ALBERT

Notes: Successful long-term wetland restoration efforts require consideration of hydrology and currounding land use during the site selection process. This article describes an approach to initial site selection in the San Luis Rey River watershed in southern California that uses watershed-level information on basin topography and land cover to rank the potential suitability of all sites within a watershed for either preservation of restoration. This approach requires the use of a geographic information system (GIS)to map relative wetness and land cover within a watershed. Relative potential wetness values were derived from U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) 30-m digital elevation models by calculating the flow that would potentially accumulate at all 30-m × 30-m pixels within the watershed. Land cover was derived from a Landsat scene covering the 1500 Km2 study area. We ranked sites (contiguous groups of pixels 〉 1 ha with similar land cover) in terms of their potential for restoration or preservation based on their wetness values (Iow, medium, and high), size, and proximity to existing riparian vegetation. Sites with medium or high wetness values and extant vegetation were identified as potential preservation sites. Agiricultural or barren sites with medium to high wetness were identified as potential restoration sites. Approximately 5500 ha (3.67% of the total watershed) were prioritized for preservation or resloration.

Notes: This historical and conceptual overview of riparian ecosystem restoration discusses how riparian ecosystems have been defined, describes the hydrologic, geomorphic, and biotic processes that create and maintain riparian ecosystems of the western USA, identifies the main types of anthropogenic desturbances occurring in these ecosystems, and provides an overview of restoration methods for each disturbance type. We suggest that riparian ecosystems consist of two zones: Zone I occupies the active floodplain and is frequently inundated and Zone II extends from the active floodplain to the valley wall. Successful restoration depends n understanding the physical and biological processes that influence natural riparian ecosystems and the types of disturbance that have degraded riparian areas. Thus we recommend adopting a process-based approach for riparian restoration. Disturbances to riparian ecosystems in the western USA result from streamflow modifications by dams, reservoirs, and diversions; stream channelization; direct modification of the riparian ecosystem; and watershed disturbances. Four topics should be addressed to advance the state of science for restoration of riparian ecosys-tems: (1) interdisciplinary approaches, (2) a unified framework, (3) a better understanding of fundamental riparian ecosystem processes, and (4) restoration po-tential more closely related to disturbance type. Three issues should be considered regarding the cause of the degraded environment: (1) the location of the causative disturbance with respect to the degraded riparian area, (2) whether the disturbance is ongoing or can be elim-inated, and (3) whether or not recovery will occur nat-urally if the disturbance is removed.

Notes: A two-stage system for selecting stream reaches and riparian communities for restoration was applied to the 80-km San Luis Rey River below the Lake Henshaw dam in southern California. In the first satge, data from topographic quadrangles and aerial photographs were analyzed to define and classiy reaches. These analyses concluded that (1) 28 km of the river and adjacent floodplain were suitable for second-stage evaluation of restoration needs and (2) 32 km met criteria for reference conditions at the stream reach scale and should be protected from further impacts. The remaining 20 km of the river and floodplain were considered unsuitable for restoration to reach-scale reference conditions; individual sites may be restored under existing regulatory review. Second-stage field sampling provided data on vegetation and floodplain landforms and substrate from more thatn 3000 plots within the 28 km of river and 1120 ha of floodplain selected for further Study. Classification of floristic samples stratified by landform/substrate class indicated six primary riparian communities on the floodplain, some associated with particular floodplain landform/substrate classes and others ubiquitous. Reference conditions for these communities were interpreted from the data. There were two major departures from reference conditions: tree-dominated communities were less extensive than historic levels and exotic plants had significantly invaded some landforms and communities, displacing natural com-munities. General goals would include restoration of tree communities and removal of exotics, with further consideration of site-specific objectives. The results included estimates of the areas by community type re-quiring restoration. The approach was developed for streams in the semi-arid western United States, but it may be adapted for use elsewhere.

Notes: This study compares the results of Olson and Harris (1997) and Russell et al. (1997) in their work to prioritize sites for riparian restoration in the San Luis Rey River watershed. Olson and Harris defined reaches of the mainstem and evaluated the relative potential for restoration and protection based on cover of natural vegetation, land use, and connectivity. Then they used data on geomorphic conditions, plant species composition, and community structure to prescribe strategies for restoration. Russell et al. used a modeling approach within a geographic information system to combine data on wetness and land use/land cover to identify areas with potential for protection and restoration. They prioritized the areas based on patch size and proximity to extant riparian habitat. The main-stem and associated floodplain defined by Olson and Harris was more than twice the size of the area defined by Russell et al., because Olson and Harris considered the entire valley floor, whereas Russell et al. used a wetness index to identify saturated zones within the floodplain. For seven of the twelve management units delineated along the mainstem, the two studies agreed on a strategy of restoration or protection. They differed on two. No comparison could be made of the three units for which Olson and Harris used project review, a unique category. Agreement of the results is due to the similarity of criteria used to identify and rank sites for protection and restoration; disagreement is due primarily to the level of resolution of the data. Both approaches have potential for use in watershed-level planning. The predictive power of the two approaches may be maximized when they are used in a complementary fashion.

Notes: We present a conceptual model for identifying restoration sites for riparian wetlands and discuss its application to reaches within the Upper Arkansas River basin in Colorado. The model utilizes a Geographic Information System (GIS) to analyze a variety of spatial data useful in characterizing geomorphology, hydrology, and vegetation of riparian wetland sites. The model focuses on three basic properties of riparian wetland sites: relative soil moisture, disturbance regime, and vegetative characteristics. A relative wetness index is used to define nominal soil moisture classes within the watershed. These classes generally coincide with uplands (low), channel margins (moderate), and channels or open water (high). Vegetative conditions are characterized using color infrared aerial photographs. Land cover types are grouped into five major land cover classes: riparian, moist herbaceous, bare ground, upland, and open water. Disturbance regime is characterized by a reach-based index of specific power (ω). Preliminary results indicate that reaches within the Upper Arkansas River basin can be classified as high energy (ω≥ 8 W/m2) or low energy (ω≤ 3W/m2), using discharge estimates that reflect the 10-year flood event. Field surveys of channel and floodplain conditions show that high-energy reaches (ω≥ 8 W/m2) are characterized by sites where the channel occupies a large proportion of the valley bottom. By contrast, low-energy reaches (ω≤ 3 W/m2) are characterized by meandering channels with wide alluvial valleys. Restoration potential is evaluated as a combination of nominal scores from wetness, land cover, and disturbance indices. Application of these methods to field sites within the Upper Arkansas River basin identifies a wide range of riparian wetland sites for preservation or restoration. Potential sites within identified reaches are prioritized using size and proximity criteria.

Notes: A major goal of population biologists involved in restoration work is to restore populations to a level that will allow them to persist over the long term within a dynamic landscape and include the ability to undergo adaptive evolutionary change. We discuss five research areas of particular importance to restoration biology that offer potentially unique opportunities to couple basic research with the practical needs of restorationists. The five research areas are: (1) the influence of numbers of individuals and genetic variation in the initial population on population colonization, establishment, growth, and evolutionary potential; (2) the role of local adaptation and life history traits in the success of restored populations; (3) the influence of the spatial arrangement of landscape elements on metapopulation dynamics and population processes such as migration; (4) the effects of genetic drift, gene flow, and selection on population persistence within an often accelerated, successional time frame; and (5) the influence of interspecific interactions on population dynamics and community development. We also provide a sample of practical problems faced by practitioners, each of which encompasses one or more of the research areas discussed, and that may be solved by addressing fundamental research questions.

Notes: Cool smoke treatments were applied to unmined Eucalyptus marginata (jarrah) forest soils, rehabilitated bauxite mine soils, and broadcast seed to determine if enhancement in germination could be effected with a view toward maximizng the establishment of species in bauxite mines in Western Australia.Forest sites showed a 48-fold increase in total germinants from the soil seed bank when treated with aerosol smoke. Newly returned bauxite mine soils showed a greater than threefold increase in total germinants after the same treatment. There were also significant increases in the number of species germinating in response to the aerosol smoke treatment in both the forest and the mined soils. Similarly, application of smoked water to the soil seed bank in previously mined sites elicited a significant positive germination response, increasing total germinants and species numbers by 56 and 33%, respectively.Treatment of mixed seed lots with aerosol smoke before broadcast resulted in highly significant improvement in germination when compared to untreated seed. Both total number of germinants, and number of species emerging from mined sites were positively influenced (85% and 34% increases, respectively).Ten target species were used to determine the relative effectiveness of different methods of smoke treatment on the germination of broadcast seed. Nine of the species involved displayed a promotive effect with at least two of the treatments. Generally, however, aerosol smoking of seed before broadcast proved to be the more effective approach. As a result of these findings, all broadcast seed for use in Alcoa's bauxite mined areas in the southwest of Western Australia is now routinely smoke treated before application.

Notes: Understanding Cladium jamaicense (sawgrass) seedling establishment is an important component of an Everglades restoration program because the degree of sawgrass recovery and concurrent Typha domingensis (cattail) decline will be used to evaluate restoration success. To understand sawgrass recovery at locations with increased soil nutrients, we tested the effects of transplanting sawgrass seedlings to pots at different densities and investigated how nutrient additions affect seedling growth. Survivorship of seedlings transplanted into moist commercial potting soil at three densities ranged from 61% to 95%. After 6 months, maximum survivorship (90%) occurred at medium densities (2–4 seedlings per pot 16 cm in diameter). Nutrient additions, totaling 6.5 N g/m2, 9.8 P g/m2, 6.5 g/m2, were applied approximately 4 months after seedlings were transplanted. The biomass of the plants receiving nutrient additions (pulsed) was significantly higher (by over 30%) than plants with no nutrient addition (control). Photosynthetic rates for nutrient-enriched plants (measured 6-weeks after the nutrient additions) were significantly greater (by 32–45%) than for control plants. Instantaneous leaf water use efficiency increased significantly (by more than 20%) in pulsed plants. The results suggest that preventing root damage is crucial for the success of trans planted sawgrass seedlings and that nutrient additions enhanced seedling growth.

Notes: I evaluated responses by 16 native woody species to differential soil compaction and density of ground cover. The trees and shrubs studied represent sites in southern Illinois that commonly have restrictions to root growth from soil or drainage conditions. The study site was a restored surface coal mine in southern Illinois with a rooting medium compacted by grading and a dense ground cover of pasture species. Soil compaction was alleviated in half the study area before tree planting by mechanically ripping the soil to a depth of 1.2 m. Roots of half the trees and shrubs were dipped in a Terra® slurry before planting, and the ground cover around all planting spots was afterwards sprayed with herbicide. In year 2 after planting the ground cover in half of the unripped and half of the ripped area was further controlled by repeated application of herbicides. Ripping significantly increased height growth of all trees combined and all species individually in each year of the study. Second-year control of ground cover increased height growth of all trees combined and of seven species individually. Some species were damaged by herbicides. Terra® had little evident effect on species performance. Animal damage reduced early survival and growth, especially of Acer (maple) and Cornus (dogwood) species, and later growth of Quercus rubra (red oak). Removal of ground cover with herbicides tended to increase deer browse. Soil ripping, herbicide application, and choosing tree species unattractive to deer can be recommended to increase success in planting trees for forest restoration.

Notes: Woodlands dominated by Eucalyptus spp. in temperate southeastern and southwestern Australia have been extensively cleared for agriculture and are often badly degraded by livestock grazing. This has resulted in the loss of biodiversity and widespread land degradation. The continuing decline of these woodlands has become a concern for the conservation of biodiversity, and there is a growing interest among farmers, land managers, and researchers in developing techniques for restoring them. Currently few scientific guidelines exist for undertaking woodland restoration programs. We use a state and transition model to develop hypotheses on restoration strategies for salmon gum (Eucalyptus salmonophloia) woodlands. We consider that this approach provides a suitable framework for organizing knowledge and identifying areas where further information is needed, and hence provides a useful starting point for a restoration program. The model has the potential to provide a tool for land managers with which they can assess the action and effort needed to undertake woodland restoration in agricultural landscapes.

Notes: Most of the world's forest has been cleared, cultivated, and then often abandoned. In many instances these areas have changed to successionally arrested grasslands, shrublands, or fernlands maintained by frequent fires and high herbivore populations. Many studies have shown that various herbaceous, nitrogen-fixing legumes can protect soil surfaces, retain soil moisture, improve soil fertility, and retard ground fires. Our objective was to ascertain if some of these species can potentially inhibit herbivory and satisfactorily establish in these arrested grassland areas to serve as sites for reforestation. We evaluated the potential for four species of nitrogen-fixing legumes (Calapogonium mucunoides, Centrosema pubescens, Desmodium ovalifolium, and Pueraria phaseoloides) to establish on exposed soil within successionally arrested grasslands of Panicum maximum and Cymbopogon nardus in the central hills of Sri Lanka. Four different sites within rectangular grassland areas were cleared of graminoids and sown with seed of each legume. Half of each clearing was protected from browsing rabbits and porcupines, and half was not protected. After 6 months, certain plots were destructively sampled to determine dry biomass gain for each species and treatment. Analyses of variance were performed to test for differences among sites, treatments, and species. All three factors revealed differences, indicating that species must be matched to site. On sites with high amounts of herbivory, D. ovalifolium had the greatest dry biomass gain after 6 months of growth, possibly because of its relatively low nitrogen and moisture content. Where herbivory was absent, P. phaseoloides and C. muconoides had the greatest dry biomass gain. Dry biomass gain of all four legume ground covers was low on sites with lowest pH and nutrient concentrations. Under conditions of low relative fertility and low pH, establishment of the tested legumes failed. Though soil moisture availability was not measured, we speculate that these low fertility sites were also prone to drought. Findings support the site-specific establishment of legume species for purposes of reforestation and watershed protection in central Sri Lanka. This work is applicable to other regions particularly dominated by successionally arrested grasslands with similar circumstances in other parts of south and southeast Asia.

Notes: Oyster cultch was added to the lower intertidal fringe of three created Spartina alterniflora marshes to examine its value in protecting the marsh from erosion. Twelve 5-m-wide plots were established at each site, with six randomly selected plots unaltered (non-cultched) and cultch added to the remaining (cultched) plots. Within each cultched plot, cultch was placed along the low tide fringe of the marsh during July 1992, in a band 1.5 m wide by 0.25 m deep. Marsh-edge vegetation stability and sediment erosion were measured for each plot from September 1992 to April 1994. Significant differences (p 〈 0.05) in marsh-edge vegetation change were detected at the only south-facing site after a major southwester storm. Significantly different rates of sediment erosion and accretion also were observed at this same site. Areas upland of the marsh edge in the cultched areas showed an average accretion of 6.3 cm, while noncultched treatment areas showed an average loss of 3.2 cm. A second site, with a northern orientation, also experienced differential sediment accretion and erosion between treatment type, caused instead by boat wakes that were magnified by the abutment of a dredge effluent pipe across the entire front fringe of the site. During this period we observed significant differences in sediment accumulation, with the areas upland of the marsh edge in the cultched treatment having an average accretion of 2.9 cm and the noncultched an average loss of 1.3 cm.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article: The Significance and Regulation of Soil Biodiversity. Harold P. Collins, G. Philip Robertson, and Michael J. Klug, editors

Notes: Declines in native plant and animal communities have prompted new interest in the restoration of aquatic and riparian ecosystems. Past restoration activities typically have been site specific, with little thought to processes operating at larger scales. A watershed analysis process developed in the Pacific northwest identifies four operating scales useful in developing restoration priorities: region, basin, water-shed, and specific site. Wtershed analysis provides a template for restoration practitioners to use in prioritizing restoration activities. The template identifies seven key steps necessary to understand and develop restoration priorities: (1) characterization, (2) identification of key issues and questions, (3) documentation of current conditions, (4) description of reference conditions, (5) identification of objectives, (6) summary of conditions and determination of causes, and (7) recommendations. When a similar process was used in the Uinta Mountains, Utah, and in the Sluslaw National Forest, Orgon, specialists were able to identify key habitat conditions and habitat forming processes and then to establish restoration priorities and implement the appropriate activities. Watershed analysis provides a valuable set of tools for identifying restoration activities and is currently being used throughout the Pacific Northwest to develop management strategies and restoration priorities. Although the analysis requires significant time, money, and personnel, experience suggests that watershed analysis provides valuable direction for managing aquatic and riparian resources.

Notes: Landscape ecology focuses on questions typically addressed over broad spatial scales. A landscape approach embraces spatial heterogeneity, consisting of a number of ecosystems and/or landscape structures of different types, as a central theme. Such studies may aid restoration efforts in a variety of ways, including (1) provision of better guidance for selecting reference sites and establishing project goals and (2) suggestions for appropriate spatial configurations of restored elements to facilitate recruitment of flora/fauna. Likewise, restoration efforts may assist landscape–level studies, given that restored habitats, possessing various patch arrangements or being established among landscapes of varying diversity and conditions of human alteration, can provide extraordinary opportunities for experimentation over a large spatial scale. Restoration studies can facilitate the rate of information gathering for expected changes in natural landscapes for which introduction of landscape elements may be relatively slow. Moreover, data collected from restoration studies can assist in validation of dynamic models of current interest in landscape ecology. We suggest that restoration and landscape ecology have an unexplored mutualistic relationship that could enhance research and application of both disciplines.

Notes: Restoration ecologists use reference information to define restoration goals, determine the restoration potential of sites, and evaluate the success of restoration efforts. Basic to the selection and use of reference information is the need to understand temporal and spatial variation in nature. This is a challenging task: variation is likely to be scale dependent; ecosystems vary in complex ways at several spatial and temporal scales; and there is an important interaction between spatial and temporal variation. The two most common forms of reference information are historical data from the site to be restored and contemporary data from reference sites (sites chosen as good analogs of the site to be restored). Among the problems of historical data are unmeasured factors that confound the interpretation of historical changes observed. Among the problems of individual reference sites is the difficulty of finding or proving a close match in all relevant ecological dimensions. Approximating and understanding ecological variation will require multiple sources of information. Restoration, by its inherently experimental nature, can further the understanding of the distribution, causes, and functions of nature's variation.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article: Water Quality: Management of a Natural Resource James Perry and Elizabeth Vanderklein

Notes: The U.S. Bureau of Reclamation created a shallow, 110-m channel to provide habitat for two endangered fishes, Cyprinodon elegans (Comanche Springs pupfish) and Gambusia nobilis (Pecos gambusia), at the site of the fishes' former natural habitat. The ciénega (marsh) associated with Phantom Lake Spring in Jeff Davis County, Texas, was destroyed by the creation of an irrigation canal system. In 1993, the endangered fishes were stocked into the refuge with individuals from the irrigation canals, and in the case of C. elegans, hatchery stocks. The condition of habitat, status of fish populations, and fish ecology within the refuge were then monitored for two years. The abundance and density of both species increased in accordance with aquatic plant development. Cyprinodon elegans abundance peaked after one year and stabilized at an average density of 14.7/m2 by the end of our study. Juvenile C. elegans were always rare, which may indicate that the population reached the refuge's carrying capacity and that recruitment is low. Gambusia nobilis was the most abundant fish in the refuge (average density 96/m2), used the entire refuge, and outcom-peted nonindigenous G. geiseri. The two Gambusia species used similar habitats but showed almost no dietary overlap. High densities of aquatic plants reduced the amount of open water areas necessary for C. elegans. The refuge will sustain the two endangered fishes at this historic site of endemism while maintaining flow to the irrigation system; however, the refuge is not equivalent to a restored ciénega.

Notes: No guidelines are currently available that advise which soil properties of arable land can be used to suggest suitable locations for heathland reconstruction. This paper reviews studies comparing soil properties of heathland or semi-natural grassland with those of adjacent arable fields, investigations in the autecology of the dominant heathland plant, Calluna vulgaris (common heather), and long-term experiments of fertilizer inputs on arable soils. Three properties must be assessed before the suitability of a field can be determined: extractable phosphorus, exchangeable calcium, and pH. A number of other nutrients may also be important, but evidence is currently insufficient to substantiate this. Natural changes in levels of extractable phosphorus, exchangeable calcium, and pH appear to be very slow, so nutrient stripping and acidification will be necessary where recommended levels are exceeded to successfully restore heathland vegetation.

Notes: Ants are widely used as bioindicators in Australian land assessment and monitoring programs, particularly in relation to ecosystem restoration following mining. Little is known, however, about the relationship between ant community development and key ecological processes such as nutrient cycling. We have examined the relationship between ant species richness and soil microbial biomass at 17 sites subject to disturbance by mining in the Kakadu region of Australia's Northern Territory. The number of ant species recorded ranged from 7 at an unvegetated site undergoing restoration to 43 at a site that was undisturbed except for edge effects. Soil microbial biomass ranged from 19.3 to 134.3 μgC/g. Ant species richness was positively correlated with soil microbial biomass (r= 0.638), more so than was plant species richness (r= 0.342 for total plant species, r= 0.499 for woody species only). Our findings demonstrate a correlation between aboveground ant activity and belowground decomposition processes at disturbed sites, thereby providing support for the use of ants as indicators of restoration success following disturbance. Interestingly, when a range of undisturbed sites in the region was considered, a negative rather than positive relationship between ant richness and soil microbial biomass was found. This illustrates the importance of distinguishing between variation within a habitat due to disturbance and variation across different habitats when searching for indicators of ecological change.

Notes: Bottomland hardwood forests in the southcentral United States have been cleared extensively for agriculture, and many of the remaining forests are fragmented and degraded. During the last decade, however, approximately 75,000 ha of land—mainly agricultural fields—have been replanted or contracted for replanting, with many more acres likely to be reforested in the near future. The approach used in most reforestation projects to date has been to plant one to three overstory tree species, usually Quercus spp. (oaks), and to rely on natural dispersal for the establishment of other woody species. I critique this practice by two means. First, a brief literature review demonstrates that moderately high woody species diversity occurs in natural bottomland hardwood forests in the region. This review, which relates diversity to site characteristics, serves as a basis for comparison with stands established by means of current reforestation practices. Second, I reevaluate data on the invasion of woody species from an earlier study of 10 reforestation projects in Mississippi, with the goal of assessing the likelihood that stands with high woody species diversity will develop. I show that natural invasion cannot always be counted on to produce a diverse stand, particularly on sites more than about 60 m from an existing forest edge. I then make several recommendations for altering current reforestation practices in order to establish stands with greater woody species diversity, a more natural appearance, and a more positive environmental impact at scales larger than individual sites.

Notes: We evaluated the ecological and reproductive characteristics of plant species occurring in severely disturbed areas that were revegetated with exotic grasses. We identified those species with the best combination of attributes that increase their probability of success in degraded lands. Fifteen degraded areas were studied in two different bioclimatic regions, a high premontane humid bioclimate and a low premontane humid bioclimate. The frequency of native colonizing species and the presence of arbuscular mycorrhizal colonization in their roots were evaluated. The sexual and breeding system, pollination mode, fruit set, and dispersal syndrome of ten of the most frequent colonizing species were also studied. The floristic survey of the colonizing species revealed a similarity to the reported flora of the treeless savannas that are dominant in the region. Bioclimatic conditions prevailing in the degraded lands seem to be an important factor for the presence of colonizing species and for species richness. All colonizing species studied were mycorrhizal, and for this reason the restoration program in these degraded areas should take mycorrhizae into account, reintroducing them or manipulating the soils to increase the mycorrhizal inoculum. We suggest Scleria cyperina and Trachypogon plumosus to start or promote the natural succession in the degraded areas from La Gran Sabana. Because their frequency is high and their reproductive system is less dependent on biotic factors, these species stand out in the studied areas.

Notes: Disturbance of coastal sage scrub in southern California has led to extensive displacement of native shrubs by exotic annual grasses. The initial conversion from shrubland to exotic grassland is typically associated with disturbance caused by intense grazing, high fire frequency, or mechanical vegetation removal. While native shrubs have been shown to recolonize annual grasslands under some conditions, other annual grasslands are persistent and show no evidence of shrub recolonization. This study examined the mechanisms by which annual grasses may exclude native shrubs and persist after release from disturbance. Grass density was manipulated in experimental plots to achieve a series of prescribed densities. Artemisia californica, a dominant native shrub, was seeded or planted into the plots and responses to the grass density treatments were measured over two growing seasons. A. californica germination, first season growth, and survival were all negatively related to the density of neighboring annual grasses. The most probable mechanism underlying the reduction of first season growth and survival was depletion of soil water by the grasses. The effects of the grasses on A. californica were no longer significant in the second season. The results of this study indicate that Mediterranean annual grasses reduce recruitment and can persist by inhibiting post-disturbance establishment of A. californica from seed. Although succession alone may not return disturbed annual grasslands to their former shrubland composition, the results suggest that restoration can be achieved by using container plantings or grass removal followed by seeding.

Notes: This study evaluated the genetic consequences of a reintroduction of the endangered annual plant Cordylanthus maritimus ssp. maritimus to Sweetwater Marsh (San Diego County, California). A survey of 21 enzyme loci in natural populations revealed that genetic diversity is very low and is primarily found as rare alleles at a few loci, making this species especially susceptible to the loss of alleles and heterozygosity through genetic drift. The reintroduction was performed in 1991 and 1992 by sowing seeds (collected from Tijuana Estuary) in numerous small patches of suitable habitat. For this study, leaf tissue was collected from all plants in all patches during flowering in 1995 and surveyed for genotype at the three enzyme loci that are polymorphic at Tijuana Estuary. Rare alleles were absent in 27 out of 30 patches for Pgm-1, in 17 out of 30 patches for Pgm-2, and in 10 out of 11 patches for Mdh-1. In all, half of the patches lacked any rare allele. Rare alleles tended to occur in patches with few individuals. Overall rare allele frequency was lower than in the colonies from which seeds were collected at two of the three loci, and heterozygosity was reduced. The Sweetwater Marsh population is at risk of losing most of its genetic variation at enzyme loci through the extinction of patches with few individuals. Future reintroduction attempts should attempt to create contiguous sets of patches or to periodically reseed existing patches to reduce the loss of genetic variation.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article: Riparian Ecosystem Recovery in Arid Lands: Strategies and References. Mark K. Briggs Land Restoration and Reclamation: Principles and Practice James A. Harris, Paul Birch, and John Palmer

Notes: Effects of waterlogging were studied in the field and under glasshouse conditions on two clonal lines of Eucalyptus camaldulensis Dehnh (river red gum), which are used in the rehabilitation of damaged agricultural catchments in Western Australia. The plantation of 9-year-old trees was in a position that covered a range of waterlogging and salinity conditions. Up-slope the water table was deeper (0.65–1.5 m), whereas the water table was closer to the ground surface down-slope (0.45 m in winter; 1.25 m in summer). Salinity was greater downslope and increased at the end of the dry summer, remaining high until diluted by the winter rains. Trees of both clonal lines were smaller downslope and used less water over the year. Clone M80 used more water in winter; clone M66 more in summer. In the field, the roots of clone M80 were evenly distributed through the soil profile, while roots of clone M66 decreased with increasing depth. Production of new root terminals varied with season. Greatest production was in spring and early summer, with much lower production over late autumn and winter. Only clone M66 produced new root terminals at depth (60–75 cm) during the drier months of late summer and early autumn. At this time, saline ground-water was the main source for water uptake. To explore clonal differences more closely, the effects of prolonged waterlogging were studied under glasshouse conditions. Clone M80 grew similarly under freely drained and continuously waterlogged conditions for the experimental period (21 weeks). The response under continuously waterlogged conditions was achieved through adventitious root production. By contrast, growth of clone M66 was suppressed under continuous waterlogging, a response associated with the lack of adventitious root production. The results from field and glasshouse studies suggest that clone M80 is more adapted to waterlogging by relatively fresh water than clone M66, but that clone M66 may use water of higher salinity than clone M80. Clone M80 would be better suited to higher positions in partially cleared catchments, where rainfall provides relatively fresh soil water. Clone M66 is better suited to lower catchment positions due to its ability to utilize more saline groundwater. Restoration of the water balance of damaged agricultural catchments can be best managed by matching specialized genotypes with particular catchment positions.

Notes: I conducted small-mammal trapping surveys on a desert scrub restoration site in Palm Springs, California, to document concomitant recovery of the rodent community. These surveys were conducted following quantitative vegetation sampling efforts that indicated that a predefined successful restoration criterion of 15% total shrub cover had been met throughout most of the area. But shrub cover, native shrub cover, herb cover, native herb cover, total cover, and total native cover remained significantly lower in the restoration area than in undeveloped desert scrub immediately surrounding the site. Native herb species richness was also generally lower in the restoration area. Despite these vegetation differences, rodent diversity, evenness, and abundance were very similar between the restoration and natural areas (they were consistently slightly higher in the restoration area). More diverse microhabitats, proximity to water, and reduced competition with harvester ants may have contributed to this outcome. If ecosystem restoration is the goal, reestablishment of a faunal community in restored habitat, rather than surpassing a predefined percent cover of vegetation, may be a better indicator of success, because plant cover proved to be a poor predictor of mammal success.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article: California Rivers and Streams: The Conflict Between Fluvial Processes and Land Use. Jeffery F. Mount Evolution and the Aquatic Ecosystem: Defining Unique Units in Population Conservation. J. L. Nielson, editor

Notes: Closed or abandoned landfills represent significant land areas, often in or near urban centers, that are potential sites for ecological restoration of native woodlands. But current guidelines in many jurisdictions do not allow for the installation of trees or shrubs above landfill clay caps, although these plants have many environmental, functional, and aesthetic advantages, including a rapid start to community succession. Typical closure procedures for capped landfills include only a grass cover to control moisture infiltration and impede soil erosion. The main concern that limits the application of a woody cover to a closed landfill is that roots may penetrate and weaken the clay cap. As part of a comprehensive experimental program on woodland restoration, we installed 22 tree and shrub species on Staten Island, New York (the Fresh Kills Sanitary Landfill). We found no evidence that roots of the transplanted woody plants penetrate caps used on these landfills. Root growth requirements and dynamics stop penetration of these materials. Anoxic and acidic conditions were found in the sandy subsoil above the cap, as indicated by corrosion patterns on steel test rods. Also, the intensity of mycorrhizal infection on the experimental plants was high in the surface soil and decreased progressively with increasing soil depth. The potential vertical rooting depth during this time period was greater than that occurring over the clay cap. This was shown from data collected on a nearby control site, where seven of the species were installed on an engineered soil lacking a clay barrier layer, and roots of all seven species penetrated deeper than on the landfill. The engineered landfill soils are poor growth media for roots, and below ground constraints that limit restoration on these sites must be addressed.

Notes: The Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf Recovery plan proposed reintroduction of Canis lupus (gray wolf) to Yellowstone National Park and central Idaho as part of a wolf restoration plan for the northern Rocky Mountains of the United States. Strong opposition from some factions within the region forestalled the action for two decades. An environmental impact statement, conducted in 1992–1994 with extensive public input, culminated in a proposal to reintroduce wolves designated as “non-essential—experimental” under Section 10 (j) of the federal Endangered Species Act. This approach, approved by the Secretary of the Interior in 1994, provided for wolf restoration while allowing management flexibility to deal with concerns of the local public. A reintroduction plan was developed in the summer and fall of 1994. Acquiring, holding, transporting, and releasing suitable wolves for reintroduction presented a myriad of technical and logistical challenges that required effective planning and coordination by all participants. In January 1995, 29 wolves were captured in Alberta and transported to Yellowstone National Park (14) and central Idaho (15). Idaho wolves were freed immediately upon arrival; Yellowstone wolves (three family groups) were held in acclimation pens in the park until late March. Most Idaho wolves traveled extensively within the area intended for them, averaging 82 km net distance away from release sites after 5 months (range = 30–220 km), and three male-female pairs formed by July. After 5 months in the wild, at least 13 of 15 Idaho-released wolves were alive within the intended area, as were 13 of 14 Yellowstone wolves; one wolf was known to have been illegally killed in each area. No livestock were killed. Wolves released into Yellowstone Park continued to live as packs, stayed closer to their release sites (x = 22 km at end of June), and settled into home ranges; two packs produced a total of nine pups. The progress of the reintroduction program in its first year far exceeded expectations. Reintroductions of about 15 wolves to each area for 2–4 more years are scheduled, but the project may be shortened because of early successes. Future reintroduction planners can expect sociocultural issues to pervade the effort, but they can be optimistic that, from a biological standpoint, reintroduction of wolves has strong potential as a restoration technique.

Notes: This paper summarizes the accumulation of nutrient capital during the natural afforestation of iron-smelting slag. The study site was the Beckley Furnace (North Caanan, Connecticut, U.S.A.) slag dump, which was abandoned around 1918. Currently, a Pinus strobus (white pine)-dominated forest occupies the site. Our primary objective was to determine the relationships among stand development and belowground nutrient pools to evaluate controls on the rates at which nitrogen, calcium, magnesium, and potassium accumulate in the developing forest. Along a developmental gradient of increasing stand basal area, we measured (1) aboveground biomass, (2) root biomass, (3) above-ground nutrient capital, (4) belowground nutrient capital, (5) soil weight, (6) soil organic carbon weight, (7) soil moisture, and (8) understory richness and density. Regression analysis suggests, as expected, that the addition of organic matter controls the accumulation of above- and belowground nutrients, soil water, and understory plant composition and distribution. The rather rapid rate of nitrogen accumulation suggests that allochthonous as well as autochthonous organic matter is an important source of nutrients for the developing forest soil and vegetation. Compared to those of other northeastern forests, soils in the most developed areas at the Beckley site have accumulated more than enough labile nutrient capital in 75 years to support a forest typical of the region. In the most developed stands, understory composition indicates mesic soil conditions, and that within the next 75 years or so the Beckley slag dump will be floristically very similar to the surrounding forest.

Notes: Extensive land loss, which is mostly wetland loss, has taken place during this century in the Mississippi River delta and other river deltas. Our purpose was to evaluate the effectiveness of constructing “artificial” crevasses, or cuts in the natural levee, made by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in the Delta National Wildlife Refuge (DNWR) to slow or reverse this type of land loss. Land growth of the crevasses was determined from aerial photographs and was related to crevasse-site characteristics. The newly constructed crevasses create emergent wetlands after 2 years of subaqueous growth at about 4.7 ha/year and an average cost of $21,377 per crevasse. The present total cost per hectare declines with age as new land builds, and it will equal $48 per hectare if all the open water in the receiving ponds fills in. At these rates, the net land loss rates in the DNWR measured from 1958 to 1978 would be compensated for by the building of 63 crevasses, 24 of which are already in place.

Notes: This paper describes an ecosystem approach (the Bradbury framework) to prioritizing watersheds for watershed restoration and salmon recovery, and gives an example of its application. The framework was applied at three spatial scales (in descending urder) to prioritize (1) river basins within the north coast geographic area of Oregon (USA), (2) watersheds within the Tillamook Bay basin, and (3) restoration activities at the watershed level, Implementing the framework identified the Nehalem and Tillamook Bay basins as high priority for the north coast of Oregon. Within the Tillamook Bay basin, the Wilson, Kilchis, and Trask river watersheds emerged as high priority. Preliminary analysis indicated that controlling sediment sources by addressing upland road conditions and allowing floodplain and riparian ecosystems to recover are highest priority protection and restoration activities within the Tillamook Bay basin. The sample application demonstrates that an ecosystem approach (the Bradbury framework) is particularly advantageous where data are limited, although previous identification of relatively intact areas is required. Implementing the framework is intended to lead to restoration of native species, but it may not provide immediate assistance for some species or populations of concern.

Notes: This paper describes a two-stage system for prioritizing stream reaches and riparian communities along a given river for protection or restoration. The system uses associations between geomorphology and riparian vegetation at stream reach and community scales as a basis for defining reference conditions. First-stage reach classification involves collecting and analyzing data from topographic maps and aerial photographs. These data, along with judgment-based criteria for ranking reaches relative to reference conditions, are used to classify stream reaches as suitable for protection, recommended for mitigation or restoration within existing site-specific regulatory procedures, or requiring further analysis to evaluate community-scale restoration needs. Second-stage field sampling is conducted on the reaches needing further analysis to determine the riparian communities present, the associations between communities and floodplain landforms, and reference community conditions. This stage requires collection of fields data on geomorphic conditions, plant species composition, and plant community structure. Cluster analysis or a comparable technique is used to classify plant communities associated with floodplain landforms and identify reference conditions for each landform. Community structure and species compositiotion are compared to reference conditions to define restoration possibilities at the community scale. The combined results from stream reach and community scale analysis provide a strategy for protecting and restoring riparian resources for a whole river. Implementation requires further site-specific information on hydrology, geomorphology, and other factors.

Notes: In this study, we examined the site-specific effects of a large episodic flood on the riparian vegetation within the floodplain of the San Luis Rey River in southern California. Using multispectral airborne videography, we quantified percent cover of riparian vegetation, cultivated agricultural land, urban surfaces, upland vegetation, bare soil, and water within 22 sections of flood-plain, both before and after a large flood (January 13, 1993). We also quantified the amount of these cover types within bands of the watershed 1 km wide × 5 km long directly upstream of each floodplain site. The amount of riparian vegetation destroyed by the flood within each section varied from nearly zero to almost 40% of pre-flood coverage. The magnitude of loss in riparian vegetation was most strongly related to the amount of riparian vegetation initially present in the floodplain and the amount of urban surfaces in the nearby watershed. These results suggest that riparian vegetation within the San Luis Rey River floodplain is generally at high risk of destruction from large floods, and that this risk is exaggerated in areas with high urban development. We infer from these results that sites near existing large areas of intact riparian vegetation and away from urban development will have the highest potential for successful long-term restoration.

Notes: Airborne multispectral videography has become a useful tool for classifying and mapping riparian vegetation because its spectral and digital format has high spatial resolution. This paper explains the processing steps and procedures required to use this type of spectral imagery for riparian vegetation classification and mapping. A description of the Utah State University airborne system is given, along with the image processing steps used for developing finalized products, because these are used in other articles in this volume. Examples of riparian applications using high-resolution imagery are included.

Notes: Nine Articles in the special issue of Restoration Ecology addrssing the subject of site selection for riparian restoration activities were critically examined for this review. The approaches described make significant and original contributions to the field of riparian restoration. All are interdisciplinary to some extent, often combining the fields of hydrology, geomorphology, and biology in the design of restorationss. A common component among the articles is that they take a broad view, if not a watershed view, of restoration site selection. The approaches can be generally descrobed as top-down strategic approaches to siting restorations, as opposed to the more methods- and site-driven bottom-up, or tactical, approach. All the articles recognize the importance of developing endpoints related to the ecological function of riparian ecosystems. they succeed in their quest for these indicators of ecological function to varying degrees. The most common indica-for used in these papers is riparian vegetation. Several additional elements of scientific investigation, if successfully pursued, could provide vital information and advance our understanding of riparian restoration: developing interdisciplinary approaches more fully; defining endpoints and reference conditions; implementing multiple scale approaches; viewing restorations as experimental ecosystem manipulations; developing a philosophy regarding exotic species; incorporating geographic information systems more often; and integrating science, society, and politics. the foundation provided by the contributions in this issue should provide a strong basis for the rapid advancement of future research in the area of riparian restoration.

Notes: Successional models are used to predict how restoration projects will achieve their goals. These models have been developed on different spatial and temporal scales and consequently emphasize different types of dynamics. This paper focuses on the restoration goal of self-sustainability, but only in the context of a long-term goal. Because of the temporal scale of this goal, we must consider the impact of processes arising outside of the restoration site as of greater importance than restoration itself. Because ecological systems are open, restoration sites will be subjected to many external influential processes. Depending on the landscape context, the impact of these processes may not be noticeable, or, at the other extreme, they may prevent the achievement of restoration objectives. A second issue is to emphasize the nature of processes in the long term, that they are a complex of characteristics such as magnitude, frequency, and extent. Ecological systems are only adapted to a range of values in each of these characteristics. Restoration often combines goals that are of different scales. Models appropriate to these goals need consideration.

Notes: The ecosystem perspective provides a framework within which most other aspects of the ecology of restoration can be incorporated. By considering the ecosystem functions of a restoration project, the restorationist is forced to consider the placement of the project in the landscape—its boundaries, its connections or lack thereof to adjoining ecosystems, and its receipts and losses of materials and energy from its physical surroundings. These characteristics may set limits on the kind(s) of biotic communities that can be created on the site. The ecosystem perspective also gives restorationists conceptual tools for structuring and evaluating restorations. These include the mass balance approach to nutrient, pollutant, and energy budgets; subsidy/stress effects of inputs; food web architecture; feedback among ecosystem components; efficiency of nutrient transfers, primary productivity and decomposition as system-determining rates; and disturbance regimes. However, there are many uncertainties concerning these concepts, their relation to each other, and their relationships to population- and community-level phenomena. The nature of restoration projects provides a unique opportunity for research on these problems; the large spatial scale of restorations and the freedom to manipulate species, soil, water, and even the landscape could allow ecosystem-level experiments to be conducted that could not be performed otherwise.

Notes: Community ecological theory may play an important role in the development of a science of restoration ecology. Not only will the practice of restoration benefit from an increased focus on theory, but basic research in community ecology will also benefit. We pose several major thematic questions that are relevant to restoration from the perspective of community ecological theory and, for each, identify specific areas that are in critical need of further research to advance the science of restoration ecology. We ask, what are appropriate restoration endpoints from a community ecology perspective? The problem of measuring restoration at the community level, particularly given the high amount of variability inherent in most natural communities, is not easy, and may require a focus on restoration of community function (e.g., trophic structure) rather than a focus on the restoration of particular species. We ask, what are the benefits and limitations of using species composition or biodiversity measures as endpoints in restoration ecology? Since reestablishing all native species may rarely be possible, research is needed on the relationship between species richness and community stability of restored sites and on functional redundancy among species in regional colonist “pools.” Efforts targeted at restoring system function must take into account the role of individual species, particularly if some species play a disproportionate role in processing material or are strong interactors. We ask, is restoration of habitat a sufficient approach to reestablish species and function? Many untested assumptions concerning the relationship between physical habitat structure and restoration ecology are being made in practical restoration efforts. We need rigorous testing of these assumptions, particularly to determine how generally they apply to different taxa and habitats. We ask, to what extent can empirical and theoretical work on community succession and dispersal contribute to restoration ecology? We distinguish systems in which succession theory may be broadly applicable from those in which it is probably not. If community development is highly predictable, it may be feasible to manipulate natural succession processes to accelerate restoration. We close by stressing that the science of restoration ecology is so intertwined with basic ecological theory that practical restoration efforts should rely heavily on what is known from theoretical and empirical research on how communities develop and are structured over time.

Notes: Conceptual and logistical challenges associated with the design and analysis of ecological restoration experiments are often viewed as being insurmountable, thereby limiting the potential value of restoration experiments as tests of ecological theory. Such research constraints are, however, not unique within the environmental sciences. Numerous natural and anthropogenic disturbances represent unplanned, uncontrollable events that cannot be replicated or studied using traditional experimental approaches and statistical analyses. A broad mix of appropriate research approaches (e.g., long-term studies, large-scale comparative studies, space-for-time substitution, modeling, and focused experimentation) and analytical tools (e.g., observational, spatial, and temporal statistics) are available and required to advance restoration ecology as a scientific discipline. In this article, research design and analytical options are described and assessed in relation to their applicability to restoration ecology. Significant research benefits may be derived from explicitly defining conceptual models and presuppositions, developing multiple working hypotheses, and developing and archiving high-quality data and metadata. Flexibility in research approaches and statistical analyses, high-quality databases, and new sampling approaches that support research at broader spatial and temporal scales are critical for enhancing ecological understanding and supporting further development of restoration ecology as a scientific discipline.

Notes: Along rural roadsides of the Sacramento Valley of California, we seeded native and non-native perennial grasses to gauge their potential value in roadside vegetation management programs. In trial I (polycultures), three seeded complexes and a control (resident vegetation only) were tested. Each seeded plant complex included a different mix of perennial grasses seeded into each of several roadside topographic zones. The seeded levels of plant complex were: native perennial grasses 1 (8 species); native perennial grasses 2 (13 species); and non-native perennial grasses (3 species). In trial II, plots were seeded to monocultural plots of 15 accessions of native Californian and three cultivars of non-native perennial grasses. Plots in both trials were seeded during January 1992 and evaluated for three successive years.

Notes: We studied the utility of gap formation and soil disturbance as methods to enhance establishment of plant species in the understory of a northern Kentucky forest where Lonicera maackii (Amur honeysuckle) produced dense thickets. In May 1994, gaps (5 m diameter) were cut in the shrub thicket. In adjacent areas, the shrub canopy remained intact. Subplots were established where soil was either turned with a spade to a depth of 15 cm or not disturbed. We monitored plant establishment for three growing seasons (1994, 1995, and 1996). Shrub removal increased light availability to about 10% of full sun. Gap formation had a significant (p 〈 0.05) and positive influence on total plant density (exclusive of L. maackii), and soil disturbance did not (p 〉 0.05). After three growing seasons, the most important species were L. maackii, Alliaria petiolata, Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Vitis vulpina, and Acer negundo. Of these species, only V. vulpina showed significantly (p 〈 0.05) higher densities in gaps. Other less important species such as Phytolacca americana, Campsis radicans, and Eupatorium rugosum occurred almost exclusively in gaps. Of the 44 taxa observed in this study, most were generalist species that also occur in early successional habitats. Long-term dominance of the understory by L. maackii has likely modified system attributes with corresponding effects on community development. Shrub removal provides a window of establishment for various plant species, but successful restoration may require further management species availability and to control new invaders.

Notes: Many forest roads are being closed as a step in watershed restoration. Ripping roads with subsoilers or rock rippers is a common practice to increase the infiltration capacity of roads before closure. When considering the effectiveness of ripping for reducing runoff and erosion and the potential reduction in slope stability by saturating road fills, it is important to know how ripping changes the infiltration capacity of forest roads. Hydrographs from simulated rainfall on 1 × 1 m plots were analyzed to find the saturated hydraulic conductivity, an indicator of infiltration capacity. I examined saturated hydraulic conductivity for three treatments on two different soils. One road was built in a soil derived from the metamorphic belt series geology of northern Idaho, a soil noted for its high rock fragment content. The second road was built in a sandy soil derived from decomposed granitics of the Idaho batholith. On each soil, five plots were installed on a road before ripping, and nine plots were installed on the same road segment following ripping, four covered with a heavy straw mulch and five without. Three half-hour rainfall events with intensities near 90 mm/hr were simulated on each plot. Results show that ripping increases hydraulic conductivities enough to reduce risk of runoff but does not restore the natural hydraulic conductivity of a forested slope. The unripped road surfaces had hydraulic conductivities in the range of 0–4 mm/hr, whereas ripped roads were in the range of 20–40 mm/hr after the second event. Surface sealing and tilled soil subsidence processes are important in reducing the hydraulic conductivity of the soils with repeated wetting. Subsidence appears to be important on the granitic soil, whereas surface sealing was more important on the belt series soil.

Notes: Rainforest restoration is a relatively new endeavor, and few attempts have been made to assess the success of such restoration efforts in terms of the reestablishment of an ecosystem. Small plantings of rainforest tree species have been carried out adjacent to mature rainforest at Lake Barrine National Park in North Queensland, Australia, since 1988. The aim of this project was to assess the leaf litter invertebrate fauna of these plantings as indicators of the success of the restoration process. Plots planted in 1988, 1989, and 1990, as well as adjacent mature rainforest, were sampled in the wet and dry seasons of 1994. Invertebrates were extracted from leaf litter samples with Berlese Funnels and sorted to order. Diversity, the abundance of different size classes and orders of invertebrates, and the abundance of different functional groups were examined. In most respects the 1988 plot was found to differ little from the mature rainforest plots, whereas the 1990 plot lacked small and predatory invertebrates, especially in the dry season. The 1989 plot was intermediate in invertebrate abundance and diversity. The use of partially deciduous trees in the 1989 and 1990 plots, resulting in lower canopy cover at the driest time of the year, may have contributed significantly to the differences found between the early and later plantings. It is recommended that trees that provide good canopy cover year-round be used as dominant species in plantings to facilitate the development of a leaf litter ecosystem that can be sustained throughout the year.

Notes: Tidal wetland mesocosms at Tijuana River National Estuarine Research Reserve failed to elucidate effects of hydrologic treatments (excluded, impounded, and fully tidal systems) for most parameters measuring Salicornia virginica (pickleweed). Although soil salinity increased where tidal flushing was excluded for 10 months (salinities rose ∼20 to 50%), pickleweed cover and algal chlorophyll did not differ among treatments. Effects were seen only in pickleweed growth rates (∼30% decrease where tides were excluded) and normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI) measurements. We failed to show any differences between impounded and fully tidal conditions, because the mesocosms had coarse sediments, and impounded water drained easily via subsurface flow. However, the problems that we encountered with the mesocosms led to the following advice for future wetland restoration projects: (1) Mesocosms are useful for testing restoration techniques before an actual restoration project takes place. (2) Mesocosms should be used to test factors that may lead to more successful restoration in the future, including planting techniques, substrate conditions, and hydrology. (3) Mesocosms should be used to develop new assessment methods for monitoring wetland ecosystems. Because of the ability to control some environmental parameters while maintaining seminatural conditions, mesocosms offer great potential for the future evaluation of experimental restoration techniques.

Notes: Habitat protection is a major component of the Exxon Valdez oil spill restoration process. The acquisition of private lands, or partial interests in private lands, is intended to promote natural recovery of spill-injured resources and services by removing the threat of additional development impacts. The Comprehensive Habitat Protection Process is the method that was designed to achieve this objective. Over one million acres within the oil spill affected area were evaluated, scored, and ranked by a multi-criteria evaluation process. Initially, lands were divided into large parcels encompassing entire bays and watersheds. Criteria were then used to assess the habitat and human-use values associated with each parcel and the protection benefit that acquisition would provide for 19 injured resources and services. This process has been the basis for the acquisition of 41,549 acres of land on Afognak Island and 23,800 acres on the Kenai Peninsula and for agreements that, if consummated, will result in the acquisition of fee or lesser rights on over a half million acres of land in the Kodiak Archipelago, on the Kenai Peninsula, and in Prince William Sound. All of these lands or rights, if acquired, will be incorporated into parks or refuges or otherwise managed in a manner that will facilitate the recovery of the resources and services injured by the oil spill.

Notes: Agricultural set-aside and compensation land provide restoration ecologists with opportunities to re-create semi-natural habitats. Restoration sites often have high soil fertility and inadequate seed banks of desirable species. Sowing additional seed is a proven method for establishing chalk grassland vegetation. If seed of local provenance is required, it may be collected by hand or by using specialized machines. Ultimately, the mix collected must provide seed suitable for recreating vegetation similar to that of the donor site. We examine the ability of a vacuum machine to meet this requirement by comparison with hand collection, and we discuss possible effects on invertebrates. Microscope analysis and glasshouse and field trials were used to compare the abundance of seed of different species in harvested mixes with the vegetation composition of the donor site. Seed heads of individual species were examined to determine the number of viable seeds per head and attack rates by phytophagous insects. The mix contained seed of over half the species recorded on the donor site. The seed of taller, more common species was overrepresented in the mix, at the expense of some smaller, mat-forming plants. After one season, however, the vegetation of the field trial plots was of the same type as that of the donor site, although the proportions of the constituent species differed slightly and certain species were absent. Mechanical collection is more efficient than hand collection. Endophagous invertebrates are unlikely to be affected by the machine. Seed collection requires a combination of methods, precise timing, and careful planning to provide a full range of species and to minimize impacts on plant and invertebrate populations.

Notes: Abandoned limestone quarries are hostile environments for plant and invertebrate colonization and establishment. The length of time taken for successful establishment by natural processes may be unacceptable for reclamation purposes; several techniques are used to reduce the time scales involved. A new technique, restoration blasting, aims to replicate natural daleside landforms by selective blasting of modern production quarry faces. We compare the flora and invertebrate fauna of restoration-blasted sites, hydro-seeded with daleside species, with naturally regenerating disused quarries and a natural daleside. Restoration-blasted sites were found to have less plant cover, more bare ground, fewer orders of invertebrates, and generally fewer animals within each order than the other two types of site. The disused quarries tended to have intermediate characteristics between the restoration-blasted sites and the natural daleside. The age of the site may be important in determining the plants and invertebrates occurring there. This may be related to the time available for establishment or a greater degree of settlement or stability within the biotic and abiotic components of the site. Although most of the results indicate that time since establishment may be important, some variations occur. In particular, the development of vegetation cover in areas grazed by rabbits is problematic. These results are important in the assessment of successful reclamation because the invertebrate fauna may contribute greatly to the overall system. Both plant and animal communities appear to be establishing well on the sites reclaimed by restoration blasting. Further monitoring will identify the speed at which such environments achieve the desired aim of replicating daleside communities and the communities best able to be sustained following this technique.

Notes: . Norlevinea n. g. is established for microsporidia in which a uninucleate meront changes into a sporont by secreting a thin, membranous, sporontogcnetic and fragile sporophorous vesicle (pansporoblast membrane) in which four uninucleate sporoblasts are formed. In contrast to the genus Gurleya, the sporoblasts and later the spores are permanently joined into doublets, being laterally cemented by an electron-dense substance structurally identical to and continuous with the exospore layer. The polar filament is of the anisofilar type. The type species is Norlevinea daphniae (Weiser, 1947) n. comb., a parasite of the ovaries of Daphnia longispina occurring in several carp ponds in Czechoslovakia.

Notes: . The microsporidian parasite known as Nosema helminthorum Moniez, 1887, parasitic in the tapeworm Moniezia expansa (Rudolphi, 1810), has been shown by electron microscopy to have two cycles of development, one with isolated nuclei, the other with paired nuclei (diplokarya). Both merogony and sporogony of the two separate sequences take place in direct contact with the host cell cytoplasm and ultimately give rise to unikaryotic and diplokaryotic sporoblasts. Sporogony is disporoblastic. The nuclear condition of the spores was not seen. The sequences, corresponding to those of the genera Unikaryon and Nosema, may be part of a single dimorphic life cycle and, if so, the species will have to be transferred to a new genus.

Notes: . Sarcocystis falcatula Stiles, 1893 is re-described. Intermediate hosts of the parasite which was earlier described as Sarcocystis debonei Vogelsang, 1929 are species of passeriform, psittaciform, and columbiform birds. In these birds, muscle zoites are 6.88 × 2.19 (4.8-8.4 × 1.2-3.6) μm and are enclosed in a cyst wall with regular protrusions, 1-5 μm long. The convoluted primary wall has multiple thin areas in the osmiophilic layer. Microtubules originate in the ground substance and extend to the tips of the protrusions. The only known definitive host is the opossum, Didelphis virginiana; rats, cats, a dog, and a ferret could not be infected from muscle cysts. Sporocysts from opossums infected from five different infected avian sources measure 11.2 × 7.4 (9.6−12.0 × 6.0-8.4)μm.

Notes: . Descriptions are given of two new species of Hepatozoon Miller, 1908 found in the pygmy squirrel, Idiurus macrotis, in the Ivory Coast. Gamonts of both are parasites of monocytes.The size and shape of the gamonts of one, H. normani n. sp., are similar to those of a number of gamonts of other species of rodent hemogregarines and the separate identity of the parasite is based on the host restriction of mammalian hemogregarines. The gamonts of the other species, H. dolichomorphon n. sp., are remarkably long and slender and are unlike those of any other known hemogregarine of mammals. Schizonts of this species were found in a smear prepared from heart blood.

Notes: . The presence of nonvariant antigens (NVAs) limited to bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense was demonstrated for the first time by immunodiffusion and Immunoelectrophoresis. Noncloned and cloned populations were employed in preparation of polyclonal antisera in rabbits and of antigens to be used in the immunologic reactions. The NVAs could be shown best in systems in which hyperimmune rabbit sera (adsorbed with procyclic forms to eliminate antibodies against antigens common to bloodstream form and procyclic stages) were reacted with trypanosomes characterized by heterologous variant-specific antigens (VSAs).The NVAs demonstrated in this study are very likely different from the common parts of VSAs. As has been suggested by experiments with living trypanosomes, at least a part of the NVAs appears to be located on the surface of the bloodstream forms. In these experiments involving the quantitative indirect fluorescent antibody test, the amount of fluorescence recorded for the heterologous system, i.e. ETat 5 trypanosomes incubated with anti-AmTat 1.1 serum, equalled ∼3.0% of the fluorescence emitted by the AmTat 1.1 bloodstream forms treated with their homologous antiserum. Evidently, only small amounts of NVAs are present on the surfaces of T. brucei bloodstream forms.In addition to the NVAs, the electrophoresis results suggested the presence of antigenic differences between procyclic stages belonging to different T. brucei stocks.

Notes: . Late schizonts from continuous cultures of P. falciparum were concentrated over Percoll, inoculated to various experimental media at the rate of about 20 × 106 per 0.5 ml of medium, and incubated in a candle jar at 37° for 1 day. Controls in standard culture medium showed a heavy invasion with young rings in the previously uninfected red cells introduced with the inoculum of schizonts. In a medium of high potassium content containing a 33% extract of human erythrocytes, this invasion was inhibited and many free merozoites were present. If, however, this same medium was supplemented with both ATP, as the dipotassium salt at 1.6 mM, and sodium pyruvate at 3.6 mM, there appeared large numbers of extracellular forms resembling young rings. Examination of these by electron microscopy shows that they are indeed merozoites that have begun to differentiate extracellularly. This suggests that the trigger for differentiation of merozoites may not depend on the process of entry into a red cell but rather on specific factors within the red cell.

Notes: . Opossums (Didelphis marsupialis), act as intermediate hosts for Besnoitia darlingi and could be infected orally with sporozoites (oocysts) and bradyzoites (tissue cysts), or intraperitoneally (i.p.) with tachyzoites. Infections could presumably be transmitted through cannibalism. Cats (Felis catus), the definitive host, could be infected only with bradyzoites but not sporozoites. Oocysts shed by cats measure about 12 × 12 μm, resemble similarly sized oocysts of Toxoplasma gondii and Hammondia hammondi, and must be differentiated by the appearance of tissue cysts after experimental infection of intermediate hosts. Cats did not form tissue cysts of B. darlingi. Tachyzoites from the related B. jellisoni could be used in the Sabin-Feldman dye test to determine the development of antibody to B. darlingi in opossums after infection.

Notes: Developmental stages of Caryospora simplex were found in connective tissue of the cheek, tongue, and nose of Swiss-Webster and C57 BL/6 mice (Mus musculus) from 8 through 70 days after oral inoculation with 50,000 or 250,000 oocysts, or 60,000 free sporocysts of the same species obtained from an Ottoman viper, Vipera xanthina xanthina. The earliest developmental stages were seen on day 8 post-inoculation (PI) and consisted of two types of meronts and gamonts (undifferentiated sexual stages). Gamonts, microgametocytes, macrogametes, and unsporulated oocysts were found on days 10 and 12 PI. Fully sporulated, thin-walled oocysts containing eight sporozoites surrounded by a thin sporocyst membrane were first seen 12 days PI. Monozoic cysts (caryocysts) were first seen 12 days PI and appeared fully viable throughout the duration of the study, 70 days PI. Four mice injected intra-peritoneally with 150,000 free sporozoites and killed 12 days PI contained unsporulated and sporulated oocysts in connective tissues of the cheek, tongue, and nose, suggesting that sporozoites may be carried to the site of infection via the lymphatic/circulatory system. Four cotton rats, Sigmodon hispidus, inoculated orally with 250,000 oocysts all had unsporulated and sporulated oocysts of C. simplex in connective tissue of the cheek, tongue, and nose when killed on day 12 PI, indicating extraintestinal development in the secondary host is not species specific. This is the first report of a heteroxenous coccidium with both asexual and sexual development in the primary (predator) and secondary (prey) hosts.

Notes: Trypanosoma lucknowi n. sp. was isolated in culture from one of 126 Macaca mulatta originating from the vicinity of Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India. Trypanosoma lucknowi is distinctive because of the large number of epimastigotes and trypomastigotes which, in culture, exhibit no movement or only a slight bending of the flagellar end. This limited motility coincides with a free flagellum which is either completely absent or rudimentary. The microorganism is cloned readily, and the description is based upon such cultures. Trypanosoma lucknowi shows pronounced differences from other trypanosomes of South Asian macaques and from “aflagellar” African trypanosomes. The ultrastructural demonstration of a cytostome and contractile vacuole suggests ultimate grouping with stercorarian trypanosomes. A 3-D reconstruction of the flagellar pocket/cytostome region is included.

Notes: The ultrastructure of the freshwater, heterotrophic dinoflagellate Peridiniopsis berolinense (Lemm.) Bourrelly resembles other dinoflagellates in the structure of its nucleus, theca, flagella, and mitochondria. Other features less frequently reported in related organisms include fine sub-sulcal fibers, collared pits in the flagellar base region, and unusual structures herein termed fibrillar lamellae. Numerous vesicles are present, some of whose contents are distinctly crystalline, while others contain what appears to be membranous material arranged in either whorls or parallel stacks; still other vesicles contain electron-dense, granular spheres. Of particular interest is the transitional helix present in the longitudinal flagellum, this being the first report of such a structure among the dinoflagellates. Plastids of any kind are lacking, and a peduncle is present and is used during phagotrophy.

Notes: Several axenic strains of pathogenic and nonpathogenic Entamoeba histolytica were tested for their capacity to digest native radioactive type I collagen gels and to produce liver abscesses when injected into the liver of newborn hamsters. The results demonstrate that the pathogenic strains of amebas (HM1:IMSS, HM3:IMSS, HM38:IMSS, and HK9) have a collagenolytic activity that closely correlates with their in vivo capacity to produce liver lesions. The nonpathogenic isolate (Laredo) did not show collagenolytic activity and failed to produce lesions in the liver of newborn hamsters. The results also demonstrate that type I collagen obtained from rodents and cats is degraded less by amebic collagenase than is bovine collagen, which is similar to human collagen. These findings suggest that species susceptibility to invasive infection may depend, among other factors, on the characteristics of the extracellular components of host tissues.

Notes: At Makthlawaiya, in the Paraguayan Chaco, the prevalence of Trypanosoma (Schizotrypanum) cruzi infection among both domestic Triatoma infestans and domestic dogs was 38%, and IgG anti-T. cruzi antibody was detected by the quantitative enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) in 80% (105/133) of human sera. Ninety percent (25/28) of T. cruzi strains isolated from both T. infestans and dogs showed heterozygous isoenzyme profiles for glucose phosphate isomerase, phosphoglucomutase and 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase. These strains appeared to be closely related to Bolivian zymodeme 2. Three Paraguayan T. cruzi strains showed homozygous isoenzyme profiles, similar to those of major Brazilian zymodemes. It was concluded that T. cruzi strains with heterozygous isoenzyme profiles predominate in domestic transmission cycles in this highly endemic area of the Paraguayan Chaco.

Notes: Results obtained in immunofluorescence localization studies involving three antisera, six species of ciliates, and a variety of fixation procedures suggest that superior results can often be obtained by fixing cells in 35–70% ethanol. Formaldehyde fixation appeared to induce redistributions of epiplasmic proteins and surface antigens which were not observed in ethanol-fixed cells. In addition, background fluorescence was significantly lower in ethanol-fixed cells than it was in cells fixed in aldehydes.

Notes: Actin has been identified in the ciliated protozoon Tetrahymena paravorax on the basis of the ultrastructural detection of filaments typically decorated with heavy meromyosin (HMM) in glycerinated microstome cells. These filaments are widely distributed in endoplasmic and cortical regions and can form bundles. They are particularly numerous in elongating cells; HMM-binding filaments run approximately parallel to rib microtubules in the ectoplasm of the right wall of the buccal cavity and seem to extend to the cytopharyngeal region, suggesting some role of actin in maintenance of the crest-trough pattern of ribbed wall and/or in formation of food vacuoles. Extensive actin bundles are observed below some membranellar areas and are thought to follow the course of the microtubular “deep fiber bundle.” The “fine filamentous reticulum” underlying the oral ribs and the “apical ring” extending beneath kinetosomes of ciliary couplets display filaments that do not bind HMM and are ˜ 14 nm in diameter. No evidence for actin in these structures was obtained in the present study. The “specialized cytoplasm” of the cytostome-cytopharyngeal region appears as an undecorated reticulum with 20 nm-spaced nodes. Occasionally HMM-binding filaments were found inside the macronucleus, just beneath its envelope. Actin is suggested to be involved in cell shaping and in control of the transport of food vacuoles.

Notes: Two allelic Mendelian mutations which confer a short flagella phenotype were used to explore flagellar size control in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii. When mutant/wild type quadriflagellate dikaryon cells were constructed, their two short flagella rapidly grew out to near wild type length. The kinetics of elongation suggest that the flagellar assembly process is not intrinsically self-limiting as a number of otherwise attractive models for size control require. Instead, we suggest that there exists a cellular machinery dedicated to flagellar size control and that the short-flagella mutations alter the machinery in some as yet unknown way. One of the mutants shows temperature-sensitive flagellar assembly, and both are flagellaless in acetate media. Genetic analysis indicates that the temperaturesensitive, acetate-sensitive, and short-flagella phenotypes have a common genetic basis. The responsible gene has been named shf-1, and it has been mapped to chromosome VI, approximately 5 map units from the centromere.

Notes: Fourteen strains of Naegleria australiensis, including the type strain, were compared for virulence for mice, maximum growth temperature, lectin agglutination, isoenzyme pattern, and total protein banding pattern. Their relation to other species of Naegleria also was compared by immunoelectrophoretic analysis. Strains with high virulence, comparable to that of N. fowleri, were found to be different in concanavalin A agglutination as well as with regard to zymograms and total protein patterns. Although serologically different from N. fowleri and reacting with N. australiensis antiserum in the fluorescent antibody test, these high-virulence strains differed in number of immunoelectrophoretic precipitin bands. Because of these results, the high-virulence strains are considered to be a subspecies of N. australiensis. The low-virulence strains showed minor differences from the type strain. Thus, N. australiensis does not appear to be as homogenous a species as N. fowleri. Pathogenic N. australiensis also seems to be more widespread than previously thought.

Notes: In Pleurotricha lanceolata, the ventral somatic infraciliature presents 13 frontoventral cirri, 5 transverse cirri, one row with 18–19 left marginal cirri and two rows of right marginal cirri of different length. On the dorsal side there are six longitudinal rows of dorsal bristles, four of them bipolar and the other two less than half body length. The oral infraciliature includes the adoral zone of membranelles, with 45–55 membranelles of three or four rows of kinetosomes each, and two undulating membranes (paroral and endoral membranes), each with two rows of kinetosomes. Some structures of the oral and somatic fibrillar systems have also been examined and are similar to those described in other species of hypotrichous ciliates.

Notes: Fecal samples of 36 ground squirrels, Spermophilus beldingi, from Tioga Pass (elev. ca. 3315 m) in the Sierra Nevada, California, yielded oocysts of Eimeria beckeri in nine squirrels, E. citelli in four squirrels, E. beldingii n. sp. in two squirrels, and degenerated, unidentifiable oocysts in ten squirrels. Eimeria beldingii n. sp. oocysts are ellipsoidal, 30–34 × 24–30 (mean 32 × 26) μm with a two-layered, rough, striated wall, without a micropyle or residuum, with polar granules; they contain ellipsoidal or ovoid sporocysts 11–15 × 9–12 (mean 13 × 10) μm with a Stieda body and residuum.

Notes: Ten years of research on digestive vacuoles (phagosomes) of Paramecium caudatum have revealed sequential changes both within the vacuole lumen as well as within the surrounding membrane. Four vacuole stages can be recognized by a combination of thin section and freeze-fracture ultrastructural features. Three sets of vesicles (discoidal vesicles, acidosomes, and lysosomes) fuse with the vacuole, each at a predetermined stage, to bring about these membrane and physiological changes. At various times membrane is removed as vesicles from the vacuole surface, which has the effect of regulating vacuole size. Membrane recycling, membrane replacement, and specific membrane to membrane recognition all appear to be operating during the digestive cycle. Details of these events are summarized in this address and a number of unanswered questions suggest areas for future research.

Notes: Reports of Cryptosporidium in various hosts and cross-transmission experiments are reviewed. Cryptosporidium has been found in mammals (Primates, Artiodactyla, Perissodactyla, Carnivora, Lagomorpha, and Rodentia), birds, reptiles, and fish. The only cross-transmission attempts that have been made have been from mammals to other mammals and to a few birds. Names have been given to 19 “species,” but it is concluded that only four of these should be considered valid at present. These are: C. muris Tyzzer, 1907 in mammals, C. meleagridis Slavin, 1955 in birds, C. crotali Triffit, 1925 in reptiles, and C. nasorum Hoover, Hoerr, Carlton, Hinsman & Ferguson, 1981 in fish.

Notes: In vitro excystation of sporozoites of the heteroxenous coccidian Caryospora simplex Léger, 1904 (Apicomplexa: Eimeriorina) is described. Sporocysts freed mechanically from oocysts released a maximum of 51% of their sporozoites within 45 min at 25°C and a maximum of 74% within 20 min at 37°C when incubated in a 0.25% (w/v) trypsin–0.75% (w/v) sodium taurocholate (bile salt) excystation solution. At emergence from sporocysts, sporozoites were weakly motile then became highly active after about 2 min in excystation solution. Sporozoites within sporocysts exposed to bile salt only became highly motile within 25 min at 25°C and within 15 min at 37°C but did not excyst. When exposed only to trypsin at the above temperatures, the Stieda body dissolved; the substieda body remained intact, and the sporozoites exhibited only limited motility within sporocysts; only a few excysted. Intact, sporulated oocysts incubated at 25° or 37°C in 0.02 M cysteine-HC1 and a 50% CO2 atmosphere for 18 h had no morphologic changes in the oocyst wall. Further incubation of these intact oocysts in excystation solution for 30 min at 37°C caused neither motility of sporozoites within sporocysts nor excystation. Grinding oocysts for 30 sec in a motor-driven, teflon-coated tissue grinder caused motility of some sporozoites within sporocysts but did not result in excystation.

Notes: The effect of the cationic permeant fluorescent dye, rhodamine 123 (R123), on the in vivo growth of Plasmodium yoelii was examined. Plasmodium yoelii-infected mouse erythrocytes were incubated in vitro with R123 and injected intravenously into mice. Examination of daily parasitemias showed that R123 delayed parasite growth whereas rhodamine 110, a neutral compound, and fluorescein, a negatively charged fluorescent dye, did not. Infected erythrocytes treated with R123 were not cleared from the circulation even 7 h after injection. Quantitation of cell-associated R123 by spectrophotometry revealed that infected cells with increased levels of R123 considerably prolonged the 2% prepatent period, the time required for the parasite to develop a 2% parasitemia. Degenerating parasites within and outside the host erythrocytes were observed on day 1 of infection in the mice. Thus it follows that R123, which accumulated in infected erythrocytes, inhibits the growth of P. yoelii; moreover, when R123-labeled infected erythrocytes were treated with 1–10 μM carbonylcyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone (CCCP), a proton ionophore, to release R123 from the cells, the inhibitory effect on the growth rate of P. yoelii was partially reversed.

Notes: Oocysts of Caryospora corallae n. sp. were isolated from the feces of three Emerald Tree Boas Corallus caninus. The spherical oocysts of C. corallae averaged 22.4 μn (range 18.7 to 24.6) in diameter and were lacking a micropyle and oocyst residuum; a polar granule was present. The ovoid sporocysts measured 19.1(17.6-20.0) × 13.1(11.7-14.0) μm and a sporocyst residuum and a Stieda body were present. The oocyst wall was approximately 1 μm thick. The sporulation was completed in about 5–6 days at 23 ± 2°C. This is the first report of the genus Caryospora from Corallus caninus a member of the Boidae.

Notes: The release, dispersal, and ultrastructure of juveniles arising through multiple fission in the benthic foraminiferan Allogromia sp., strain NF (Lee & Pierce, 1963) has been examined by light and electron microscopy. An extensive reticulopodial network participates in the dispersal of fully differentiated young as they emerge from the fragmented parental test. During the earliest stages of release, offspring are of two classes—aroused and unaroused. Unaroused juveniles, which have not extended pseudopods, attach externally to the network and are transported bidirectionally along its surface. Aroused juveniles, which have extended pseudopods and are in protoplasmic continuity with the network, move quickly to the periphery of the network. Within 24 h, juveniles establish a communal “feeding reticulum” in which dispersed individuals are in protoplasmic continuity with neighbors via a common reticulopodial network. At the ultrastructural level, the cell body cytoplasm of unaroused juveniles contains numerous patches of a paracrystalline material, which disappears as their pseudopodia are extended to join the communal feeding reticulum. This paracrystalline material therefore appears to be a temporary reservoir of precursors required for pseudopod construction.

Notes: . The paper is concerned with the principles upon which coccidia of the genus Eimeria may be characterized. Reference strains for comparative purposes usually are not available and the limitations of morphological data for speciation are discussed. The value of other parameters are considered such as host and site specificity, pathogenicity, immunological specificity, pre-patent period, sporulation time, enzyme variation, and DNA buoyant density. The weight afforded to each of these parameters for specific identification may vary according to the parasite and host studied. Determinations of physiological and behavioral characteristics that are now becoming available should be included in species definitions wherever possible.

Notes: . Eleven female goats (Nos. 1 to 11) were each inoculated orally with 104 sporocysts of Sarcocystis capracanis, and four female goats (Nos. 12 to 15) were not inoculated. Between 31 and 69 days after inoculation (DAI) goats were mated with a single buck; one goat (No. 5) did not breed. Eight inoculated goats were challenged with 105or 106 sporocysts, 135 DAI. Two of four goats challenged with 106 sporocysts and one of three goats challenged with 105 sporocysts aborted one month before the expected time of parturition. The three inoculated goats that were not challenged delivered healthy kids. All inoculated goats including the nonpregnant one (No. 5) were only mildly ill from the primary or challenge inoculations. Two of the four control goats challenged with 5 × 104 or 105 sporocysts aborted 21 days later, and both died of sarcocystosis 25 and 88 DAI. The two remaining control goats delivered normal kids. The results indicate that immunization prior to pregnancy protects some but not all goats from .Sarc0c.es/is-induced abortion.

Notes: . Whereas excystation of sporozoites from oocysts of most coccidian species requires exposure to reducing conditions followed by pancreatic enzymes and bile salts, sporozoites of a bovine isolate of Cryptosporidium excysted without exposure to either reducing conditions or to pancreatic enzymes and bile salts. Without prior exposure to reducing conditions, a high percent excysted after incubation in a mixture of trypsin and bile salts in Ringer's solution; fewer excysted after incubation in tap water, even fewer after incubation in salt solutions, and none after incubation in saliva. Excystation, generally greater at pH 7.6 than at pH 6.0 and at 37°C than at 20°C, was observed as early as 1 h after incubation in water or the trypsin-bile mixture. These findings provide circumstantial evidence that oocysts of Cryptosporidium can excyst in extraintestinal sites and liberate sporozoites that can initiate autoinfection.

Notes: . Changes in nuclei and nucleoli of cells of chicken cecum infected with Eimeria tenella were studied in living cells by interference microscopy and in fixed and stained tissues using light level microscopy. As soon as merozoites began to transform into second generation meronts, there was an increase in the size of both the nucleus and the nucleolus of the host cell. The dry weight of the nucleus increased somewhat, but there was a greater increase and a correlation of the dry mass of the nucleolus with the size of the parasite as measured by interference microscopy. In fixed and stained tissues, there was a correlation between the area of the nucleolus and the area of the parasite. Removal of nucleic acids with DNase and/or RNase showed high concentrations of both in the nucleoli and a residue of protein. The increased nucleolar size indicates a high level of transcription in infected cells and allows the conclusion that the parasite somehow induces transcription to occur. Since transcription is a highly specific process, the high degree of host and site specificity shown by nearly all coccidia is consistent with a hypothesis that the coccidia share a portion of the host genome.

Notes: . Twenty of 35 roe deer (Capreolus capreolus), eight of 12 red deer (Cervus elaphus), and nine of 21 fallow deer (Cervus da ma) but none of four moose (Alces alces) examined from April to November 1983 were infected with trypanosomes. Morphometric data of the bloodstream trypomastigotes from the three deer species differed significantly. This appears to be the first report of stercorarian trypanosomes from Cervidae in the Old World and the first description of representatives of the subgenus Megatrypanum in the three deer species.

Notes: Book Review in this ArticlesDubitskii, A. M, ed. 1983. Natural Population Regulatory Factors Aflecting Biting Flies in S.E. Kazakhstan, USSR.Walliker, D. 1983. The Contribution of Genetics to the Study of Parasitic Protozoa.Martin, G. W., Alexopoulos, C. J. & Farr, M. L. 1983. The Genera of Myxomycetes.Goodwin, B. C, Holder, N. & Wylie, C. C, eds. 1983. Development and Evolution.

Notes: In vitro culture of Plasmodium falciparum-infected human erythrocytes (RBC) has permitted systematic study of human host-parasite relations. In this study the effect of aspirin in the culture system was examined by using serum from blood of fasting, healthy male volunteers, before and after the ingestion of aspirin. The addition of aspirin-containing serum disturbed parasite growth and development: 0-1/2 dilutions of treated/control sera inhibited parasite development, with nuclear pyknosis, pyknotic extracellular parasites (trophozoites) in the media, decreased numbers and sizes of “rings” (early trophozoites), and an increased number of later trophozoites and schizonts. Paradoxically, while the incorporation of [3H]isoleucine into protein was not affected by the aspirin-containing sera, the incorporation [3H]hypoxanthine was significantly changed and did not correlate with morphological evidence of cytotoxicity. Thus, the so-called “incorporation” of a radioactive tracer is not a fully reliable index of parasite growth in the presence of certain compounds. The findings underscore the importance, in this culture system which employs human serum, of avoiding serum from donors who have recently ingested aspirin.

Notes: Leighton tubes containing monolayers of human embryonic lung cells were inoculated with 70,000 or 30,000 sporozoites of the viperid coccidium Caryospora simplex and examined at 1, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, and 18 days post-inoculation (PI). By day 1 PI, sporozoites had penetrated cells and were within parasitophorous vacuoles. Most sporozoites became spherical and then underwent karyokinesis several times between days 2 and 6 PI. Mature Type I meronts were found on days 6–16 PI and contained 8 to 22 short, stout merozoites. Mature Type II meronts were present on days 10–18 PI and contained 8 to 22 long, slender merozoites. Developing gamonts (undifferentiated sexual stages) were observed on days 14 and 16 PI. Mature micro- and macrogametes and thin-walled unsporulated oocysts were present on days 16 and 18 PI. Attempts to sporulate oocysts in tissue culture medium or in a 2.5% (w/v) aqueous solution of K2Cr2O7 at 25/°C and 37°C were unsuccessful; only a few oocysts developed to the contracted sporont stage. Four Swiss-Webster mice injected intraperitoneally with merozoites obtained from Leighton tubes on day 10 PI did not acquire infections. This is the second coccidium reported to complete its entire development, from sporozoite to oocyst, in cell culture.

Notes: Evidence for meiosis was demonstrated electron microscopically for the first time in Pneumocystis carinii in rat alveoli by the observation of synaptonemal complexes followed by nuclear divisions. Synaptonemal complexes indicating meiotic nuclear divisions were observed in uninuclear precysts. Additionally, owing to the use of tannic acid as a fixative, spindle microtubules were also observed for the first time in the precyst. Based on these facts, a new life cycle of the organism is proposed. The precyst has generally been considered an intermediate form between the trophozoite and the cyst. The present paper proposes that the precyst is additionally defined as the cell in which eight intracystic bodies are produced through meiotic reduction. The most characteristic feature of the precyst is a clump of mitochondria in the cytoplasm. We divide the precyst phase into three forms, which are named early, intermediate, and late. Synaptonemal complexes were only observed in the early precyst, which is a uninuclear cell with a thin pellicle. In the intermediate precyst, nuclear divisions are observed as follows: meiosis I produces two haploid nuclei and each of these divides at meiosis II producing four nuclei. After that, another postmeiotic mitosis takes place, resulting in eight haploid nuclei. In the late precyst, a delimiting membrane originates from the mother plasmalemma and surrounds the daughter nuclei and a small portion of the adjacent cytoplasm. Finally, when the eight intracystic bodies are complete, the precyst changes to a cyst. Thus, we deduce that intracystic bodies resulting from meiotic nuclear division are haploid and, after excystation, they are haploid trophozoites. We consider that this process can be called sporogony. Although we could not distinguish between the haploid and the diploid trophozoite, it is quite plausible that copulation occurs, probably in host alveoli.

Notes: Lepidotrachelophyllum fornicis n. g., n. sp. was discovered in White Lake, Ontario, Canada, under winter ice. The genus is Trachelophyllum-like, being highly flattened, elongate, and very extensible. The major feature that separates it from other genera in the family Trachelophyllidae is the presence of a dense layer of organic scales which covers the exterior of the cell and through which the cilia emerge. The scales are composed of filamentous material which is organized as an ovoid structure. The “rim” of the baseplate is formed of interwoven filaments. The baseplate is broken by circular or polygonal apertures. The same filaments form an arched superstructure broken by even larger, less regular apertures.