebuilding and of political and social changes. With only a small and largely inexperienced staff, and with little support from other statistical agencies whose data were essential to adequate GNP measurement, the Bank of Korea began this task in the early 1950's. Early estimates were extremely rough; over the years, the statistical staff was trained and other statistical agencies were upgraded. Measurements of output in the large agricultural sector and in manufacturing have gradually but consistently been strengthened as recent input-output data has been developed. Gaps still persist, particularly in the wholesale and retail sectors, but certain strengths are present: an outstanding job has been done in product pricing. The author describes the evolution of Korea's improving GNP program, presents its sources of data and its methodologies, and gives an assessment of problems of the past and prospects for the future.

Notes: This paper is concerned with the sensitivity of estimates of the aggregate capital stock of the United States to the statistician's choice of depreciation method. The usual depreciation charge can be shown to include allowances both for physical deterioration and for obsolescence. If one interprets the gross stock as the stock of surviving assets, then the various net stocks defined by depreciation accounting may be interpreted as a revaluation of these assets by means of an index of embodied technical change. Estimates of the United States capital stock were generated under eight sets of assumptions. These estimates are compared with respect to level, trend, and implications for other aggregate statistical indicators. The conclusion is reached that the assumptions which define a country's stock of tangible capital are of considerably greater importance than has often been supposed.

Notes: The contention in this paper is that the present method of treating interest and net rents as transfers rather than as payments for services provided creates problems in the measurement of production by industry and that the difficulties encountered in explaining the treatment of interest items in the different tables of the National Accounts are even more apparent when one views the National Accounts framework as an integrated reflection of economic reality.It is argued that the lending of money arises from the stretching out of the production and consumption process, and the interest charges constitute a charge for the administrative services and risk involved. This is somewhat analagous to the charges for hiring out real goods and services. A similar case is made for the treatment of rents with the exception of imputed net rent where it is contended that economic risk is incurred only when production is undertaken for sale and that there should be no entrepreneurial return where the production is for the use of the owner-producer.It is suggested that an alternative treatment of interest and rents as payments for services is more realistic. Its adoption in the National Accounts would eliminate the need for imputations now made to account for the production of financial intermediaries, as well as the unconvincing explanations put forward for the present treatment of interest on consumer and public debt. Finally, it would serve to integrate the production accounts with the financial flows and the related financial structure.

Notes: 1. The problems presented have arisen in practice when carrying out international comparisons of national income and its elements between the CMEA countries. Some rough conclusions are drawn from the nearly completed comparison of consumption level between Poland and Austria.2. The basic methodological principles of the comparison were similar to the methods used by the group of economists directed by Milton Gilbert and Irving Kravis in their comparison relating to Western European countries. However, a number of new problems have emerged in the course of our work which required practical and theoretical solutions.Some differences in theoretical approach between the Gilbert-Kravis study and ours are discussed. Gilbert and Kravis based their comparison as far as possible on average prices of commodity groups or quantity data, and price indexes for representative goods were applied only as a practical necessity. On the contrary in our study we based our calculation mainly on representative goods and their price relation as this method, in our opinion, takes into account quality differences, which escape from the picture in the Gilbert-Kravis method.3. Some special theoretical and practical problems of comparisons between countries having market economies and those with planned economies are presented in terms of the example of the comparison of consumption levels between Austria and Poland.Three groups of questions are pointed out: (1) the problem of the definition and boundaries of the aggregates compared; (2) the problem of differences in pricing in the groups of products and services compared, resulting from the social policy of the government concerned; and (3) the problem of differences arising from general price policies in the countries compared.4. At the end of the paper it is suggested that it would be useful to work out a “statistical information system”, which would make possible detailed comparisons of the volume of consumption among several countries and groups of countries without the need of conducting direct comparisons between each pair of countries.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The eyespot of the zoospore of Tetracystis excentrica (a green alga) has been studied by light and electron microscopy. In Tetracystis the eyespot consists of about 110 osmiophilic granules which form a plate in the anterior third of the cell. The granules are about 80 Å in diameter and are found in the outermost portion of the chloroplast; they commonly show hexagonal close packing and a hexagonal shape. The granules are confined positionally by the chloroplast envelope and an inner thylakoid. The plasmalemma over the eyespot is thickened and is separated from the chloroplast envelope by a 50 mμ space. The eyespot of Tetracystis is compared with others reported in the literature and the possible functional significance of these studies is discussed. The possibility that the eyespot plate in Tetracystis serves as a shading device rather than the primary photoreceptor is considered.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Eimeria balphae n. sp. is described from the Ord kangaroo rat Dipodomys ordii. The sporulated oocysts are broadly ellipsoidal to ovoid, averaging 16.7 by 14.3 μ. A single, large, homogenous body represents the oocyst residuum. A polar granule is present. There is no micropyle. The ovoid sporocysts average 8.7 by 5.9 μ. The sporocyst residuum is composed of 7–14 round, clear granules. This species of Eimeria was found in 1 of 82 D. ordii in northwestern Utah.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The larva of the beetle Tenebrio molitor (Coleoptera, Tenebrionidae), commonly referred to as the mealworm, harbors considerable numbers of gregarines in its midgut. These are not necessary for normal growth, nor do they prolong the life of larvae grown under optimal conditions of temperature, relative humidity and diet. When the larvae were grown under optimal conditions there was no significant difference between the length of larval life or the final pupal weight of mealworms harboring gregarines when compared with mealworms which had been reared free from gregarines. This applied both to infected and non-infected larvae grown singly and in communal cultures.When, however, larvae were grown on a sub-optimal diet, the gregarines had a considerable effect on the final pupal weight and the ability of the larva to complete development.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Isospora peromysci n. sp., I. californica n. sp., and I. hastingsi n. sp. are described from 4 Peromyscus species in Monterey County, Central California. I. peromysci n. sp. was found in 35 of 1,346 Peromyscus, including P. californicus, P. truei, and P. maniculatus; I. californica n. sp. was found in 15 Peromyscus, including P. californicus, P. boylii, P. truei, and P. maniculatus; and I. hastingsi n. sp. was found in one P. truei. Endogenous forms of I. peromysci n. sp. are described from P. maniculatus, and host distribution and incidence of all species are given.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A protozoon was found in myelinated axons of the spinal cord and brain of the toad, Bufo arenarum. Examination with the light microscope using Giemsa, Feulgen, PAS and methylene blue technics revealed a primary cell as large as 30 μ in diameter and containing up to 80 nuclei. Electron micrographs showed that the protozoon ranged from 2 μ to 30 μ in diameter and that larger specimens contained numerous secondary cells (2 μ) in addition to multiple nuclei. A few specimens were found in which the secondary cells had long processes with microtubules. Multiple nuclei together with secondary cells suggest that it may be a schizont form of a sporozoon.The protozoon was found most frequently in axons of the perimedullary plexus just beneath the pia. These axons are without degenerative changes, are up to 3 times the diameter of the largest normal myelinated fibers. The myelin appears normal altho there are fewer laminae than in myelin of other large nerve fibers. The protozoon apparently causes axonal swelling but does not block the fibers completely.Light microscopic attempts to locate similar forms or other stages in the life cycle by examining blood, skin lesions, spleen, liver, small intestine, dorsal and ventral roots, or sensory ganglia were unsuccessful.Examination of spinal cords which had been mechanically severed excluded the possibility of confusing the protozoa with multinucleated macrophages. Altho observations do not prove their mode of entrance to the nervous system, the preponderance of protozoa in the peripherally located perimedullary plexus suggests that the path may be by way of the cerebrospinal fluid or along the endoneurium.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The foraminifer Rosalina floridana builds a chambered, calcareous test which is periodically enlarged by the addition of new chambers. R. floridana begins to form a chamber by constructing an algal growth cyst which covers the dorsal side of the animal and is cemented to the substrate. The pseudopods that build the cyst coalesce to form a cytoplasmic template or anlage on which the chamber walls will be secreted. Electron micrographs reveal the anlage cytoplasm to be a “froth” of nearly empty vesicles which contain mitochondria, fibrillar material, and electron dense granules. The organic lining of the new chamber is secreted on the anlage by pseudopods extending thru it. After the organic lining is completed, cytoplasm from within the test flows into the forming chamber and forces the anlage cytoplasm out thru the new aperture. This “frothy” anlage cytoplasm forms a sheath over the dorsal surface of the test; while it is in place, a layer of calcite is deposited on the walls of the new chamber and over the rest of the test. When calcification is completed, the sheath breaks up and is incorporated into newly formed pseudopods as the foraminifer gradually moves out of the growth cyst and begins normal feeding.The production of vesiculated cytoplasm in normal pseudopods and in the anlage is viewed as a method of greatly increasing cytoplasmic volume with a resultant very small loss in cytoplasmic mass. In the anlage during the production of the organic lining the vesiculated cytoplasm apparently acts only as a support for the membranes being secreted by the pseudopods and presumably does not take part in the secretory process. This same cytoplasm forms the sheath that is present during calcification. The view is advanced that, altho the sheath could be active during calcification with the mitochondria within the vesicles actively transporting calcium to sites of crystal growth, its more probable function is to form a partition between the parts to be calcified and the environment. The foraminifer could then secrete CaCO3 from pooled reserves in the cytoplasm into the area between the sheath and the chamber membranes. The basal membrane is considered the nucleating agent during calcification and is responsible for the ordering of the crystals so their C axes are perpendicular to the surface of the chamber.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Turbidity changes caused by ingestion of bacterial cell suspensions by Tetrahymena pyriformis W were used to measure feeding capabilities. Tetrahymena was grown on washed killed cells of Aerobacter aerogenes, Azotobacter agile, Arthrobacter sp., Bacillus megaterium, Mycobacterium lacticola, Pseudomonas fragi, Sarcinia lutea, Serratia marcescens, and Thiobacillus thioparus for 6 months with serial transfers. After this time the rate of feeding on each bacterium gave no indication of an adaptation to the food bacterium.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The development of three 8-liter and four 12-liter cultures of the photosynthetic dinoflagellate Gonyaulax monilata was followed for 4 months. Weekly estimates were made of population levels of this chain-forming flagellate, along with incidence of cells in chains and toxicity to fish. Guppies (Lebistes reticulatus) were used to assay toxicity. Populations reached a peak when cultures were 3–5 weeks old, declined during weeks 6–10, and tended to stabilize thereafter thru the 17th (final week). The percentage of cells in chains was related to the slope of the population curve; rapidly increasing populations had the highest proportion of long chains, suggesting that incidence of chains is an index of the growth phase in G. monilata. Peak toxicity was not reached until culture populations had been steadily declining for a month, indicating that most toxin is released by autolysis. The reproducibility of culture population and toxicity levels recommend the methods used for future studies.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Ten strains of Acanthamoeba from freshwater habitats were isolated in clonal cultures. Studies were made of trophic structure, nuclear division, cyst structure, some aspects of cytochemistry, and other characteristics. One strain was identified as A. castellanii (Douglas, 1930), one as A. astronyxis (Ray and Hayes, 1954), and 8 as A. polyphaga (Puschkarew, 1913). Strains of Acanthamoeba isolated by other workers were also examined comparatively.The pattern of nuclear division in all strains resembled that in metazoan cells, with the exception that centrioles were never found. Trophic amoebae had a PAS-positive surface outline. Cyst walls were strongly PAS-positive and also gave a positive test for cellulose with zinc chloroiodide.The genus Acanthamoeba Volkonsky, 1931 is re-defined, being distinguished from Hartmannella Alexeieff, 1912, emend. Volkonsky, chiefly by the formation of tapering, hyaline pseudopods (acanthopodia) and by a cyst made up of an ectocyst and a polyhedral or stellate endocyst, with excystment by removal of opercula. Other characteristics found in all strains include a distinctive food cup, the presence of many small refractile globules in the cytoplasm of trophic amoebae, and a cyst wall containing cellulose. The degree of spindle convergence, employed by Volkonsky as a generic criterion, was unusable.Differential diagnoses based principally on cyst structure are offered for A. castellanii, A. astronyxis, and A. polyphaga. The strain previously called Mayorella palestinensis Reich, 1933 is a distinct species of Acanthamoeba.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. By means of the ninhydrin-Schiff method for proteins a diffuse reaction as well as one localized in granular inclusions can be shown in the cytoplasm of fibroblasts, epithelial cells, and macrophages in trypsin-dispersed chick liver cell cultures. Nuclei and nucleoli also take the specific stain. A progressive loss of cytoplasmic and nuclear staining occurs in the fibroblasts in cultures infected with a relatively pathogenic strain of T. vaginalis. A loss occurs in epithelial cells in advanced stages of degeneration, but in less damaged cells, while the diffuse reaction disappears, the number and staining intensity of the cytoplasmic inclusions remain unchanged or possibly may increase somewhat. The intensity of the diffuse reaction and the number and size of the characteristic inclusions increase in the active, parasite-free, experimental macrophages, but phagocytes with trichomonads closely applied to their external surfaces and those containing the flagellates within their cytoplasm typically retain only a few weak-staining inclusions.Similar distribution of alkaline and acid phosphatases occurs in preparations treated according to Gomori's and Burstone's methods, except that no nuclear staining is obtained with the latter. Activity of both enzymes is localized primarily in inclusions which are dispersed thruout the cytoplasm of fibroblasts and epithelial cells and tend to accumulate along the cell membranes and around the nuclei. In the course of infection with T. vaginalis there is a progressive loss of alkaline phosphatase from both cell types; however, the acid phosphatase activity increases. In the control macrophages both enzymes are localized in mostly rather large, rounded cytoplasmic inclusions. The number of such inclusions increases in the parasite-free experimental macrophages, but only a few weak-staining granules remainin phagocytes with engulfed trichomonads and in those whose external surfaces are in direct contact with the parasites. The loss of the inclusions is less apparent in macrophages containing degenerated flagellates than in the ones with healthy trichomonads, but regardless of the condition of the parasites, the highest enzymatic activity is found around them.ATPase and 5′-nucleotidase are localized in small granules dispersed thruout the cytoplasm of fibroblasts and epithelial cells. The granules tend to accumulate along the periphery of the cells and around the nuclei. A diffuse cytoplasmic reaction is present in preparations processed for 5′-nucleotidase. Nuclei and nucleoli give positive reactions for both enzymes. In the course of infection with trichomonads, activity of the 2 enzymes declines in both culture cell types. Control macrophages have diffuse cytoplasmic reaction for ATPase and 5′-nucleotidase and these enzymes are localized also in rounded cytoplasmic inclusions. Activity of both enzymes increases in the parasite-free experimental phagocytes, but little if any diffuse staining and only a few characteristic inclusions are left in macrophages with engulfed healthy trichomonads and in those whose external surfaces are invested with the flagellates.The ninhydrin-Schiff-positive inclusions found in the macrophages appear to be the same as some of those which have acid phosphatase activity and may well be identical with the glycolipoprotein bodies noted by us previously. On the grounds of their chemical constitution and behavior it seems likely that the inclusions are lysosomes.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Chilomonas paramecium developed significant resistance to INH at concentrations up to 150 mg/100 ml. Once established, the resistant strains grew subnormally in drug-free medium and were more susceptible than the normal strain to sulfanilamide, but were much more resistant to PABA (10-20 mg/100 ml). In addition, INH-adapted strains were less responsive than the controls in PABA reversal of SA-inhibition. Strains adapted to sulfanilamide, sulfapyridine, and nicotinamide were less resistant to INH than the normal strain.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The ultrastructure of the herbivorous amoeba Pelomyxapalustris was studied. Nuclear division is not understood in this amoeba, and evidence for the method of nuclear division was sought. This species typically has many spheroidal nuclei which are similar within a given cell. However, some amoebae from our collections differed from this common type in both the number and structure of their nuclei. This suggested stages associated with nuclear division. One current hypothesis of nuclear division in this organism is that of nuclear budding. Our evidence is more in accord with this method than with mitosis.The cytoplasm contained no mitochondria, Golgi bodies, contractile vacuoles or crystals. Most amoebae had 2 types of bacteria (bacteroids or endosymbionts) in their cytoplasm; a separate vesicle enclosed each of these. Characteristically, only 1 type of bacterium (Bn) surrounded the nucleus. Another type (B) was found elsewhere in the cytoplasm. Also in the cytoplasm were the following: food vacuoles enclosing various algae, relatively clear vacuoles and vesicles, glycogen, various electron-opaque particles, and occasional microtubules. The plasmalemma was smooth, lacking the external fringe which characterizes other large fresh-water amoebae.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Axenically cultivated Paramecium aurelia, stock 299, required a fatty acid for growth. This need was satisfied by oleic acid and oleic acid-containing lipids. These included: TEM-4T (tartaric acid esters of tallow monoglycerides), certain phospholipids (crude as well as highly purified preparations), Tween 80, 85, Span 80 and glyceryl monoleate. High concentrations of oleic acid in the medium inhibited growth. This inhibition was partially released or annulled by certain mixtures of “non essential” fatty acids or by increasing the stigmasterol content of the growth medium. Definite but non-stoichiometric levels of oleic acid and sterol were required for optimal growth. Tween 60, a non-ionic emulsifier similar in its surfactant properties to Tween 80, stimulated growth in the presence of suboptimal amounts of oleic acid but failed itself to replace oleic acid as a growth requirement.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A study was made of the fine structure of some stages in the life cycle of an undesignated species of Isospora parasitic in a gecko. The merozoites which lay within a membrane-bound periparasitic vacuole in the host epithelial cell, had a striking similarity to Plasmodium, Lankesterella, Toxoplasma, Besnoitia, Sarcocystis, Eimeria and the M-organism. Each merozoite was invested with a triple-layered pellicle, the outer membrane of which was loosely applied. At the anterior end of the merozoite were conoid and apical rings; microtubules terminated in the posterior apical ring. Other organelles included nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, mitochondria, micropyle, paired organelle, toxonemes and a variety of vacuoles. Although the sequence of development of the merozoite was not completely followed, some events in this process were recorded. The evidence suggests that anterior ends are formed early and that merozoites develop subsequently by a process of budding. The merozoite pellicle appears to be continuous with, altho structurally different from, the investing membrane of the parent cell.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Eight new species of Trichodina are described from freshwater fishes of the Southeastern U.S.: T. davisi from Roccus saxatilus (Walbaum), T. funduli from Fundulus notti (Agassiz), T. globosa from Etheostoma radiosum (Hubbs and Black), T. hoffmani from Etheostoma edwini (Hubbs and Cannon), T. hypsilepis from Notropis hypsilepis Suttkus and Raney, T. microdenticula from Dorosoma petenense (Gunther). T. noturi from Noturus leptacanthus Jordan, and T. salmincola from Salmo gairdneri Richardson. Nine species of Trichodina are redescribed: T. californica, T. discoidea, T. fultoni, T. pediculus, T. platyformis, T. reticulata, T. sp. (?T. nigra), T. tumefaciens, and T. vallata. The name T. pediculus is re-erected for the form that occurs on largemouth bass.Host fish were collected from 36 geographic locations in 10 states (Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Tennessee). A total of 939 fish of 46 species was examined for trichodinid parasites.Two methods of impregnating formalin preserved specimens of Trichodina with silver are discussed.A key to the species of Trichodina reported from North American freshwater fishes is given.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A method is described for the isolation of macronuclei from Paramecium aurelia. It has also been successfully employed with Didinium nasutum. The yield is up to 50% with P. aurelia. Some results on the DNA, RNA and protein contents are given. The isolated macronuclei of P. aurelia are able to incorporate ATP and UTP into acid-insoluble material, a process which is probably RNA synthesis mediated by RNA polymerase. The macronuclei were thus highly purified, and retained a measure of biosynthetic activity.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The surface ultrastructure of 10 species of benthic Foraminiferida from the Dry Tortugas, Florida, has been investigated using an electron microscope. Tests of miliolid Foraminiferida appear to be made up of at least 2 distinct layers. An outermost pavement-like layer, consisting of a single layer of calcite rhombohedrons, and an underlying “randomly oriented layer” comprise most of the wall thickness. It was possible to differentiate each miliolid species on the basis of a statistical analysis of calcite rhombs making up the pavement-like layer. Pseudopores were found on the tests of Miliolinella subrotunda (Montagu) and Archaias angulatus (Fichtel and Moll). None of these pseudopores completely penetrated the wall, and all floored in the “randomly oriented layer.” It is believed that these structures are formed at time of calcification, rather than secondarily at some later time.Calcification in Foraminiferida appears to be a biphasic process similar to that found in most other organisms. Groups of crystals were discernible on surfaces of most porcelaneous and “radiate” calcareous species. This suggests that parallel growth of crystals may be an important process in calcification of many Foraminiferida.A sieve-plate was found in a canal paralleling the test's surface in Cymbaloporetta squammosa (d'Orbigny).

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Lewisi-like trypanosomes were found in 3 of 6 host species of Sciuridae examined in northern Wisconsin: the red squirrel Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, the eastern chipmunk Tamias striatus, and the least chipmunk Eutamias minimus. With the possible exception of T. parkeri from Marmota flaviventris, the trypanosomes studied were similar in appearance to the lewisi-like trypanosomes previously described from other North American Sciuridae. Apparently, these trypanosomes undergo maturation in the blood stream but do not divide there. In culture, the eastern chipmunk trypanosome had typical rosette, leishmanial, leptomonad, and crithidial forms. Preliminary trials indicated that these trypanosomes from the red squirrel and eastern chipmunk were host specific.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Myxidium macrocheili n. sp. is described from the gall bladder, bile and pancreatic ducts of Catostomus macrocheilus Girard (largescale sucker) in western Montana. This parasite is markedly host specific; the trophozoite is nonmotile, polysporous, spheroidal, elongated or irregular, often arched and rolled at the edges, and up to 2.5 mm in greatest length; the ecto- and endoplasm are distinct; the sporonts are disporoblastic. The bipolar spore is longitudinally striated, usually ellipsoidal in front view, slightly S-shaped in side view, and averages 11.7 × 6.6 × 6.3 μ; the suture line and ridge are distinct; the polar filaments are coiled 4–6 times.An illustrated synopsis and a key of the 19 species and 10 unnamed forms of Myxidium of North American freshwater vertebrates are presented. At present members of the genus are known to infect fishes, amphibians and a single species of reptile on this continent.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Intraclonal variation in number of right caudal cirri (RCC) occurs within some species of the hypotrichous genus Euplotes. Euplotes vannus, a marine species, may have either 2 or 3 RCC. A single clone always contains individuals of both types. The frequency of individuals of each type within a clone was found to be 0.5. This fact suggested that during division each parental cell gives rise to one daughter having 3 RCC and one having 2.Formation of RCC during division was studied in E. vannus and in E. plumipes, a fresh-water form which always has 2 RCC. The studies were made on living animals and on fixed animals stained with protargol or by the Chatton-Lwoff method. In both species, the new RCC first appear in the right dorsal kineties and later migrate to the ventral surface. The RCC for the proter develop near the parental equator while those for the opisthe form near the posterior end of the parent cell, both sets developing in close proximity to kinetosomes of the kineties. In both species the 2 dorsal kineties furthest to the right each give rise to 2 RCC, one for the proter and one for the opisthe. In E. vannus, however, the third-from-the-right dorsal kinety also produces one right caudal cirrus for the proter. Therefore, in E. vannus it is the proter which always receives 3 caudal cirri and the opisthe which gets only 2. The role of the cortex in determining these events is discussed.Two cases of abnormal caudal cirrus formation are also described. Other aspects of morphogenesis during division, not previously reported, are also presented and discussed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Observations were made on the differentiation of fine structure during sporogonic development of Plasmodium berghei. The oocyst in the process of sporozoite formation is an encapsulated structure 30-40 μ in diameter. It typically develops while in an extracellular position, attached to the basement membrane of the mosquito midgut and projecting into the mosquito hemocoel. Occasionally, however, ookinetes passing thru the midgut epithelial cells may become impacted within a cell so that the resulting oocyst develops intracellularly.Each oocyst has a large differentiating region, the sporoblastoid body. This body contains large dividing nuclei which are Feulgenpositive, and a cytoplasm which includes mitochondria, dense rodlike structures, cytoplasmic membranes, cisternae and vacuolar structures, Golgi material, and ribosomes which are both free and membrane-associated.Sporozoite budding takes place along the surface of the sporoblastoid body. Bits of a new membrane condense under the plasma membrane which bounds the sporoblastoid body. These 2-membraned sites then bulge out, continue to elongate, and eventually become sporozoites. The various nuclear and cytoplasmic components of the sporoblastoid body are passed into the sporozoites during their elongation. In addition, the sporozoite develops a system of elogate, subpellicular microtubules, possibly contractile in function. The pellicle of the sporozoite is broken by an opening, the cytostome (micropyle). The anterior end is truncate.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Cell-free extracts of encysting Acanthamoeba were assayed for the key enzymes of the glyoxylate pathway, viz., isocitrate lyase and malate synthase. Both enzymes were present at the onset of encystment but their activities changed as cyst-wall formation proceeded to completion. Isocitrate lyase activity decreased during the first 4 hr of encystment to a minimum at 4 hr which was 70% of its initial activity. Activity then increased reaching a maximum at 9 hr which was 144% of its initial activity. After 9 hr a decrease in isocitrate lyase activity began which reached 70% of its initial activity at 35 hr. Malate synthase activity slowly decreased throughout encystment to 50% of its initial activity after 35 hr. From these data and others cited, it is concluded that this small soil amoeba has a functional glyoxylate pathway.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A sequence of developmental stages of Plistophora hyphessobryconis Schaperclaus, a microsporidian protozoan parasite of the muscular tissue of several species of freshwater fishes, was studied with the electron microscope. The youngest stages observed, ca. 4 × 2 μ, have a single nucleus and their plasm contains only ergastoplasmic lamellae and ribosomes. They are surrounded by a halo of lysed host tissue. They increase in volume to become large sporonts with a great number of nuclei and a thick, 2-layered membrane. Thru schizogony, a corresponding number of sporoblasts is produced within this pansporoblast membrane. Sporoblasts start to develop a thick spore membrane, and a number of smooth-membraned vesicles appear in the plasm. These vesicles fuse to make the outer membrane of the filament. Later, its inner structures originate—the axial electron-dense substance, filling the hollow lumen of the filament, and a middle, electron-transparent layer. The structure of the filament is discussed in relation to its function and with regard to the findings of other authors.The polaroplast is a laminated structure, originating possibly by transformation of endoplasmic reticulum; the polar cap forms its apical part. The cap is also lamellar; its substance reaches into the lumen of the filament for a certain distance. No micropyle was discovered in the shell; the filament is fastened to the polar cap. These observations on microsporidian development and on the structure of their spores are compared with similar data on myxosporidian species. Such a comparison speaks clearly in favor of the complete taxonomic separation of the Microsporidea from the Myxosporidea, the latter being quite different also from other sporozoa sensu lato.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Nuclear structure and mitosis in Gonyaulax monilata were studied. Between the arms of the U-shaped interphase nucleus is a band of material which, it is suggested, is homologous with the “central body” of G. tamarensis. Histochemical studies of whole cells, extruded nuclei and Epon-embedded sections indicate that the band is composed at least in part of protein, phospholipid and possibly RNA. The chromosomes of interphase nuclei are attached to the ends of the band. The band is also attached to a proteinaceous, extra-chromosomal matrix which pervades the nucleus. Studies on material treated with trypsin indicate that the matrix may be a factor in maintaining chromosomal integrity and orientation and nuclear form. During mitosis the band acts as a point of attachment for the chromosomes, and appears to control anaphase and telophase movements. It is suggested that the band is a component of the mitotic apparatus in G. monilata.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Colpoda elliotti n. sp., found in an enrichment culture from deer droppings, is a small (15–28 by 7.5–17 μ) member of the genus with prominent, rigid, tooth-like processes set between the kineties in the posterior 2/3 of the body. These “teeth” give it a distinctive outline even when viewed at low magnifications. The usual number of kineties is 12; the number of keel notches is 4. Multiplication occurs in reproductive cysts yielding typically 4 tomites. Thick-walled, resting cysts are also formed.The nuclear apparatus includes a single, crescentic ***micronucleus and a broadly elliptical macronucleus. The latter contains Feulgen-positive material in a few large masses, but no central nucleolus.The possibility that this species along with other members of the genas is perhaps more closely related to the Hymenostomatida than to the Trichostomatida as now defined is discussed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. During a 7-year period Histomonas meleagridis survived 1000 passages in Medium 199 fortified with serum and antibiotic-killed bacteria. The histomonads were originally isolated from a chicken's cecal dropping, and the bacteria were cultivated from the cecal contents of a normal turkey. In many respects, the histomonads remained unchanged during cultivation, but in some other respects they changed considerably, perhaps irreversibly.Morphologically, the histomonads propagated in vitro showed only slight changes. When returned to birds, they resumed the structure characteristic of lumen-dwelling individuals of this species. However, they had long since lost their ability to produce disease in either chickens or turkeys, and organisms of the tissue-dwelling type were rarely seen. The long-cultivated histomonads are actually as nonpathogenic as Histomonas wenrichi, but they have none of the distinguishing morphologic characteristics of the latter.As has been reported elsewhere, H. meleagridis long maintained in the tissue culture medium has also lost much of its ability to immunize either chickens or turkeys against infection with virulent strains of this parasite. Also lost in the process of adaptation to its restricted medium has been the ability to multiply satisfactorily in vitro with the complement of bacteria normal to the ceca of the birds. However, in some instances, histomonads which have become adapted to in vitro cultivation are still able to live in birds with this diversified flora.Activity of the histomonads cultivated in vitro differed but little from that of H. meleagridis freshly isolated from birds, when both were viewed under the same conditions. Histomonads from each of the above sources multiplied most satisfactorily in their accustomed habitat, probably because of a difference in nutritional requirements.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The killer strains of Euplotes minuta contain cytoplasmic epsilon particles absent in sensitive strains. The toxic principle of killers is associated with large particles which sediment readily in the centrifuge and may be identical with epsilon. Killing particles are inactivated by heat, certain proteolytic enzymes, and lysis with the French press.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The sporulated oocysts of 12 species of Eimeria occurring in the ox Bos taurus in the United States are described and differentiated. They are E. alabamensis, E. auburnensis, E. bovis, E. brasiliensis, E. bukidnonensis, E. canadensis, E. cylindrica, E. ellipsoidalis, E. illinoisensis n. sp., E. subspherica, E. wyomingensis and E. zuernii. Two other species, not yet found in North America, which are recognized as valid are E. pellita and E. thianethi. The sporulated oocysts of E. illinoisensis n. sp. are ellipsoidal or slightly ovoid, 24–29 by 19–22 μ with a mean of 26.3 by 20.7 μ; their sporocysts are 13–16 by 6–7 μ with a mean of 15.3 by 6.5 μ. This species was found in 3 cattle from one farm in Illinois.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. During logarithmic growth, Colpidium campylum produced a complex, heat-stable material which elevated the reproductive ate of Tetrahymena subsequently inoculated into the culture. This material stimulated only early stages in the growth of Tetrahymena—effect accompanied by an increased number and size of food vacuoles. The Colpidium product was found to be RNA, precipitable from the medium by acetone. Lipids and proteins or peptides were also present in the complex; these appeared to protect the RNA from the action of chemical and physical agents.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The physiologic response of Tetrahymena pyriformis W to glucose, as measured by the respiratory rate in a buffered suspension, was found to be altered by exposure of the culture to this carbohydrate in the peptone-based growth medium. Glucose-grown cells had an elevated respiratory rate in the presence of glucose in the Tris-buffered suspension, while cells not grown with the glucose supplement required sodium and potassium for the response. Orthophosphate elevated the rate of oxygen consumption independently of the glucose effect. The endogenous respiratory of glucose and non-glucose cultured cells were significantly diffe The 2 types of cells responded differently to the cations, sod and potassium, and were not identical in sensitivity to iodoacet Iodoacetate poisoning was found to be due to inhibition of “uncompetitive” type, potentiated by glucose, orthophosphate, the absence of potassium.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. We have undertaken the study of intracellular parasites which probably constitute one of the stadia of the development of a coccidium: Myriosporides amphiglenae. This study, carried out by means of optical microscopy as well as electron microscopy, has allowed the observation of close similarities with Plasmodium, Lankesterella, Eimeria, Toxoplasma and Sarcocystis. The wall consists of 3 membranes and has a micropore. Besides classical cytoplasmic inclusions (mitochondria, Golgi system, ergastoplasm and vacuoles), various tubular forms fill the anterior third of the cell, in which about twenty hollow peripheral fibrils are also observed.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Acriflavin concentrations of 0.025 μg/ml and higher were Lo Leptomonas karyophilus in NNN medium to which no ribohad been added, and did not bring about the production of dys plastic forms. Upon addition of 0.4 μg/ml of riboflavin, contions of acriflavin up to 10.0 μg/ml allowed growth and rein the production of up to 86% dyskinetoplastic forms. Under conditions, increasing concentrations of acriflavin decreased the growth rate while increasing the rate of production of dyskinetoplastic forms. The number of dyskinetoplastic forms increased with time while the number of kinetoplastic forms remained approximately constant or decreased due to death. At a concentration of 1.0 μg/ml acriflavin and 0.4 μg/ml riboflavin, growth was primarily due to the production of dyskinetoplastic forms.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The pathogenicity for mice and cell culture, and the growth rates in vitro of two strains of Tritrichomonas foetus were compared. A new strain of T. foetus (T. foetus“G”) which was isoated less than a year before use in the experiments described, was more pathogenic to mice but had a longer generation time than an old strain (T. foetus“M”). The old strain has been maintained in vitro for over five years. The characteristics observed for the strains of T. foetus examined resembled those of T. vaginalis rather than T. gallinae. In strains of the latter species there is a good correlation between growth rate and pathogenicity.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Out of 64 nutrients tested, none replaced glycerol for growth in the dark of Prymnesium parvum. Some metabolites enahanced growth in the light, and in the presence of glycerol also in the clark. Good growth with glycerol could be obtained in the absence of CO2. Survival of cultures in the dark in media without glycerol was prolonged by various nutrients. Thioglycerol in glycerol-containing media inhibited growth in light and darkness. Apparently Prymnesium parvum has a specific glycerol requirement for dark growth.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The body of Oxytricha platystoma is covered with 2 membranes, the outer or pellicular membrane and the inner or cytoplasmic membrane. Each cirrus consists of a bundle of 25-50 cilia. There are 2 macronuclei and 2 micronuclei. The micronucleus is a very small body containing dense Feulgen-positive material. The macronucleus is an elongated body surrounded by a double membrane. The dense Feulgen-positive material is embedded in a less dense nucleoplasm. Some larger bodies found inside the nucleus may be nucleoli. There is a single reorganization band in each macronucleus. It consists of a solution plane and a reconstruction plane, and has a total thickness of 1.5 μ. The macronucleus divides amitotically, whereas the micronucleus divides mitotically.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. A technic is described for the quantitative assay of paramylum content of euglenoid flagellates. The method relies on the alkaline solubility of paramylum followed by treatment with the anthrone reagent. The intensity of the color developed by paramylum is about 14% greater than that developed by an equivalent amount of glucose. The method is sensitive down to about 10 μg.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The pigments synthesized by Astasia ocellata include α- and ε-carotene, 4-keto-β-carotene (echinenone), and 4,4′-diketo-β-carotene (canthaxanthin); 4-keto-α-carotene, accounting for about half the pigment in the cells, was tentatively identified; a strongly adsorbed keto-carotenoid, accounting for 25% of the pigments and bearing some similarities to astacin, polytomaxanthin and phoenicoxanthin, was also found.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Blepharisma intermedium was cultured axenically. The organisms were freed of contaminating microorganisms by serial washing in a sterile salt solution. The major nutrients in the various media were: Freshly killed or lyophilized and autoclaved bacteria (Pseudomonas ovalis), yeast extract prepared from Fleischmann's baking yeast or Fleischmann's yeast autolysate, lettuce infusion or stigmasterol, 6 B-vitamins, and phosphate buffer at 2 times 10−3 M. The cultures were kept in the dark at 25 C. Altho the 1st division after transfer into fresh media was delayed, B. intermedium divided in approximately 32 hours thereafter in most of these media.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. An electron microscope study of microgametocytes and macrogametes of Eimeria nieschulzi Dieben, 1924 revealed that they lie within vacuoles bounded by a host unit membrane. The vacuole surrounding the microgametocyte contains granular material. The vacuole around the macrogamete is narrower and contains vesicles and membranes. Micropores were seen on the surface of the plasma membrane of microgametocytes and macrogametes. Microtubules were seen in macrogametes. Young microgametocytes and macrogametes have a similar cytoplasmic matrix, mitochondria and nuclei. Glycogen granules apparently develop around vacuoles in both microgametocytes and macrogametes. Glycogen granules were also seen along the margins of parallel bundles of fibers in microgametocytes. As nuclei of the microgametocyte divide, they move to the periphery of the parasite. Three basal bodies, each with 9 fibers in triplet form, develop in association with each nucleus. Microgametes have 2 free flagella and a central short, attached flagellum. Basal granules lie along the outer fibers of the central flagellum. Each microgamete has an elongate mitochondrion in close contact with the nucleus. In macrogametes wall-forming bodies develop in lacunae in the cytoplasm. Smaller dark bodies with areas of low density were also seen. Wall-forming bodies and dark bodies move to the periphery of mature macrogametes.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. In the nearly mature macrogametes of Eimeria auburnensis, the cell membrane is a unit membrane, with underlying and overlying osmiophilic layers usually present. Cup-shaped micropores were occasionally seen. Smaller, V-shaped invaginations were also found in considerable numbers at the surface. At the deepest point, these invaginations were bounded only by a unit membrane. Immediately adjacent to this point, vesicles with homogenous electron-pale contents bounded by a similar unit membrane, were frequently seen. Pinocytosis evidently occurs at the site of these invaginations. Numerous folds of the host cell membrane bordering the vacuole in which the parasite lay extended about 0.1–0.7 μ into the vacuole. These “intravacuolar folds” varied in depth and number in different specimens. In some, the majority of folds had apparently become disconnected from the host cell membrane. A highly developed smooth endoplasmic reticulum occurred in the adjacent host cell cytoplasm. The intravacuolar folds may assist in transfer of nutrients, including membrane material, from the host cell to the parasite. The evidence indicates that in this species of Eimeria nutrients are taken into the parasite primarily as fluids by pinocytosis and possibly other processes.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Sexual reproduction of up to 50% of the cells from 9 cultures of Stentor coeruleus was observed repeatedly for several months. Photomicrographs were taken of mating pairs, and a number of new observations were made, including the ability of well fed cells (containing food vacuoles) to conjugate, the ability of a high percentage of cells (approaching 50%) in a culture to mate at one time, a more detailed description of the region of cell attachment as viewed from the frontal fields of the partner cells, and the ability of one partner to twist off and leave its oral area attached to the other member of the pair.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Comparison of RNA molecules between certain protozoa using the technic of nucleic acid hybridisation revealed that there are complementary sequences for ribosomal RNA molecules in the genomes of such cells. Furthermore the genes for ribosomal RNA have been conserved during evolution in this group of organisms. On the other hand, RNA molecules from these protozoa which can be considered to be “messengers” show little in the way of sequence relationships. By utilising the technic of hybridisation it was found that Oxytricha can compete effectively against Paramecium ribosomal RNA for Tetrahymena DNA but the ribosomal RNA sequences of the latter could not compete completely against Paramecium ribosomal RNA for Oxytricha DNA. The result is interpreted to show that different ribosomal sequences were hybridising with each of the DNA samples from Tetrahymena and Oxytricha. A general interpretation of this result in terms of ribosome evolution is presented.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Strains of Tetrahymena pyriformis, including amicronucleate strain GL and representatives of 9 syngens, have been examined to determine the patterns whereby cortical features vary with numbers of ciliary meridians. The characteristics scored were the positions of the contractile vacuole pores (CVP's), the extent of the area within which CVP's develop, the incidence of supernumerary CVP's, and the number of postoral meridians. Intrasyngenic comparisons were possible in 6 syngens and permitted an assessment of intrasyngenic variation for these characteristics. Only the CVP positions appear to be reasonably constant within syngens in the strains examined. On the basis of this criterion the syngens can be arrayed in an approximate order of 1, 3, 7, 6, 8, 9, 2, 5, GL and 4; the angle formed between the central axis, the stomatogenic meridian and the CVP's is most acute in syngen 1.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. The bionomics of Labyrinthula Cienkowski and the validity of the family Labyrinthulidae Haeckel are reviewed. The structure, physiology (including nutrition), locomotion, ecology, and possible pathogenicity for eel-grass (Zostera marina L.) are discussed. The uniqueness of its gliding motility along slime tracks, lack of phagotrophy, and poorly understood congregation tendencies emphasize the present taxonomic isolation of the group. Further interest attaches to some species because of their steroid requirements.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Sporozoites of L. simondi were maintained in a viable state for 7 months in liquid nitrogen. Comparison of parasite development initiated with fresh and frozen sporozoites showed a delay in development of each stage studied. Comparisons of prepatency, first elongate gametocytes, peak density of round and elongate forms, anemia and disappearance of megaloschizonts were made. In each phase there was a delay of 2–3 days in ducks infected with frozen sporozoites.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Species of sessile Stentor, Vorticella and colonial peritrichs were collected in boxtype plastic petri dishes. Thru a hole in the wall of the dish, various concentrations of mercuric chloride, a standard bactericidal agent, were introduced. Following a 3-hour exposure to the toxicant, the death of the sessile ciliates followed a set pattern with a clearcut toxicity threshold of 0.1–0.5 parts per million with an LD 50 of about 0.25 ppm. Furthermore, the sessile ciliates were not dislodged when the natural pond water in the dish was poured out and replaced with water from other sources. Various responses were elicited by 4-hour exposure to 4 changes of environment. By this procedure, the protozoan community was subjected to new sets of conditions. Such a technic could serve as a method of detecting and assessing water pollution.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Eimeria colchici sp. n. is described from English pheasants Phasianus colchicus. It has cocysts measuring 19–33.5 (27.4) by 13–21 (16.7) μ, having both micropyle and polar granule. The large 1st and 2nd generation schizonts occur in the glands of the small intestine, 3rd generation schizonts occur deep in the glands of the ceca, and gametocytes occur in the epithelial cells of the ceca. The prepatent period is 6 days. In young pheasants the parasite causes coccidiosis characterized by formation of white cores in the ceca. Mortality is high in experimental infections. Zoalene (0.0125%) in the feed almost completely suppressed the infection; Amprolium (0.0125%) also gave good control, but sulfaquinoxaline (0.0125%) was not so effective. Sulfaquinoxaline, Saquadil and Sulfamezathine in the drinking water controlled mortality, but treatment had to be applied early to avoid weight losses.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Monolayer primary and secondary cultures of embryonic bovine kidney, spleen, intestinal and testicle cells, and secondary cultures of embryonic bovine thymus, maintained in lactalbumin hydrolysate, Earle's balanced salt solution and ovine serum were observed for a maximum of 21 days after inoculation of E. bovis sporozoites. The sporozoites entered the cells in all of these cultures but underwent development only in primary cultures of kidney and intestinal cells and in secondary cultures of kidney, spleen, thymus, intestinal, and testicle cells. In acellular media, the sporozoites retained motility no longer than 21 hr. In the cell cultures, free motile sporozoites were seen for as long as 18 days after inoculation. Sporozoites entered cells anterior end first; the process of penetration required a few seconds to about a minute. Sporozoites were also observed leaving host cells. Intracellular sporozoites were first seen 3 min after inoculation; they were observed at various intervals up to 18 days after inoculation. In transformation of sporozoites into trophozoites a marked change in size and appearance of the nucleus took place before the change in shape of the body occurred. Trophozoites were first found 7 days after inoculation, multinucleate schizonts after 8 days, and schizonts with merozoites after 14 days. Schizonts containing merozoites were seen only in kidney, spleen, and thymus cells. The mature schizonts were smaller and represented a much lower proportion of the total number than in comparable stages of infections in calves. Schizonts with many nuclei occurred in intestinal cells; the most advanced stage seen in testicle cells was the binucleate schizont. Nuclear and cytoplasmic changes were observed in the infected cells.

Notes: SYNOPSIS. Peritoneal macrophages from hamsters were monolayered on coverslips in Leighton tubes. Twenty-four hours later these were transferred to a perfusion chamber. Leptomonads were added with fresh medium and the infection process observed with the aid of phase contrast. In the perfusion chamber free-swimming leptomonads attached to the macrophage by the tip of their flagella. Shortly after this initial attachment the macrophage extended a narrow pseudopodium around the flagellum which eventually reached and enveloped the body of the parasite. Upon complete envelopment the pseudopod containing the leptomonad was retracted into the central body of the macrophage. When first seen in the granular endoplasm of the macrophage, most of the leptomonads appeared to be surrounded by vacuoles. In most cases these vacuoles disappeared in a few minutes making it difficult to distinguish the parasite from the host cell cytoplasm.Leptomonads also were added directly to Leighton tube cultures, and the coverslips with the adherent macrophages and parasites were removed, fixed and stained periodically during the infection process. In these preparations most of the parasites were in clumps in the vicinity of macrophages. Details of the ingestion of the clumps could not be seen, but occasionally a single organism was seen with its flagellum and part of its body enclosed by an extended pseudopod. Most of the intracellular leptomonads were in large vacuoles. Forms intermediate between elongate leptomonads and LD bodies were surrounded by smaller vacuole-like spaces. The halo-like vacuoles most frequently seen around LD bodies may have been fixation artifacts. Under favorable conditions the leptomonads transformed to LD bodies in 1–4 hours, but it was 48 hours before a population increase could be found.