ALBERT

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 448: Shifts in Growing Season of Tropical Deciduous Forests as Driven by El Niño and La Niña during 2001–2016 Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080448 Authors: Phan Kieu Diem Uday Pimple Asamaporn Sitthi Pariwate Varnakovida Katsunori Tanaka Sukan Pungkul Kumron Leadprathom Monique Y. LeClerc Amnat Chidthaisong This study investigated the spatiotemporal dynamics of tropical deciduous forest including dry dipterocarp forest (DDF) and mixed deciduous forest (MDF) and its phenological changes in responses to El Niño and La Niña during 2001–2016. Based on time series of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) extracted from Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer (MODIS), the start of growing season (SOS), the end of growing season (EOS), and length of growing season (LOS) were derived. In absence of climatic fluctuation, the SOS of DDF commonly started on 106 ± 7 DOY, delayed to 132 DOY in El Niño year (2010) and advanced to 87 DOY in La Niña year (2011). Thus, there was a delay of about 19 to 33 days in El Niño and an earlier onset of about 13 to 27 days in La Niña year. The SOS of MDF started almost same time as of DDF on the 107 ± 7 DOY during the neutral years and delayed to 127 DOY during El Niño, advanced to 92 DOY in La Niña year. The SOS of MDF was delayed by about 12 to 28 days in El Niño and was earlier about 8 to 22 days in La Niña. Corresponding to these shifts in SOS and LOS of both DDF and MDF were also induced by the El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 446: Plant Hydraulic Trait Covariation: A Global Meta-Analysis to Reduce Degrees of Freedom in Trait-Based Hydrologic Models Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080446 Authors: A. Rio Mursinna Erica McCormick Katie Van Horn Lisa Sartin Ashley M. Matheny Current vegetation modeling strategies use broad categorizations of plants to estimate transpiration and biomass functions. A significant source of model error stems from vegetation categorizations that are mostly taxonomical with no basis in plant hydraulic strategy and response to changing environmental conditions. Here, we compile hydraulic traits from 355 species around the world to determine trait covariations in order to represent hydraulic strategies. Simple and stepwise regression analyses demonstrate the interconnectedness of multiple vegetative hydraulic traits, specifically, traits defining hydraulic conductivity and vulnerability to embolism with wood density and isohydricity. Drought sensitivity is strongly (Adjusted R2 = 0.52, p < 0.02) predicted by a stepwise linear model combining rooting depth, wood density, and isohydricity. Drought tolerance increased with increasing wood density and anisohydric response, but with decreasing rooting depth. The unexpected response to rooting depth may be due to other tradeoffs within the hydraulic system. Rooting depth was able to be predicted from sapwood specific conductivity and the water potential at 50% loss of conductivity. Interestingly, the influences of biome or growth form do not increase the accuracy of the drought tolerance model and were able to be omitted. Multiple regression analysis revealed 3D trait spaces and tradeoff axes along which species’ hydraulic strategies can be analyzed. These numerical trait spaces can reduce the necessary input to and parameterization of plant hydraulics modules, while increasing the physical representativeness of such simulations.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 274: Cryomorphological Topographies in the Study of Ice Caves Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8080274 Authors: Manuel Gómez-Lende Manuel Sánchez-Fernández The current interest in ice caves requires that their varied manifestations be known as accurately as possible in view of their responses to a global change and also to their great potential as paleoenvironmental witnesses. This phenomenon has been known about for a long time but is still scarcely studied from the point of view of its cryological values and the evolution and distribution of many of their morphologies. For this, the development of cryomorphological topographies from traditional techniques to geodetic surveys with different tools, including terrestrial laser scanning, is one of the most current ways to characterize and quantify this type of cryospheric phenomena. It represents a new kind of periglacial cartography whose use is feasible in spite of the difficulties these environments present.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 272: Towards National Archaeological Mapping. Assessing Source Data and Methodology—A Case Study from Scotland Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8080272 Authors: Łukasz Banaszek Dave C. Cowley Mike Middleton While the National Record of the Historic Environment (NRHE) in Scotland contains valuable information on more than 170,000 archaeological monuments, it is clear that this dataset is conditioned by the disposition of past survey and changing parameters of data collection strategies over many decades. This highlights the importance of creating systematic datasets, in which the standards to which they were created are explicit, and against which the reliability of our knowledge of the material remains of the past can be assessed. This paper describes issues of data structure and reliability, then discussing the methodologies under development for expediting the progress of national-scale mapping with specific reference to the Isle of Arran. Preliminary outcomes of a recent archaeological mapping project of the island, which has been used to develop protocols for rapid large area mapping, are outlined. The primary sources for the survey were airborne laser scanning derivatives and orthophotographs, supplemented by field observation, and the project has more than doubled the number of known monuments of Arran. The survey procedures are described, followed by a discussion of the utility of ‘general purpose’ remote sensed datasets, focusing on the assessment of strengths and weaknesses for rapid mapping of large areas.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 273: The Caribbean’s Geotourism Potential and Challenges: A Focus on Two Islands in the Region Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8080273 Authors: Colmore S. Christian Geotourism is a relatively new concept in the tourism industry, a concept which apparently has not yet been formally embraced by Caribbean destinations. This paper, based primarily on a literature review supplemented by the first-hand knowledge of the author, who served for over a decade in the natural resource management and tourism sectors in the region, identifies some of the geotourism assets and assesses the geotourism potential of two selected Caribbean islands, namely the Commonwealth of Dominica and St. Lucia. Indications are that the islands of the region have outstanding geological formations, dormant and active volcanic zones and associated geomorphological features, and breath-taking terrestrial and marine landscapes, including deep river gorges and tall mountains, and beautiful beaches, which together constitute important geotourism assets. Currently, these resources are marketed and promoted as part of the region’s nature tourism attractions. The feasibility of incorporating geotourism as a component of this overall nature tourism thrust is explored in this paper. As a follow-up to this study a survey of tourism officials, natural resource professionals, and selected scientists of the region is proposed for the purpose of identifying the reasons and constraints preventing the Caribbean region from formally embracing geotourism, developing and promoting the geotourism resources of the region as a unique component of the overall tourism product.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 459: Pedunculate and Sessile Mixed Oak Forest Regeneration Process in Lithuania Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080459 Authors: Girmantė Jurkšienė Virginijus Baliuckas Pedunculate and sessile oak species are sympatric. These oaks hybridize with one another, and this process influences the development of undergrowth. The purpose of this study was to determine how different oak species influence the forest regeneration process. For this purpose, the forest was divided into eight transects of 300 m and 100 m widths, distinguished into temporary plots of 10 m in diameter covering the whole territory of the forest. The distribution of oak undergrowth was calculated by four oak height groups, determining the composition of the first storey, covering of underbrush and herbaceous plant, and forest site. We determined that the spread of oak differed depending on the first storey tree species and underbrush. Grass cover was the biggest influence on the sessile oak. The impurity of sessile oak in oak stands had a positive impact on the development of undergrowth, since the entire undergrowth develops faster than separate components of the undergrowth.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 455: Measuring Eco-Efficiency of State-Owned Forestry Enterprises in Northeast China Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080455 Authors: Youliang Ning Zhen Liu Zekui Ning Han Zhang State-owned forestry enterprises (SOFEs) play an important role in the forestry economy in China. Understanding the eco-efficiency of their production is beneficial for the development of sustainable forestry and for achieving Goal 8 of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs): Decent Work and Economic Growth. This paper assesses SOFEs’ overall eco-efficiency by analyzing various undesirable outputs using the Slacks-Based Measure of efficiency in Data Envelopment Analysis (SBM-DEA) model. Using basic data from 87 SOFEs in Northeast China from 2003 to 2016, this paper evaluated the eco-efficiency development level and spatial patterns of that region. The results show that SOFEs’ low eco-efficiency was caused by low pure-technical efficiency. Regional differences in eco-efficiency were very significant and became larger, but a market-oriented reform might help to improve such efficiency. The eco-efficiency of SOFEs was in decline from 2003 to 2016 due to the implementation of the Natural Forest Protection Project (NFPP). However, due to a relative lack of production factor inputs, most SOFEs’ scale returns are now increasing. In the future, efforts should be made to promote market-oriented reforms and take the path of large-scale development.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 300: A Comparative Study of Three Non-Geostatistical Methods for Optimising Digital Elevation Model Interpolation ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080300 Authors: Serajis Salekin Jack H. Burgess Justin Morgenroth Euan G. Mason Dean F. Meason It is common to generate digital elevation models (DEMs) from aerial laser scanning (ALS) data. However, cost and lack of knowledge may preclude its use. In contrast, global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) are seldom used to collect and generate DEMs. These receivers have the potential to be considered as data sources for DEM interpolation, as they can be inexpensive, easy to use, and mobile. The data interpolation method and spatial resolution from this method needs to be optimised to create accurate DEMs. Moreover, the density of GNSS data is likely to affect DEM accuracy. This study investigates three different deterministic approaches, in combination with spatial resolution and data thinning, to determine their combined effects on DEM accuracy. Digital elevation models were interpolated, with resolutions ranging from 0.5 m to 10 m using natural neighbour (NaN), topo to raster (ANUDEM), and inverse distance weighted (IDW) methods. The GNSS data were thinned by 25% (0.389 points m−2), 50% (0.259 points m−2), and 75% (0.129 points m−2) and resulting DEMs were contrast against a DEM interpolated from unthinned data (0.519 points m−2). Digital elevation model accuracy was measured by root mean square error (RMSE) and mean absolute error (MAE). It was found that the highest resolution, 0.5 m, produced the lowest errors in resulting DEMs (RMSE = 0.428 m, MAE = 0.274 m). The ANUDEM method yielded the greatest DEM accuracy from a quantitative perspective (RMSE = 0.305 m and MAE = 0.197 m); however, NaN produced a more visually appealing surface. In all the assessments, IDW showed the lowest accuracy. Thinning the input data by 25% and even 50% had relatively little impact on DEM quality; however, accuracy decreased markedly at 75% thinning (0.129 points m−2). This study showed that, in a time where ALS is commonly used to generate DEMs, GNSS-surveyed data can be used to create accurate DEMs. This study confirmed the need for optimization to choose the appropriate interpolation method and spatial resolution in order to produce a reliable DEM.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 279: Detection of Stones in Marine Habitats Combining Simultaneous Hydroacoustic Surveys Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8080279 Authors: Svenja Papenmeier H. Christian Hass Exposed stones in sandy sublittoral environments are hotspots for marine biodiversity, especially for benthic communities. The detection of single stones is principally possible using sidescan-sonar (SSS) backscatter data. The data resolution has to be high to visualize the acoustic shadows of the stones. Otherwise, stony substrates will not be differentiable from other high backscatter substrates (e.g., gravel). Acquiring adequate sonar data and identifying stones in backscatter images is time consuming because it usually requires visual-manual procedures. To develop a more efficient identification and demarcation procedure of stone fields, sidescan sonar and parametric echo sound data were recorded within the marine protected area of “Sylt Outer Reef” (German Bight, North Sea). The investigated area (~5.900 km2) is characterized by dispersed heterogeneous moraine and marine deposits. Data from parametric sediment echo sounder indicate hyperbolas at the sediment surface in stony areas, which can easily be exported. By combining simultaneous recorded low backscatter data and parametric single beam data, stony grounds were demarcated faster, less complex and reproducible from gravelly substrates indicating similar high backscatter in the SSS data.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 464: Payment for Targeted Grazing: Integrating Local Shepherds into Wildfire Prevention Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080464 Authors: Elsa Varela Elena Górriz-Mifsud Jabier Ruiz-Mirazo Feliu López-i-Gelats Wildfires are one of the most prominent risks for Mediterranean forests, reducing the flow of ecosystem services and representing a hazard for infrastructure and human lives. Several wildfire prevention programs in southern Europe are currently incorporating extensive livestock grazers in fire prevention activities to reduce the high costs of mechanical clearance. Among these the Andalusian network of grazed fuel breaks, the so-called RAPCA program, stands out for its dimension and stability over time. RAPCA currently works with 220 local shepherds who, with their guided flocks maintain low biomass levels in almost 6000 ha of fuel breaks in public forests to meet fire prevention standards. This work analyses the institutional design and performance of the RAPCA payment scheme under a payment for environmental services (PES) framework. Results show effectiveness of the payment scheme while efficiency is achieved through savings relative to the mainstream mechanized biomass removal, as well as through reduced information asymmetry. High-level and stable political commitment has been crucial for the emergence and consolidation of RAPCA. Moreover, key intermediaries and sound monitoring practices increased levels of trust amongst involved actors. Beneficial side-effects include social recognition of shepherds’ activities and reduction of their friction with forest managers.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 462: Preferences of Tourists for the Service Quality of Taichung Calligraphy Greenway in Taiwan Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080462 Authors: Wan-Yu Liu Ching Chung This study explores preferences for a set of attributes that characterize the recreational value of Calligraphy Greenway, the most notable greenbelt in Taichung City, Taiwan. As an urban green space, the Calligraphy Greenway has its own recreational attributes and visitors’ preferences. This study uses the choice experiment method to determine visitors’ preference levels for five major attributes to improve the recreational quality. On average, each visitor visited there 9.15 times in the past year and spent 2.37 h per visit. Of the five recreational attributes, satisfaction with recreational activity opportunities had the highest score and satisfaction with cultural landscape resources had the lowest score. The importance is ranked in the order of recreational service quality, total recreational cost, environmental landscape resources, cultural landscape resources and recreational activity opportunities. Considering difference of groups, female visitors were more concerned with cost and activities but male visitors were more concerned with service quality and natural/cultural landscape resources. Local visitors were more concerned with cost and activities but non-local visitors were more concerned with environmental/cultural landscape resources. Both were concerned with service quality. Based on the results, this study makes the following recommendations: cultural landscape resources and quality of recreational services and facilities should be improved and more complete interpretative educational guidance should be provided to increase visitors’ willingness to visit. Additionally, it is suggested to set up various districts to cater for preferences of different visitor groups.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 463: Implementing Participatory Processes in Forestry Training Using Social Network Analysis Techniques Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080463 Authors: Simone Blanc Federico Lingua Livio Bioglio Ruggero G. Pensa Filippo Brun Angela Mosso Public participation has become an important driver in increasing public acceptance of policy decisions, especially in the forestry sector, where conflicting interests among the actors are frequent. Stakeholder Analysis, complemented by Social Network Analysis techniques, was used to support the participatory process and to understand the complex relationships and the strong interactions among actors. This study identifies the forestry training sector stakeholders in the Western Italian Alps and describes their characteristics and priorities, in relation to training activities on entrepreneurial topics for forestry loggers. The hierarchy among actors has been identified, highlighting their respective roles and influence in decision-making processes. A lack of mutual communication among different and well-separated categories of actors has been identified, while good connections between stakeholders, operating in different territories, despite the presence of administrative and logistical barriers, have been observed. Training is a topic involving actors with different roles and interests. Nevertheless, all actors consider training about how to improve yields of forest operations and how to assess investments, particularly in innovative machinery, to be crucially important and conducive to a better comprehension of the wood supply chain and the enhancement of the raw material.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 461: A Review on the Dynamics of Prescribed Fire, Tree Mortality, and Injury in Managing Oak Natural Communities to Minimize Economic Loss in North America Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080461 Authors: Daniel C. Dey Callie Jo Schweitzer The long history of fire in North America spans millennia and is recognized as an important driver in the widespread and long-term dominance of oak species and oak natural communities. Frequent wildfires from about 1850 to 1950 resulted in much forest damage, and gained fire a negative reputation. The lack of fire for the past nearly 100 years due to suppression programs is now indicted as a major cause of widespread oak regeneration failures and loss of fire-dependent natural communities. The use of prescribed fire is increasing in forest management and ecosystem restoration. An understanding of fire effects on trees can provide the basis for the silviculture of restoring and sustaining oak ecosystems. We present an overview of fire-tree wounding interactions, highlight important determinants of fire injury and damage, and discuss several practical situations where fire can be used to favor oak while minimizing damage and devaluation of the forest. We also identify stages in stand development, regeneration methods, and management objectives for which fire has the potential of causing substantial damage and recommend preferred alternative practices.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 447: Tradeoffs in Timber, Carbon, and Cash Flow under Alternative Management Systems for Douglas-Fir in the Pacific Northwest Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080447 Authors: David D. Diaz Sara Loreno Gregory J. Ettl Brent Davies Forest management choices offer significant potential to mitigate global climate change and biodiversity loss. To illuminate tradeoffs relevant to policymakers, forest sector stakeholders, and consumers of forest products, we utilize three Key Performance Indicators—average carbon storage in the forest and wood products; cumulative timber output; and discounted cash flow—to compare four alternative management scenarios for Douglas-fir forests on 64 parcels across western Oregon and Washington. These scenarios are designed to meet one of two alternative management objectives: (i) maximize Net Present Value; or (ii) maximize sustained timber yield; according to one of two alternative sets of forest practice constraints: (i) compliance with minimum Oregon/Washington Forest Practices Act (FPA) rules; or (ii) two key requirements (increased green tree retention and wider riparian buffers) of Forest Stewardship Council (FSC) certification. Improved performance in terms of carbon storage for these alternatives generally also corresponded with reduced Net Present Value and timber yields. The gap between FSC and FPA performance indicators was wider in Oregon than Washington, which is primarily attributed to the higher level of stream protection required under Washington versus Oregon FPA rules. We observed consistently higher average carbon storage per cumulative timber output among FSC scenarios relative to business-as-usual, indicating FSC-certified wood carries an embedded carbon benefit. Our findings highlight options for targeted policies to incentivize management that increases carbon storage and minimizes disruptions in timber output, as well as for narrowing the financial gap (or opportunity cost) that would be involved in a transition away from contemporary common practice on industrial timberlands in the coastal Douglas-fir forests of the Pacific Northwest.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 287: A New Occurrence of Terrestrial Native Iron in the Earth’s Surface: The Ilia Thermogenic Travertine Case, Northwestern Euboea, Greece Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8080287 Authors: Christos Kanellopoulos Eugenia Valsami-Jones Panagiotis Voudouris Christina Stouraiti Robert Moritz Constantinos Mavrogonatos Panagiotis Mitropoulos Native iron has been identified in an active thermogenic travertine deposit, located at Ilia area (Euboea Island, Greece). The deposit is forming around a hot spring, which is part of a large active metallogenetic hydrothermal system depositing ore-bearing travertines. The native iron occurs in two shapes: nodules with diameter 0.4 and 0.45 cm, and angular grains with length up to tens of μm. The travertine laminae around the spherical/ovoid nodules grow smoothly, and the angular grains are trapped inside the pores of the travertine. Their mineral-chemistry is ultra-pure, containing, other than Fe, only Mn (0.34–0.38 wt.%) and Ni (≤0.05 wt.%). After evaluating all the possible environments where native iron has been reported up until today and taking under consideration all the available data concerning the study area, we propose two possible scenarios: (i) Ilia’s native iron has a magmatic/hydrothermal origin i.e., it is a deep product near the magmatic chamber or a peripheral cooling igneous body that was transferred during the early stages of the geothermal field evolution, from high temperature, reduced gas-rich fluids and deposited along with other metals in permeable structural zones, at shallow levels. Later on, it was remobilized and mechanically transferred and precipitated at the Ilia’s thermogenic travertine by the active lower temperatures geothermal fluids; (ii) the native iron at Ilia is remobilized from deep seated ophiolitic rocks, originated initially from reduced fluids during serpentinization processes; however, its mechanical transport seems less probable. The native iron mineral-chemistry, morphology and the presence of the other mineral phases in the same thermogenic travertine support both hypotheses.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 467: State of the Art on the Use of Trees as Supports and Anchors in Forest Operations Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080467 Authors: Luca Marchi Stefano Grigolato Omar Mologni Roberto Scotta Raffaele Cavalli Lucio Montecchio Tree stability assessment is fundamental to preserve the safety of both people and goods. This topic attributes high relevance to cable-supported harvesting where trees and stumps are used as supporting and anchoring elements. In this case, the applied external loads are characterized by higher magnitude and dynamic amplification effects than the typical forces acting on trees (e.g., those derived from meteorological events). Consequently, due to the higher forces involved on cable-supported harvesting on relatively young trees used as supports and anchors, the risk of uprooting and stem failures is real. Numerous studies have been conducted on tree stability and the impact of the external loads has been positively linked to the consequent tree failures, in terms of root-plate overturning and stem breakages, or parasite-mediated wood decay involving the root system, thus giving a better understanding of how different trees species deal with such occurrences. This review aims to synthetize and examine the main aspects covered by research works available in literature that, directly or indirectly, might be helpful in clarifying the behavior of standing trees or tree stumps used as supports and anchors in cable-supported forest operations. Lastly, areas that lack research in this particular topic as well as consequent operating suggestions are highlighted in the conclusions.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 470: The Carbon Sequestration Potential of Degraded Agricultural Land in the Amhara Region of Ethiopia Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080470 Authors: Beyene Belay Elisabeth Pötzelsberger Hubert Hasenauer Forests are a key player within the global carbon cycle and reforestation is an important climate change mitigation mechanism. In this study, we identify potentially suitable areas for reforestation to assess the carbon sequestration potential in the highly deforested and degraded Amhara region of Ethiopia. We apply biogeochemical mechanistic ecosystem modelling to predict the amount of carbon that can be potentially sequestered within different time horizons. Since human intervention plays a key role within the Amhara region, three different forest management scenarios and five different rotation periods following reforestation are tested: (i) unthinned; (ii) removal of 5% of the stem carbon every 20 years (thinning 1); and (iii) removal of 10% stem carbon every 20 years (thinning 2), as well as a rotation period of 10, 30, 50, 100, and 150 years. Sustainable management of reforested land is addressed by implementing the so called ‘Normal-forest’ system (equal representation of every age class). This ensures the long term sequestration effect of reforested areas. The study shows that 3.4 Mha (Mha = Million hectare) of land, including bare land (0.7 Mha), grass land (1.2 Mha), and shrub land (1.5 Mha) can be considered as ecologically potentially suitable for reforestation. Assuming a 100 year rotation period in a ‘Normal-forest’ system, this shows that a total net carbon sequestration potential of 177 Tg C (10.8 Tg C in the soil and 165.9 Tg C aboveground; Teragram = 1012 g) is possible, if all 3.4 Mha are replanted. The highest total net carbon sequestration (soil and aboveground) was evident for the Highland-wet agro-ecological zone, whereas the lowest values are typically in the Midland-dry zone. The highest net aboveground carbon sequestration was predicted for reforestations on current grass land and shrub land versus bare land, whereas the highest net soil carbon sequestration was predicted on current bare land, followed by grass land and shrub land.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 311: Processing BIM and GIS Models in Practice: Experiences and Recommendations from a GeoBIM Project in The Netherlands ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080311 Authors: Ken Arroyo Ohori Abdoulaye Diakité Thomas Krijnen Hugo Ledoux Jantien Stoter It is widely acknowledged that the integration of BIM and GIS data is a crucial step forward for future 3D city modelling, but most of the research conducted so far has covered only the high-level and semantic aspects of GIS-BIM integration. This paper presents the results of the GeoBIM project, which tackled three integration problems focussing instead on aspects involving geometry processing: (i) the automated processing of complex architectural IFC models; (ii) the integration of existing GIS subsoil data in BIM; and (iii) the georeferencing of BIM models for their use in GIS software. All the problems have been studied using real world models and existing datasets made and used by practitioners in The Netherlands. For each problem, this paper exposes in detail the issues faced, proposed solutions, and recommendations for a more successful integration.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 288: Development of a New Simulation Tool Coupling a 2D Finite Volume Overland Flow Model and a Drainage Network Model Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8080288 Authors: Javier Fernández-Pato Pilar García-Navarro Numerical simulation of mixed flows combining free surface and pressurized flows is a practical tool to prevent possible flood situations in urban environments. When dealing with intense storm events, the limited capacity of the drainage network conduits can cause undesirable flooding situations. Computational simulation of the involved processes can lead to better management of the drainage network of urban areas. In particular, it is interesting to simultaneuously calculate the possible pressurization of the pipe network and the surface water dynamics in case of overflow. In this work, the coupling of two models is presented. The surface flow model is based on two-dimensional shallow water equations with which it is possible to solve the overland water dynamics as well as the transformation of rainfall into runoff through different submodels of infiltration. The underground drainage system assumes mostly free surface flow that can be pressurized in specific situations. The pipe network is modeled by means of one-dimensional sections coupled with the surface model in specific regions of the domain, such as drains or sewers. The numerical techniques considered for the resolution of both mathematical models are based on finite volume schemes with a first-order upwind discretization. The coupling of the models is verified using laboratory experimental data. Furthermore, the potential usefulness of the approach is demonstrated using real flooding data in a urban environment.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 289: Multi-Wavelength High-Resolution Spectroscopy for Exoplanet Detection: Motivation, Instrumentation and First Results Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8080289 Authors: Serena Benatti Exoplanet research has shown an incessant growth since the first claim of a hot giant planet around a solar-like star in the mid-1990s. Today, the new facilities are working to spot the first habitable rocky planets around low-mass stars as a forerunner for the detection of the long-awaited Sun-Earth analog system. All the achievements in this field would not have been possible without the constant development of the technology and of new methods to detect more and more challenging planets. After the consolidation of a top-level instrumentation for high-resolution spectroscopy in the visible wavelength range, a huge effort is now dedicated to reaching the same precision and accuracy in the near-infrared. Actually, observations in this range present several advantages in the search for exoplanets around M dwarfs, known to be the most favorable targets to detect possible habitable planets. They are also characterized by intense stellar activity, which hampers planet detection, but its impact on the radial velocity modulation is mitigated in the infrared. Simultaneous observations in the visible and near-infrared ranges appear to be an even more powerful technique since they provide combined and complementary information, also useful for many other exoplanetary science cases.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 478: Effects of Leaf Age and Exogenous Hormones on Callus Initiation, Rooting Formation, Bud Germination, and Plantlet Formation in Chinese Fir Leaf Cuttings Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080478 Authors: Lili Zhou Shubin Li Peng Huang Sizu Lin Shalom Daniel Addo-Danso Zhihui Ma Guochang Ding To guide the cultivation of superior Chinese fir plantlets, we designed an L16(4)4 orthogonal experiment to determine how leaf age and exogenous hormones influence key growth processes in leaf cuttings. Hormone concentration and treatment duration significantly affected leaf cuttings in all three age categories; 6-benzylaminopurine (6-BA), 1-naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA), and treatment time exerted the strongest effects on callus initiation rates. Additionally, NAA had the largest effect on the rooting rate across all cuttings, and all three hormones significantly influenced the bud germination rate. Based on our experimental results, expected optimal treatments for callus initiation were 10 mg∙L−1 indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) for 10 min, 30 mg∙L−1 NAA for 15 min, and 10 mg∙L−1 NAA plus 30 mg∙L−1 IBA for 10 min. For the rooting rate, the expected optimal treatment was 50 mg∙L−1 NAA and 40 mg∙L−1 IBA for 5–20 min. Finally, for bud germination, optimal treatments were 20 min of immersion in water, 30 mg∙L−1 6-BA plus 50 mg∙L−1 NAA for 15 min, and 30 mg∙L−1 6-BA for 5 min. Plantlet formation only occurred in the <one-year-old leaves, and at very low rates (maximum 5.8%); this outcome is likely attributable to the mother plant’s relatively old age (five years). Plantlet formation from cuttings is dependent on ensuring the rooting rate after callus initiation. Therefore, to promote rooting rates and bud germination, we recommend leaving more xylem at the base of leaf cuttings.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 321: Dynamic Patterns of Trees Species in Miombo Forest and Management Perspectives for Sustainable Production—Case Study in Huambo Province, Angola Forests doi: 10.3390/f9060321 Authors: Vasco Chiteculo Peter Surovy This paper aims to assess important forest parameters, including tree density, diameter at breast height (DBH), and age distribution, investigate the dynamic growth of miombo tree species, and employ this information to design a management framework in miombo forests. The delineation of the management zones was based on unsupervised land cover classification that began with three zones where ground data was collected and increased to five zones. Eighteen circular plots (25.2 m radius) were randomly distributed over the study areas to assess the current situation and potential growth patterns for each species. The patterns of the six most representative tree species of miombo in Angola were described and we used KORFiT 2.4 software to fit data and develop growth curves for at least three miombo species. Growth function fitness was evaluated by root mean squared error (RMSE), coefficient of determination (R2), significance of the parameters (p < 0.05), and Akaike’s information criterion (AIC). The diameter distribution of miombo tree species resembled a typical distribution of uneven-aged forest stands; higher DBH classes had lower abundances of tree species. Logistic and Gompertz growth functions were the best fits for miombo tree species. Brachystegia spiciformis Benth., is suggested as a potential species for timber management in the region because they displayed high growth potential to more quickly reach an assumed minimum DBH of 20 cm. This study concluded that miombo forest stands present an irregular structure in which DBH distribution illustrated only two patterns: many small stems and a bimodal forest structure.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 324: Response of Black Ash Wetland Gaseous Soil Carbon Fluxes to a Simulated Emerald Ash Borer Infestation Forests doi: 10.3390/f9060324 Authors: Matthew Van Grinsven Joseph Shannon Nicholas Bolton Joshua Davis Nam Jin Noh Joseph Wagenbrenner Randall Kolka Thomas Pypker The rapid and extensive expansion of emerald ash borer (EAB) in North America since 2002 may eliminate most existing ash stands, likely affecting critical ecosystem services associated with water and carbon cycling. To our knowledge, no studies have evaluated the coupled response of black ash (Fraxinus nigra Marsh.) wetland water tables, soil temperatures, and soil gas fluxes to an EAB infestation. Water table position, soil temperature, and soil CO2 and CH4 fluxes were monitored in nine depressional headwater black ash wetlands in northern Michigan. An EAB disturbance was simulated by girdling (girdle) or felling (ash-cut) all black ash trees with diameters greater than 2.5 cm within treated wetlands (n = 3 per treatment). Soil gas fluxes were sensitive to water table position, temperature, and disturbance. Soil CO2 fluxes were significantly higher, and high soil CH4 fluxes occurred more frequently in disturbed sites. Soil CH4 fluxes in ash-cut were marginally significantly higher than girdle during post-treatment, yet both were similar to control sites. The strong connection between depressional black ash wetland study sites and groundwater likely buffered the magnitude of disturbance-related impact on water tables and carbon cycling.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 213: A Mathematics Inspired Notation of Scales in the Climate System Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8060213 Authors: Jörn Behrens Conducting integrated climate research with involvement of such diverse disciplines as mathematics, meteorology, oceanography, economics, geology, biology, social, and communication sciences poses great challenges to the underlying nomenclature and methodology. In this article, we give a definition of the notion of scales, which is a central term in the geosciences, but not so familiar to social sciences or economics. We start with defining agents, involved in a specific subject of study, determined by their attributes or states. We move on to understand processes and phenomena as maps and subsets of image sets. With this and the introduction of metrics, we can measure sizes of phenomena and processes and finally define scales. Several examples illustrate our definition. An attempt is made to motivate a notion of scale interaction. This concept has proved useful in an interdisciplinary teaching project.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 352: Amount and Location of Damage to Residual Trees from Cut-to-Length Thinning Operations in a Young Redwood Forest in Northern California Forests doi: 10.3390/f9060352 Authors: Kyungrok Hwang Han-Sup Han Susan E. Marshall Deborah S. Page-Dumroese A cut-to-length (CTL) harvest system using a harvester and forwarder has been recently introduced in northern California (USA) for thinning young (<25 years old) redwood forests (Sequoia sempervirens (Lamb. ex D. Don) Endl.). However, the severity of CTL damage to residual trees in this forest type are unknown. The goals of this study were to (1) determine the location, size, and number of scars resulting from CTL harvesting and (2) compare scar size differences between redwood clumps and individual trees in two units. Most scars occurred on trees located near the forwarding trails. Wider and longer scars were associated with clumped trees (9.1–12.2 cm wide and 28.1–46.2 cm long) as compared to scars on individual trees (8.1–9.5 cm wide and 16.7–31.3 cm long), and 16–32% of the residual trees were scarred. Determining a minimum scar size will define the severity of stand damage; larger scars result in a longer time until closure. However, counting all the smaller scars that result from CTL harvesting will result in a large number of counted damaged trees. Therefore, we suggest that scars smaller than 5–10 cm width are acceptable on coastal redwood after CTL thinning.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 350: Palaeoecological Evidence for Survival of Scots Pine through the Late Holocene in Western Ireland: Implications for Ecological Management Forests doi: 10.3390/f9060350 Authors: Jenni R. Roche Fraser J. G. Mitchell Steve Waldren Bettina S. Stefanini The dynamics of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) in Europe during the Holocene have been spatially and temporally complex. The species underwent extirpation and reintroduction in several north-west European countries. This study investigated the late Holocene vegetation history of a present-day pinewood in western Ireland, to test the widely accepted hypothesis that P. sylvestris became extinct in Ireland c. AD 400. Palaeoecological, chronological and loss-on-ignition analyses were conducted on a sediment core extracted from an adjacent lake. The pollen profile showed no major Pinus decline and a Pinus macrofossil occurred c. AD 840, indicating localised survival of P. sylvestris from c. AD 350 to the present. The available archival maps and historical literature provide supporting evidence for continuity of forest cover. The hypothesis that P. sylvestris became extinct in Ireland is rejected. The implications for ecological management are significant. We argue that P. sylvestris should be considered native to Ireland, at least at this site. As Ireland’s only putative native P. sylvestris population and the western limit of the species’ native range, this site is of high conservation value and must be carefully managed and monitored. Seed-sourcing for ex-situ forest restoration must be compatible with the long-term viability of the population in-situ.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 203: Response of Soils and Soil Ecosystems to the Pennsylvanian–Permian Climate Transition in the Upper Fluvial Plain of the Dunkard Basin, Southeastern Ohio, USA Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8060203 Authors: Daniel Hembree Jennifer Carnes Direct exposure of paleosols to the atmosphere during formation make them ideal for reconstructing paleoclimate. Paleosol and ichnofossil properties are dependently linked making it important to study them in tandem, to avoid errors in interpretation. Small scale studies (<1 km) yield high resolution data that can be used to assess allogenic processes through comparison of spatial and temporal trends. This study used field and laboratory analyses to gather data from Late Pennsylvanian to Early Permian Upper Monongahela and Lower Dunkard group paleosols on Ohio Route 33 in Meigs County, OH, USA. The physical and geochemical properties of the paleosols from the field sites indicate that channel migration was the primary control on paleosol formation in the study area, however, a clear climate signal was observed. The change in paleosol type and calculated mean annual precipitation (MAP) values indicate that the climate became more strongly seasonal and drier over the course of the Pennsylvanian–Permian transition with a temporary excursion to a more ever-wet climate with higher MAP, marked by the occurrence of the Waynesburg Coal at the Pennsylvanian–Permian boundary.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 355: Do Silviculture and Forest Management Affect the Genetic Diversity and Structure of Long-Impacted Forest Tree Populations? Forests doi: 10.3390/f9060355 Authors: Filippos A. (Phil) Aravanopoulos The consequences of silviculture and management on the genetic variation and structure of long-impacted populations of forest tree are reviewed assessed and discussed, using Mediterranean forests as a working paradigm. The review focuses on silviculture and management systems, regeneration schemes, the consequences of coppicing and coppice conversion to high forest, the effects of fragmentation and exploitation, and the genetic impact of forestry plantations. It emerges that averaging genetic diversity parameters, such as those typically reported in the assessment of forest population genetics, do not generally present significant differences between populations under certain silvicultural systems/forest management methods and “control” populations. Observed differences are usually rather subtler and regard the structure of the genetic variation and the lasting adaptive potential of natural forest tree populations. Therefore, forest management and silvicultural practices have a longer-term impact on the genetic diversity and structure and resilience of long-impacted populations of forest tree; their assessment should be based on parameters that are sensitive to population perturbations and bottlenecks. The nature and extent of genetic effects and impact of silviculture and forest management practices, call for a concerted effort regarding their thorough study using genetic, genomic, as well as monitoring approaches, in order to provide insight and potential solutions for future silviculture and management regimes.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 354: Growth and Physicochemical Changes of Carpinus betulus L. Influenced by Salinity Treatments Forests doi: 10.3390/f9060354 Authors: Qi Zhou Zunling Zhu Man Shi Longxia Cheng Carpinus betulus L. is a deciduous tree widely distributed in Europe with strong adaptation, and it plays a key role in landscaping and timbering because of its variety of colors and shapes. Recently introduced to China for similar purposes, this species needs further study as to its physiological adaptability under various soil salinity conditions. In this study, the growth and physicochemical changes of C. betulus seedlings cultivated in soil under six different levels of salinity stress (NaCl: 0, 17, 34, 51, 68, and 85 mM) were studied for 14, 28 and 42 days. The plant growth and gas exchange parameters were not changed much by 17 and 34 mM NaCl, but they were significantly affected after treatments with 51 ~ 85 mM NaCl. The chlorophyll content was not significantly affected at 17 and 34 mM salinity, and the relative water content, malondialdehyde content and cell membrane stability of C. betulus did not change obviously under the 17 and 34 mM treatments, indicating that C. betulus is able to adapt to low-salinity conditions. The amount of osmotic adjustment substances and the antioxidant enzyme activity of C. betulus increased after 14 and 28 days and then decreased with increasing salinity gradients, but the proline content was increased during the entire time for different salinities. The Na content of different organs increased in response to salinity, and the K/Na, Ca/Na, and Mg/Na ratios were significantly affected by salinity. These results suggest that the ability of C. betulus to synthesize osmotic substances and enzymatic antioxidants may be impaired under severe saline conditions (68 ~ 85 mM NaCl) but that it can tolerate and accumulate salt at low salinity concentrations (17 ~ 34 mM NaCl). Such information is useful for land managers considering introducing this species to sites with various soil salinity conditions.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 218: A Spatiotemporal Multi-View-Based Learning Method for Short-Term Traffic Forecasting ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7060218 Authors: Shifen Cheng Feng Lu Peng Peng Sheng Wu Short-term traffic forecasting plays an important part in intelligent transportation systems. Spatiotemporal k-nearest neighbor models (ST-KNNs) have been widely adopted for short-term traffic forecasting in which spatiotemporal matrices are constructed to describe traffic conditions. The performance of the models is closely related to the spatial dependencies, the temporal dependencies, and the interaction of spatiotemporal dependencies. However, these models use distance functions and correlation coefficients to identify spatial neighbors and measure the temporal interaction by only considering the temporal closeness of traffic, which result in existing ST-KNNs that cannot fully reflect the essential features of road traffic. This study proposes an improved spatiotemporal k-nearest neighbor model for short-term traffic forecasting by utilizing a multi-view learning algorithm named MVL-STKNN that fully considers the spatiotemporal dependencies of traffic data. First, the spatial neighbors for each road segment are automatically determined using cross-correlation under different temporal dependencies. Three spatiotemporal views are built on the constructed spatiotemporal closeness, periodic, and trend matrices to represent spatially heterogeneous traffic states. Second, a spatiotemporal weighting matrix is introduced into the ST-KNN model to recognize similar traffic patterns in the three spatiotemporal views. Finally, the results of traffic pattern recognition under these three spatiotemporal views are aggregated by using a neural network algorithm to describe the interaction of spatiotemporal dependencies. Extensive experiments were conducted using real vehicular-speed datasets collected on city roads and expressways. In comparison with baseline methods, the results show that the MVL-STKNN model greatly improves short-term traffic forecasting by lowering the mean absolute percentage error between 28.24% and 46.86% for the city road dataset and, between 53.80% and 90.29%, for the expressway dataset. The results suggest that multi-view learning merits further attention for traffic-related data mining under such a dynamic and data-intensive environment, which owes to its comprehensive consideration of spatial correlation and heterogeneity as well as temporal fluctuation and regularity in road traffic.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 217: Deep Belief Networks Based Toponym Recognition for Chinese Text ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7060217 Authors: Shu Wang Xueying Zhang Peng Ye Mi Du In Geographical Information Systems, geo-coding is used for the task of mapping from implicitly geo-referenced data to explicitly geo-referenced coordinates. At present, an enormous amount of implicitly geo-referenced information is hidden in unstructured text, e.g., Wikipedia, social data and news. Toponym recognition is the foundation of mining this useful geo-referenced information by identifying words as toponyms in text. In this paper, we propose an adapted toponym recognition approach based on deep belief network (DBN) by exploring two key issues: word representation and model interpretation. A Skip-Gram model is used in the word representation process to represent words with contextual information that are ignored by current word representation models. We then determine the core hyper-parameters of the DBN model by illustrating the relationship between the performance and the hyper-parameters, e.g., vector dimensionality, DBN structures and probability thresholds. The experiments evaluate the performance of the Skip-Gram model implemented by the Word2Vec open-source tool, determine stable hyper-parameters and compare our approach with a conditional random field (CRF) based approach. The experimental results show that the DBN model outperforms the CRF model with smaller corpus. When the corpus size is large enough, their statistical metrics become approaching. However, their recognition results express differences and complementarity on different kinds of toponyms. More importantly, combining their results can directly improve the performance of toponym recognition relative to their individual performances. It seems that the scale of the corpus has an obvious effect on the performance of toponym recognition. Generally, there is no adequate tagged corpus on specific toponym recognition tasks, especially in the era of Big Data. In conclusion, we believe that the DBN-based approach is a promising and powerful method to extract geo-referenced information from text in the future.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 220: Clay Mineral Suites in Submarine Mud Volcanoes in the Kumano Forearc Basin, Nankai Trough: Constraints on the Origin of Mud Volcano Sediments Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8060220 Authors: Akira Ijiri Koichi Iijima Urumu Tsunogai Juichiro Ashi Fumio Inagaki Clay mineralogy is an important characteristic of mud volcano sediments. This study determined the clay mineral compositions of sediment from two submarine mud volcanoes in the Kumano forearc basin, Nankai Trough, by X-ray diffraction analysis. Similar compositions dominated by smectite in the two mud volcanoes indicate that the mud volcanoes in the basin are rooted in the same source sequence. These clay mineral compositions differed from those in Pleistocene basin sediment, suggesting that the mud volcano sediment originated beneath the Pleistocene sediment. The illite content in the illite–smectite mixed layer averaged 32% in the mud volcano sediment, which implies that the sediment experienced temperatures above 60 °C that promoted the smectite-to-illite transformation. However, porewater extracted from the mud volcano sediment had Cl‒ concentrations roughly half that of seawater and proportional enrichment in 18O and depletion in D, indicating that dehydration reactions of clay minerals had previously occurred in a deeply buried sedimentary layer. The smectite and illite contents (<60%) in the clay-size fraction rule out in situ smectite dewatering as the cause of the dilution of Cl‒ in porewater. Thus, fluids derived from clay dewatering must have originated from deeper than the source of the mud volcano sediment.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 222: A Citizen Science Approach for Collecting Toponyms ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7060222 Authors: Aji Putra Perdana Frank O. Ostermann The emerging trends and technologies of surveying and mapping potentially enable local experts to contribute and share their local geographical knowledge of place names (toponyms). We can see the increasing numbers of toponyms in digital platforms, such as OpenStreetMap, Facebook Place Editor, Swarm Foursquare, and Google Local Guide. On the other hand, government agencies keep working to produce concise and complete gazetteers. Crowdsourced geographic information and citizen science approaches offer a new paradigm of toponym collection. This paper addresses issues in the advancing toponym practice. First, we systematically examined the current state of toponym collection and handling practice by multiple stakeholders, and we identified a recurring set of problems. Secondly, we developed a citizen science approach, based on a crowdsourcing level of participation, to collect toponyms. Thirdly, we examined the implementation in the context of an Indonesian case study. The results show that public participation in toponym collection is an approach with the potential to solve problems in toponym handling, such as limited human resources, accessibility, and completeness of toponym information. The lessons learnt include the knowledge that the success of this approach depends on the willingness of the government to advance their workflow, the degree of collaboration between stakeholders, and the presence of a communicative approach in introducing and sharing toponym guidelines with the community.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 360: Effects of Oxidized Brown Coal Humic Acid Fertilizer on the Relative Height Growth Rate of Three Tree Species Forests doi: 10.3390/f9060360 Authors: Ganchudur Tsetsegmaa Khaulenbek Akhmadi Wonwoo Cho Sora Lee Romika Chandra Choi Eun Jeong Rogers Wainkwa Chia Hoduck Kang This study aimed to identify the effects of oxidized brown coal humic acid fertilizer on the relative growth rate of several tree species intended for reforestation. Field experiments were carried out during 2011–2014 at the Research and Experimental Center for Combating Desertification located at the Elsen Tasarkhai station in central Mongolia. The trees studied were Populus sibirica Tausch., Salix ledebouriana Trautv., and Acer tataricum L. The experiment was conducted with concentrations of 2000, 10,000, and 20,000 mg L−1 of humic acid fertilization treatment. Measurement of the relative height growth rate (RHGR) was undertaken for a period of four years. The results demonstrated significant differences between the humic fertilizer concentrations, which varied depending on the species. Compared to monthly RHGR over the study period, the treatment using fertilizers yielded significantly better tree growth. P. sibirica, when treated with 2000 mg L−1 and 10,000 mg L−1 humic acid fertilizers, had significant height growth rates. S. ledebouriana with 20,000 mg L−1 of humic acid fertilzers treatments showed the highest RHGR. In addition, when the humic acid treatments were compared to the control, results showed that oxidized brown coal humic acid fertilizers as an organic fertilizer can have a significant effect on the growth of A. tataricum. The results equally showed that the soil chemical properties EC, CO2, NO3, and K2O were significant among all the treatments compared to control. The effect on P2O5 significantly increased in all the treatments; however, there was no significant effect on pH and Mg among all treatments. Combining the results obtained with reforestation and sustainable land-management practices can help to improve soil organics in degraded sandy soil regions.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 222: Potential Indicator Value of Subfossil Gastropods in Assessing the Ecological Health of the Middle and Lower Reaches of the Yangtze River Floodplain System (China) Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8060222 Authors: Giri Kattel Yongjiu Cai Xiangdong Yang Ke Zhang Xu Hao Rong Wang Xuhui Dong The lakes across China’s middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River system have a long history of sustaining human pressures. These aquatic resources have been exploited for fisheries and irrigation over millennia at a magnitude of scales, with the result that many lakes have lost their ecological integrity. The consequences of these changes in the ecosystem health of lakes are not fully understood; therefore, a long-term investigation is urgently needed. Gastropods (aquatic snails) are powerful bio-indicators that link primary producers, herbivores, and detritivores associated with macrophytes and grazers of periphyton and higher-level consumers. They are sensitive to abrupt environmental change such as eutrophication, dehydration, flooding, and proliferation of toxicity in floodplain lake systems. The use of the remains of gastropod shells (subfossils) preserved in the sedimentary archives of the floodplain lakes of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River system holds high significance, as their potential in environmental change has not been studied in detail in the past. Here, we aim to test the hypothesis that modern and sub-fossil gastropods in the sediments of the middle and lower reaches of the Yangtze River floodplains systems have significant value as bioindicators, as they have the ability to reveal health-gradients of lake-ecosystem change in the region.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 368: A Flexible Height–Diameter Model for Tree Height Imputation on Forest Inventory Sample Plots Using Repeated Measures from the Past Forests doi: 10.3390/f9060368 Authors: Christoph Gollob Tim Ritter Sonja Vospernik Clemens Wassermann Arne Nothdurft In this study, height–diameter relations were modeled using two different mixed model types for imputation of missing heights from longitudinal data. Model Type A had a hierarchical structure of sample plot-specific and measurement occasion-specific random effects. In Model Type B, a possible temporal variance was modeled by a sample plot-specific linear time trend. Furthermore, various calibration strategies of random effects were performed on past and current data, and a combination of both. The performance of the mixed models was compared on independent data using bias and root mean square error (RMSE). The results showed that Model Type A achieved the highest precision (lowest RMSE), if sample plot-specific random effects were predicted from old data and measurement occasion-specific ones were predicted from new data. In comparison, however, Model Type B had a higher RMSE, and lower bias. Model performance was almost unaffected from the usage of past or current data for the prediction of random effects. Results revealed that a certain calibration strategy should be simultaneously applied to all random effects from the same hierarchy level. Otherwise, predictions would become imprecise and a serious bias may result. In comparison with traditional uniform height curves, the novel mixed model approach performed slightly better.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 364: Age-Effect on Intra-Annual δ13C-Variability within Scots Pine Tree-Rings from Central Siberia Forests doi: 10.3390/f9060364 Authors: Marina V. Fonti Eugene A. Vaganov Christian Wirth Alexander V. Shashkin Natalya V. Astrakhantseva Еrnst-Detlef Schulze Intra-annual tree-ring parameters are increasingly used in dendroecology thanks to their high temporal resolution. To better understand the nature of intra-ring proxy signals, we compared old and young trees according to the different ways in which they respond to climate. The study was carried out in central Siberia (Russia, 60°75′ N, 89°38′ E) in two even-aged Pinus sylvestris L. stands of different ages (20 and 220 years). Ring width, cell size, and intra-annual δ¹³С were measured for 4 to 27 tree rings, depending on age group (young vs. old) and tree-ring parameter. Wood formation was monitored to link tree-ring position to its time of formation. Results indicated more distinct intra-annual δ¹³С patterns at both the beginning and end of the ring of young trees compared to old ones. Older trees showed a stronger significant correlation between δ¹³С across the ring border, indicating a stronger carry-over effect of the previous year’s growing conditions on current year wood production. This suggests that tree age/size influences the magnitude of the transfer of mobile carbon reserves across the years.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 232: A RSSI/PDR-Based Probabilistic Position Selection Algorithm with NLOS Identification for Indoor Localisation ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7060232 Authors: Ke Han Huashuai Xing Zhongliang Deng Yichen Du In recent years, location-based services have been receiving increasing attention because of their great development prospects. Researchers from all over the world have proposed many solutions for indoor positioning over the past several years. However, owing to the dynamic and complex nature of indoor environments, accurately and efficiently localising targets in indoor environments remains a challenging problem. In this paper, we propose a novel indoor positioning algorithm based on the received signal strength indication and pedestrian dead reckoning. In order to enhance the accuracy and reliability of our proposed probabilistic position selection algorithm in mixed line-of-sight (LOS) and non-line-of-sight (NLOS) environments, a low-complexity identification approach is proposed to identify the change in the channel situation between NLOS and LOS. Numerical experiment results indicate that our proposed algorithm has a higher accuracy and is less impacted by NLOS errors than other conventional methods in mixed LOS and NLOS indoor environments.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 229: Automated Orthorectification of VHR Satellite Images by SIFT-Based RPC Refinement ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7060229 Authors: Hakan Kartal Ugur Alganci Elif Sertel Raw remotely sensed images contain geometric distortions and cannot be used directly for map-based applications, accurate locational information extraction or geospatial data integration. A geometric correction process must be conducted to minimize the errors related to distortions and achieve the desired location accuracy before further analysis. A considerable number of images might be needed when working over large areas or in temporal domains in which manual geometric correction requires more labor and time. To overcome these problems, new algorithms have been developed to make the geometric correction process autonomous. The Scale Invariant Feature Transform (SIFT) algorithm is an image matching algorithm used in remote sensing applications that has received attention in recent years. In this study, the effects of the incidence angle, surface topography and land cover (LC) characteristics on SIFT-based automated orthorectification were investigated at three different study sites with different topographic conditions and LC characteristics using Pleiades very high resolution (VHR) images acquired at different incidence angles. The results showed that the location accuracy of the orthorectified images increased with lower incidence angle images. More importantly, the topographic characteristics had no observable impacts on the location accuracy of SIFT-based automated orthorectification, and the results showed that Ground Control Points (GCPs) are mainly concentrated in the “Forest” and “Semi Natural Area” LC classes. A multi-thread code was designed to reduce the automated processing time, and the results showed that the process performed 7 to 16 times faster using an automated approach. Analyses performed on various spectral modes of multispectral data showed that the arithmetic data derived from pan-sharpened multispectral images can be used in automated SIFT-based RPC orthorectification.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 373: Ungulate Browsing Limits Bird Diversity of the Central European Hardwood Floodplain Forests Forests doi: 10.3390/f9070373 Authors: Ivo Machar Petr Cermak Vilem Pechanec Temperate hardwood floodplain forests along lowland rivers are considered important forest biodiversity refugia in the European cultural landscape. The absence of apex predators combined with an artificial feeding of herbivore populations in winter seasons has caused an increase in browsing pressure on hardwood trees, nearly preventing their regeneration in some localities. There are still important knowledge gaps in understanding the relationships between deer abundance (and browsing pressure) and the abundance (and diversity) of forest bird species in unmanaged hardwood forests. We have studied the red deer and fallow deer browsing pressure in Central European unmanaged hardwood floodplain forests using a novel method based on monitoring browsing pressure along transects combined with bird census data in the Litovelské Pomoraví Protected Landscape Area (Czech Republic). The monitoring data suggested a very high browsing pressure on hardwood trees, causing a strong reduction of the shrub layer and young tree layer (30–210 cm above ground surface). The bird census data from the study area were collected using the territory mapping method. Our results revealed a bird diversity decline in all study plots and the bush nesters guild was found to be completely absent. As bird species from the bush nesters guild are generally common (usually dominant) in hardwood floodplain forest ecosystems with a rich shrub and young tree layer and low browsing pressure, we conclude that intense browsing by large herbivores represents a limiting factor to the bird diversity (especially bush nesters) of hardwood floodplain forests.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 370: Mechanized Tree Planting in Sweden and Finland: Current State and Key Factors for Future Growth Forests doi: 10.3390/f9070370 Authors: Back Tomas Ersson Tiina Laine Timo Saksa In Fennoscandia, mechanized tree planting is time-efficient and produces high-quality regeneration. However, because of low cost-efficiency, the mechanization of Fennoscandian tree planting has been struggling. To determine key factors for its future growth, we compared the operational, planning, logistical, and organizational characteristics of mechanized planting in Sweden and Finland. Through interviews with planting machine contractors and client company foresters, we establish that mechanized tree planting in Sweden and Finland presently shares more similarities than differences. Some notable differences include typically longer planting seasons in Sweden, and a tendency towards two-shift operation and less frequent worksite pre-inspection by contractors in Finland. Because of similar challenges, mechanized planting in both countries can improve cost-efficiency through education of involved foresters, flexible information systems, efficient seedling logistics, and continued technical development of planting machines. By striving to have multiple client companies, contractors can reduce their operating radii and increase their machine utilization rates. Above all, our results provide international readers with unprecedented detailed and comprehensive figures and characteristics of Swedish and Finnish mechanized tree-planting activities. We conclude that cooperation between Sweden’s and Finland’s forest industries and research institutes could enhance the mechanization level of Fennoscandian tree planting.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 371: Effects of Plot Positioning Errors on the Optimality of Harvest Prescriptions When Spatial Forest Planning Relies on ALS Data Forests doi: 10.3390/f9070371 Authors: Adrián Pascual Timo Pukkala Sergio de-Miguel Forest management planning is increasingly relying on airborne laser scanning (ALS) in forest inventory. The area-based method to interpret ALS data requires sample plots measured in the field. The aim of this study was to assess and trace the impacts of the positioning errors of field plots along the entire forest management planning process, from their effect on forest inventory results to the outcome of forest management planning. This research links plot positioning errors with the spatio-temporal allocation of forest treatments and calculates the inoptimality losses arising from plot positioning errors in ALS-based forest inventory. The study area was a forest management unit in Central Spain. Growing stock attributes were predicted for a grid of square-shaped cells. Alternative management schedules were simulated for the grid cells by using growth and yield models. Then, a spatial forest planning problem aiming at maximizing timber production with even-flow cuttings was formulated. Spatial objective variables were used to cluster management prescriptions into dynamic treatment units. We used simulated annealing to conduct spatial optimization. First, the true plot locations were used and then the whole process was repeated with normally distributed random errors with standard deviation equal to 2.5, 5 and 10 m, resulting in an average error of 1.47, 3.06 and 8.34 m, respectively. Increasing the level of positioning errors resulted in higher variability in the estimated growing stock attributes and in the achieved values of management goals. Sub-optimal prescriptions caused by the tested plot positioning errors caused up to 4.62% losses in timber production and up to 3.35% losses in utility. The losses increased with increasing plot positioning error.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 226: Geophysical Input to Improve the Conceptual Model of the Hydrogeological Framework of a Coastal Karstic Aquifer: Uley South Basin, South Australia Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8070226 Authors: Nara Somaratne Glyn Ashman Michelle Irvine Simon Mann A lack of closely spaced datasets on layer elevations, aquifer parameters, identification of areas with high recharge potential, dominant conduit porosity zones, and well defined boundary conditions hampers the ability of groundwater models to produce a reliable water balance. Typically, geological structure, aquifer properties, and groundwater heads are obtained from point measurements which are sparse. The drillhole information in aquifers is usually available at locations far apart, distances ranging from hundreds to thousands of meters. Furthermore, pump tests are usually conducted at limited locations and generalized to the aquifer. This limited knowledge leads to errors in the conceptual understanding of the aquifer. In this study, Airborne Electromagnetic Survey (AEM) was used to define base elevations of the aquifers where drillhole information was lacking. Surface Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (sNMR), borehole NMR, Transient Electromagnetic (TEM), and downhole geophysical surveys have given new insight to the conceptualization of hydrogeological framework. These methods are relatively low in cost compared to traditional well drilling and provide information on layer elevations, aquifer parameters, point and diffuse recharge zones, and conduit porosity zones in the profile, which improves our definition of the boundary conditions. From a practical point of view, combining drillhole information with a variety of geophysical techniques provides sound datasets to develop a comprehensive conceptual model. This in turn can be used to build a robust groundwater model.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 244: Shaking Maps Based on Cumulative Absolute Velocity and Arias Intensity: The Cases of the Two Strongest Earthquakes of the 2016–2017 Central Italy Seismic Sequence ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7070244 Authors: Antonio Costanzo By referring to the two strongest earthquakes of the 2016–2017 Central Italy seismic sequence, this paper presents a procedure to make shaking maps through empirical relationships between macroseismic intensity and ground-motion parameters. Hundreds of waveforms were processed to obtain instrumental ground-motion features which could be correlated with the potential damage intensities. To take into account peak value, frequency, duration, and energy content, which all contribute to damage, cumulative absolute velocity and Arias intensity were used to quantify the features of the ground motion. Once these parameters had been calculated at the recording sites, they were interpolated through geostatistical techniques on the whole struck area. Finally, empirical relationships were used for mapping intensities, i.e., potential effects on the built environment. The results referred to both earthquake scenarios that were analyzed and were also used for assessing the influence of the spatial coverage of the instrumental network. In fact, after the first events, the Italian seismic network was subjected to the addition and thickening of sensors in the epicentral area, especially. The results obtained by models only dependent on ground-motion parameters or even on the epicentral distance were compared with the official ShakeMaps and the observed intensities for assessing their reliability. Finally, some suggestions are proposed to improve the procedure that could be used for rapidly assessing ground shaking and mapping damage potential producing useful information for non-expert audience.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 242: Seamless Upscaling of the Field-Measured Grassland Aboveground Biomass Based on Gaussian Process Regression and Gap-Filled Landsat 8 OLI Reflectance ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7070242 Authors: Gaofei Yin Ainong Li Chaoyang Wu Jiyan Wang Qiaoyun Xie Zhengjian Zhang Xi Nan Huaan Jin Jinhu Bian Guangbin Lei The spatially explicit aboveground biomass (AGB) generated through upscaling field measurements is critical for carbon cycle simulation and optimized management of grasslands. However, the spatial gaps that exist in the optical remote sensing data, underutilization of the multispectral data cube and unavailability of uncertainty information hinder the generation of seamless and accurate AGB maps. This study proposes a novel framework to address the above challenges. The proposed framework filled the spatial gaps in the remote sensing data via the consistent adjustment of the climatology to actual observations (CACAO) method. Gaussian process regression (GPR) was used to fully exploit the multispectral data cube and generated the pixelwise uncertainty concurrent with the AGB estimation. A case study in a 100 km × 100 km area located in the Zoige Plateau, China was used to evaluate this framework. The results show that the CACAO method can fill almost all of the gaps, accounting for 93.1% of the study area, with satisfactory accuracy. The generated AGB map from the GPR was characterized by a relatively high accuracy (R2 = 0.64, RMSE = 48.13 g/m2) compared to vegetation index-derived ones, and was accompanied by a corresponding uncertainty map that provides a new source of information on the credibility of each pixel. This study demonstrates the potential of the joint use of gap-filling and machine-learning methods to generate spatially explicit AGB.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 379: Structural Diversity in a Mixed Spruce-Fir-Beech Old-Growth Forest Remnant of the Western Carpathians Forests doi: 10.3390/f9070379 Authors: Zuzana Parobeková Ján Pittner Stanislav Kucbel Milan Saniga Michal Filípek Denisa Sedmáková Jaroslav Vencurik Peter Jaloviar Old-growth forests are a unique source of information for close-to-nature silviculture. In the National Nature Reserve Dobročský prales (Slovakia), a remnant of mixed old-growth forests of the Western Carpathians, we analyzed changes in tree species composition, stand structure, and creation and closure of canopy gaps. The results were based on data from forest inventories of an entire reserve conducted in 1978 and 2015, extended by detailed measurements in a research plot of 250 × 250 m. We observed the expansion of common beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) at the expense of conifers (Abies alba Mill., Picea abies L. Karst.) in all layers of the stand. Due to a lack of conifers in the category of saplings >130 cm and an abundance of coniferous deadwood, we hypothesize that this development will lead to the dominance of beech. All development stages revealed a reverse J-shaped diameter structure; however, they differed in the majority of basic stand characteristics (e.g., growing stock, basal area, tree density, deadwood volume). Most of the structural indices did not differ between development stages, confirming a relatively high degree of structural differentiation throughout the development cycle. The total gap area reached 18%, with the dominance of small gaps ≤100 m2. Nevertheless, only canopy gaps >100 m2 formed by the mortality of three or more trees were of higher importance for the extensive establishment of natural regeneration.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 233: Site Effect Assessment of the Gros-Morne Hill Area in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, Part B: Mapping and Modelling Results Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8070233 Authors: Sophia Ulysse Dominique Boisson Claude Prépetit Hans-Balder Havenith This paper presents the general results in terms of maps, as well as geological and numerical models of a site effect study, that aimed at a better understanding of the ground motion amplification on the Gros-Morne hill, in the southeastern part of Port-au-Prince, Haiti, which might have influenced the 2010 event damage pattern in that area. These maps and models are based on multiple geophysical–seismological survey outputs that are presented, in detail, in Part A of this publication. Those outputs include electrical resistivity tomography sections, P-wave velocity profiles, S-wave logs, estimates of the fundamental resonance frequency for many locations, as well as earthquake recordings at three sites and associated site amplification assessment for the top of the hill. Related results are discussed in Part A with respect to outputs and interpretations that had been published earlier by other research teams for the same site. Our results only partly confirm the strong seismic amplification effects highlighted by some of the previous studies for this hill site, which had been attributed to the influence of local topographic and soil characteristics on seismic ground motion. Here, we focus on the imaging of different site effect components over the entire survey area; we present maps of shear wave velocity variations, of changing fundamental resonance frequencies, and of related estimates of soft soil/rock thickness, of peak spectral amplitudes, and of ambient ground motion polarization. Results have also been compiled within a 3D surface–subsurface model of the hill, which helps visualize the geological characteristics of the area, which are relevant for site effect analyses. From the 3D geomodel, we extracted one 2D geological section along the short-axis of the hill, crossing it near the location of Hotel Montana on top of the hill, which had been destroyed during the earthquake, and has now been rebuilt. This cross-section was used for dynamic numerical modelling of seismic ground motion, and for related site amplification calculation. The numerical results are compared with the site amplification characteristics that had been estimated from the ambient vibration measurements and the earthquake recordings.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 383: Effect of Gap Position on the Heavy Metal Contents of Epiphytic Mosses and Lichens on the Fallen Logs and Standing Trees in an Alpine Forest Forests doi: 10.3390/f9070383 Authors: Zhuang Wang Fuzhong Wu Wanqin Yang Bo Tan Chenhui Chang Qin Wang Rui Cao Guoqing Tang To understand the role of the forest gaps and epiphytic mosses and lichens in the heavy metal cycles of forest ecosystems, the biomass, concentration, and storage of Cd, Pb, Cu, and Zn in epiphytic mosses and lichens on fallen logs and standing trees from the gap center to the closed canopy of an alpine forest ecosystem on the eastern Tibetan Plateau were investigated. Mosses were the dominant epiphytes on fallen logs and standing trees and contribute 82.1–95.1% of total epiphyte biomass in the alpine forest. A significantly higher biomass of epiphytic mosses and lichens was observed at the gap edge. The heavy metals concentration in mosses and lichens on fallen logs and standing trees varied widely with gap positions. Lower concentrations of Cd, Cu, and Pb were found in the mosses and lichens under the closed canopy, higher concentrations of Cd and Pb were detected in the mosses and lichens at the gap edge, and higher concentrations of Cu were found at the gap center. A significant difference in Zn concentration was observed between the mosses and lichens. No significant differences in Pb or Zn concentrations were observed in the mosses and lichens between the fallen log and standing tree substrates. Furthermore, the epiphytic mosses and lichens at the gap edge accumulated more Cd, Pb, and Cu, whereas the epiphytic lichens on the fallen logs and large shrubs at the gap center accumulated more Zn. In conclusion, gap regeneration accelerates the cycling of heavy metals in alpine forest ecosystems by promoting the growth of epiphytic mosses and lichens on fallen logs and standing trees at gap edges and increasing the concentration of heavy metals in these plants.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 384: Investment Uncertainty Analysis in Eucalyptus Bole Biomass Production in Brazil Forests doi: 10.3390/f9070384 Authors: Danilo Simões Ailton Jesus Dinardi Magali Ribeiro da Silva Forestry investment projects for the biomass production of the eucalyptus bole can be characterized by uncertain environments, which result in economic risk to the forest producer, however that can be measured by applying probabilistic techniques. This was our motivation and justification for analyzing the economic-financial viability of different silvicultural practices for eucalyptus bole biomass production under conditions of uncertainties, running Monte Carlo method for risk management. The experiment was carried out in the state of São Paulo, Brazil, using 5 treatments with spacings of 3 × 2 m; 3 × 1 m; 1.5 × 2 m; 3 × 0.5 m; and 1.5 × 1.0 m, i.e., different spacings between planting lines and plants. These treatments were characterized as investment projects. To develop stochastic models, we relied on technical-economic deterministic variables. We evaluated the investment projects based on the cash flows under conditions of uncertainty, discounted at the attractiveness rate calculated by capital asset pricing model. With the results of these economic flows, the net present value, the modified internal rate of return and the profitability index values were estimated, commonly used in the analysis of investments in projects. The results showed that based on economic metrics, the three-year rotation cycle for forest stands for biomass production of the main bole of eucalyptus, with a spacing of three meters between rows and two meters between plants, had an 83% probability of economic success. The sensitivity analysis showed that the bole biomass of eucalyptus is the most important variable for determining the economic-financial feasibility of the investment project.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 251: Optical Satellite Image Geo-Positioning with Weak Convergence Geometry ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7070251 Authors: Yang Wu Yongsheng Zhang Donghong Wang Delin Mo High-resolution optical satellites are widely used in environmental monitoring. With the aim to observe the largest possible coverage, the overlapping areas and intersection angles of respective optical satellite images are usually small. However, the conventional bundle adjustment method leads to erroneous results or even failure under conditions of weak geometric convergence. By transforming the traditional stereo adjustment to a planar adjustment and combining it with linear programming (LP) theory, a new method that can solve the bias compensation parameters of all satellite images is proposed in this paper. With the support of freely available open source digital elevation models (DEMs) and sparse ground control points (GCPs), the method can not only ensure the consistent inner precision of all images, but also the absolute geolocation accuracy of the ground points. Tests of the two data sets covering different landscapes validated the effectiveness and feasibility of the method. The results showed that the geo-positioning performance of the method was better in regions of smaller topographic relief or for satellite images with a larger imaging altitude angle. The best accuracy of image geolocation with weak convergence geometry was as high as to 3.693 m in the horizontal direction and 6.510 m in the vertical direction, which is a level of accuracy equal to that of images with good intersection conditions.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 299: Drift-Aware Monocular Localization Based on a Pre-Constructed Dense 3D Map in Indoor Environments ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080299 Authors: Guanyuan Feng Lin Ma Xuezhi Tan Danyang Qin Recently, monocular localization has attracted increased attention due to its application to indoor navigation and augmented reality. In this paper, a drift-aware monocular localization system that performs global and local localization is presented based on a pre-constructed dense three-dimensional (3D) map. In global localization, a pixel-distance weighted least squares algorithm is investigated for calculating the absolute scale for the epipolar constraint. To reduce the accumulative errors that are caused by the relative position estimation, a map interaction-based drift detection method is introduced in local localization, and the drift distance is computed by the proposed line model-based maximum likelihood estimation sample consensus (MLESAC) algorithm. The line model contains a fitted line segment and some visual feature points, which are used to seek inliers of the estimated feature points for drift detection. Taking advantage of the drift detection method, the monocular localization system switches between the global and local localization modes, which effectively keeps the position errors within an expected range. The performance of the proposed monocular localization system is evaluated on typical indoor scenes, and experimental results show that compared with the existing localization methods, the accuracy improvement rates of the absolute position estimation and the relative position estimation are at least 30.09% and 65.59%, respectively.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 297: The Negative Effects of Alcohol Establishment Size and Proximity on the Frequency of Violent and Disorder Crime across Block Groups of Victoria, British Columbia ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080297 Authors: Jessica L. Fitterer Trisalyn A. Nelson Timothy Stockwell Multiple studies have associated the density of alcohol establishments with crime. What is not well understood is the influence of establishment patron capacity on the magnitude of crime in an area, or how the spacing of liquor primary establishments impacts crime levels. Using a Poisson spatial lag model, we estimated how patron capacity of on-premises licenses and the total number of off-premises licenses were associated with the frequency of violent and disorder crime occurring on Friday and Saturday nights in Victoria, British Columbia. To identify how the distance between bars and pubs was associated with the frequency of crime within 200 m of each establishment, we applied bivariate curve fitting and change detection techniques. Our model explained 76% percent of the variance in crime frequencies. Bars and pubs within block groups, and in neighboring block groups, had a significant positive association (p < 0.05) with the frequency of crime compared to other on-premises licenses (e.g., restaurants, theatres, clubs, hotels), and off-premises liquor stores. For every additional 1111 bar or pub patron seats the crime frequency per block group is expected to double over a 17 month period (factor of 1.0009 per patron seat). Crime frequency significantly dropped (p < 0.05) around (200 m) bars and pubs that are spaced greater than 300 m apart. Our results provide the first evidenced-based information for evaluating the size and spacing of on-premises licenses in Canada.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 298: Grid-Based Crime Prediction Using Geographical Features ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080298 Authors: Ying-Lung Lin Meng-Feng Yen Liang-Chih Yu Machine learning is useful for grid-based crime prediction. Many previous studies have examined factors including time, space, and type of crime, but the geographic characteristics of the grid are rarely discussed, leaving prediction models unable to predict crime displacement. This study incorporates the concept of a criminal environment in grid-based crime prediction modeling, and establishes a range of spatial-temporal features based on 84 types of geographic information by applying the Google Places API to theft data for Taoyuan City, Taiwan. The best model was found to be Deep Neural Networks, which outperforms the popular Random Decision Forest, Support Vector Machine, and K-Near Neighbor algorithms. After tuning, compared to our design’s baseline 11-month moving average, the F1 score improves about 7% on 100-by-100 grids. Experiments demonstrate the importance of the geographic feature design for improving performance and explanatory ability. In addition, testing for crime displacement also shows that our model design outperforms the baseline.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 306: Satellite-Derived Bathymetry for Improving Canadian Hydrographic Service Charts ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080306 Authors: René Chénier Marc-André Faucher Ryan Ahola Approximately 1000 Canadian Hydrographic Service (CHS) charts cover Canada’s oceans and navigable waters. Many charts use information collected with techniques that predate the more advanced technologies available to Hydrographic Offices (HOs) today. Furthermore, gaps in survey data, particularly in the Canadian Arctic where only 6% of waters are surveyed to modern standards, are also problematic. Through a Canadian Space Agency (CSA) Government Related Initiatives Program (GRIP) project, CHS is exploring remote sensing techniques to assist with the improvement of Canadian navigational charts. Projects exploring optical/Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) shoreline extraction and change detection, as well as optical Satellite-Derived Bathymetry (SDB), are currently underway. This paper focuses on SDB extracted from high-resolution optical imagery, highlighting current results as well as the challenges and opportunities CHS will encounter when implementing SDB within its operational chart production process. SDB is of particular interest to CHS due to its ability to supplement depths derived from traditional hydrographic surveys. This is of great importance in shallow and/or remote Canadian waters where achieving wide-area depth coverage through traditional surveys is costly, time-consuming and a safety risk to survey operators. With an accuracy of around 1 m, SDB could be used by CHS to fill gaps in survey data and to provide valuable information in dynamic areas.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 305: Prioritizing Abandoned Mine Lands Rehabilitation: Combining Landscape Connectivity and Pattern Indices with Scenario Analysis Using Land-Use Modeling ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080305 Authors: Liping Zhang Shiwen Zhang Yajie Huang An Xing Zhiqing Zhuo Zhongxiang Sun Zhen Li Meng Cao Yuanfang Huang Connectivity modeling approaches for abandoned mine lands (AML) patches are limited in post-mining landscape restoration, especially where great land use changes might be expected due to large-scale land reclamation. This study presents a novel approach combining AML patch sizes with a proximity index to characterize patch-scaled connectivity for determining the spatial positions of patches with huge sizes and high connectivity. Then this study propose a scenario-based method coupled with landscape-scale metrics for quantifying landscape-scaled connectivity, which aims at exploring the optimal reclamation scheme with the highest connectivity. Using the Mentougou District in Beijing, China, as a case study, this paper confirmed which patches should be reclaimed first to meet the predetermined reclamation numbers; then this paper tested three different reclamation scenarios (i.e., cultivated land-oriented, forest-oriented, and construction land-oriented scenarios) to describe the impact of the different development strategies on landscape connectivity. The research found that the forest-oriented scenario increased connectivity quantitatively, showing an increase in the integral index of connectivity (IIC) and other landscape-scale metrics. Therefore, this paper suggests that future land-use policies should emphasize converting AML into more forest to blend in with the surrounding land-use categories. The findings presented here can contribute to better understanding the quantitative analysis of the connectivity of AML patches at both the patch scale and the landscape scale, thus providing scientific support for AML management in mine-site rehabilitation.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 293: Shp2graph: Tools to Convert a Spatial Network into an Igraph Graph in R ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080293 Authors: Binbin Lu Huabo Sun Paul Harris Miaozhong Xu Martin Charlton In this study, we introduce the R package shp2graph, which provides tools to convert a spatial network into an ‘igraph’ graph of the igraphR package. This conversion greatly empowers a spatial network study, as the vast array of graph analytical tools provided in igraph are then readily available to the network analysis, together with the inherent advantages of being within the R statistical computing environment and its vast array of statistical functions. Through three urban road network case studies, the calculation of road network distances with shp2graph and with igraph is demonstrated through four key stages: (i) confirming the connectivity of a spatial network; (ii) integrating points/locations with a network; (iii) converting a network into a graph; and (iv) calculating network distances (and travel times). Throughout, the required R commands are given to provide a useful tutorial on the use of shp2graph.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 292: Optimized Location-Allocation of Earthquake Relief Centers Using PSO and ACO, Complemented by GIS, Clustering, and TOPSIS ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080292 Authors: Bahram Saeidian Mohammad Saadi Mesgari Biswajeet Pradhan Mostafa Ghodousi After an earthquake, it is required to establish temporary relief centers in order to help the victims. Selection of proper sites for these centers has a significant effect on the processes of urban disaster management. In this paper, the location and allocation of relief centers in district 1 of Tehran are carried out using Geospatial Information System (GIS), the Technique for Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution (TOPSIS) decision model, a simple clustering method and the two meta-heuristic algorithms of Particle Swarm Optimization (PSO) and Ant Colony Optimization (ACO). First, using TOPSIS, the proposed clustering method and GIS analysis tools, sites satisfying initial conditions with adequate distribution in the area are chosen. Then, the selection of proper centers and the allocation of parcels to them are modelled as a location/allocation problem, which is solved using the meta-heuristic optimization algorithms. Also, in this research, PSO and ACO are compared using different criteria. The implementation results show the general adequacy of TOPSIS, the clustering method, and the optimization algorithms. This is an appropriate approach to solve such complex site selection and allocation problems. In view of the assessment results, the PSO finds better answers, converges faster, and shows higher consistency than the ACO.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 465: Qualitative Assessment of Forest Ecosystem Services: The Stakeholders’ Point of View in Support of Landscape Planning Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080465 Authors: Isabella De Meo Maria Giulia Cantiani Fabrizio Ferretti Alessandro Paletto In the last decades, the ecosystem services (ES) concept has become one of the main challenges of study and discussion in the scientific community. The quantitative and qualitative assessment of ES is as a tool to address forest management planning on a local scale. Forest landscape management planning is the most suitable level for integrating social needs and demands in the enhancement of different forest ES. Some regions in Italy have developed forest landscape management plans taking into account the social preferences for the different ES. In this paper, we refer to five case studies in three pilot areas in Italy. A survey collected and analyzed the opinions and preferences, from 362 stakeholders, for ten ES included in three categories (provisioning, regulating and cultural services). The main aim of this study is to understand what type of variables (study area, the groups of interest and socio-demographic characteristics of respondents) most influence stakeholder preferences for ES. The results show that for the sample of stakeholders involved in the survey, the most important ES category is regulating services followed by cultural services. In addition, the results show that the group of stakeholders’ interest is the most important variable influencing their preferences for ES.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 308: Identifying Modes of Driving Railway Trains from GPS Trajectory Data: An Ensemble Classifier-Based Approach ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080308 Authors: Han Zheng Zanyang Cui Xingchen Zhang Recognizing Modes of Driving Railway Trains (MDRT) can help to solve railway freight transportation problems in driver behavior research, auto-driving system design and capacity utilization optimization. Previous studies have focused on analyses and applications of MDRT, but there is currently no approach to automatically and effectively identify MDRT in the context of big data. In this study, we propose an integrated approach including data preprocessing, feature extraction, classifiers modeling, training and parameter tuning, and model evaluation to infer MDRT using GPS data. The highlights of this study are as follows: First, we propose methods for extracting Driving Segmented Standard Deviation Features (DSSDF) combined with classical features for the purpose of improving identification performances. Second, we find the most suitable classifier for identifying MDRT based on a comparison of performances of K-Nearest Neighbor, Support Vector Machines, AdaBoost, Random Forest, Gradient Boosting Decision Tree, and XGBoost. From the real-data experiment, we conclude that: (i) The ensemble classifier XGBoost produces the best performance with an accuracy of 92.70%; (ii) The group of DSSDF plays an important role in identifying MDRT with an accuracy improvement of 11.2% (using XGBoost). The proposed approach has been applied in capacity utilization optimization and new driver training for the Baoshen Railway.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 318: A Methodology for Planar Representation of Frescoed Oval Domes: Formulation and Testing on Pisa Cathedral ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080318 Authors: Andrea Piemonte Gabriella Caroti Isabel Martínez-Espejo Zaragoza Filippo Fantini Luca Cipriani This paper presents an original methodology for planar development of a frescoed dome with an oval plan. Input data include a rigorous geometric survey, performed with a laser scanner, and a photogrammetry campaign, which associates a high-quality photographic texture to the 3D model. Therefore, the main topics include the development of geometry and, contextually, of the associated textures. In order to overcome the inability to directly develop the surface, an orthographic azimuthal projection is used. Starting from a prerequisite study of building methodology, the dome is divided into sectors and bands, each linked with the maximum acceptable deformations and the actual geometric discontinuities detectable by the analysis of Gaussian curvature. Upon definition of the development model, a custom automation script has been devised for geometry projection. This effectively generates a (u,v) map, associated to the model, which is used for model texturing and provides the planar development of the fresco.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 482: An Assessment of the Environmental Impacts of Transgenic Triploid Populus tomentosa in Field Condition Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080482 Authors: Qi Guo Nan Lu Zijing Luo Yuhan Sun Shaowu Jin Shaoming Wang Zhimin Guo Feifei Li Shouyi Chen Wanke Zhang Qingju Ji Yun Li Populus tomentosa grow rapidly, but are salt susceptible. To quickly and efficiently gain new poplar breeds with better salt resistance, a DREB transcription factor derived from Atriplex hortensis was transformed into triploid Populus tomentosa by our lab, which significantly improved the salt tolerance of host plants. However, environmental impacts of transgenic plants must be assessed before large-scale cultivation in China. Here, we conducted a field trial of AhDREB1 transgenic and non-transgenic triploid Populus tomentosa to assess the impact of transgenic trees on rhizospheric soil microbial communities and allelopathic activity of leaves. No significant differences in the number of soil microbes present were detected between the transgenic lines and the non-transgenic controls. The allelopathic activity of leaves from both the transgenic and non-transgenic lines varied with sampling time, but did not differ significantly between the transgenic and non-transgenic lines. These results indicate that the impact on the environment of AhDREB1 transgenic P. tomentosa did not differ significantly from that of the non-transformed controls for the variables observed in this field trial. We also investigated the persistence of AhDREB1 genes in decomposing transgenic poplar leaf on the soil under natural conditions for five months, and our data indicated that fragments of the genetically modified DNA were not detectable in the field after more than two months. We used a triphenyl tetrazolium chloride test (TTC) (or pollen germination method) and hybridization to test the pollen viability and fertility, respectively, of the transgenic and non-transgenic trees and the results showed that the pollen viability of both the transgenic and non-transgenic trees was extremely low in 2016; the receptor plant may have been sterile.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 298: Survivability of Soil and Permafrost Microbial Communities after Irradiation with Accelerated Electrons under Simulated Martian and Open Space Conditions Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8080298 Authors: Vladimir Cheptsov Elena Vorobyova Andrey Belov Anatoly Pavlov Denis Tsurkov Vladimir Lomasov Sergey Bulat One of the prior current astrobiological tasks is revealing the limits of microbial resistance to extraterrestrial conditions. Much attention is paid to ionizing radiation, since it can prevent the preservation and spread of life outside the Earth. The aim of this research was to study the impact of accelerated electrons (~1 MeV) as component of space radiation on microbial communities in their natural habitat—the arid soil and ancient permafrost, and also on the pure bacterial cultures that were isolated from these ecotopes. The irradiation was carried out at low pressure (~0.01 Torr) and low temperature (−130 °C) to simulate the conditions of Mars or outer space. High doses of 10 kGy and 100 kGy were used to assess the effect of dose accumulation in inactive and hypometabolic cells, depending on environmental conditions under long-term irradiation estimated on a geological time scale. It was shown that irradiation with accelerated electrons in the applied doses did not sterilize native samples from Earth extreme habitats. The data obtained suggests that viable Earth-like microorganisms can be preserved in the anabiotic state for at least 1.3 and 20 million years in the regolith of modern Mars in the shallow subsurface layer and at a 5 m depth, respectively. In addition, the results of the study indicate the possibility of maintaining terrestrial like life in the ice of Europa at a 10 cm depth for at least ~170 years or for at least 400 thousand years in open space within meteorites. It is established that bacteria in natural habitat has a much higher resistance to in situ irradiation with accelerated electrons when compared to their stability in pure isolated cultures. Thanks to the protective properties of the heterophase environment and the interaction between microbial populations even radiosensitive microorganisms as members of the native microbial communities are able to withstand very high doses of ionizing radiation.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 320: Exploring Railway Network Dynamics in China from 2008 to 2017 ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080320 Authors: Yaping Huang Shiwei Lu Xiping Yang Zhiyuan Zhao China’s high speed rail (HSR) network has been rapidly constructed and developed during the past 10 years. However, few studies have reported the spatiotemporal changes of railway network structures and how those structures have been affected by the operation of high speed rail systems in different periods. This paper analyzes the evolving network characteristics of China’s railway network during each of the four main stages of HSR development over a 10-year period. These four stages include Stage 1, when no HSR was in place prior to August 2008; Stage 2, when several HSR lines were put into operation between August 2008, and July 2011; Stage 3, when the network skeleton of most main HSR lines was put into place. This covered the period until January 2013. Finally, Stage 4 covers the deep intensification of several new HSR lines and the rapid development of intercity-HSR railway lines between January 2013, and July 2017. This paper presents a detailed analysis of the timetable-based statistical properties of China’s railway network, as well as the spatiotemporal patterns of the more than 2700 stations that have been affected by the opening of HSR lines and the corresponding policy changes. Generally, we find that the distribution of both degrees and strengths are characterized by scale-free patterns. In addition, the decreasing average path length and increasing network clustering coefficient indicate that the small world characteristic is more significant in the evolution of China’s railway network. Correlations between different network indices are explored, in order to further investigate the dynamics of China’s railway system. Overall, our study offers a new approach for assessing the growth and evolution of a real railway network based on train timetables. Our study can also be referenced by policymakers looking to adjust HSR operations and plan future HSR routes.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 487: Predicting Potential Distribution and Evaluating Suitable Soil Condition of Oil Tea Camellia in China Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080487 Authors: Caixia Liu Longsheng Chen Wei Tang Shaofeng Peng Meiqun Li Nan Deng Yongzhong Chen Oil tea Camellia, as a major cash and oil crop, has a high status in the forestry cultivation systems in China. To meet the current market demand for oil tea Camellia, its potential distribution and suitable soil condition was researched, to instruct its cultivation and popularization. The potential distribution of oil tea Camellia in China was predicted by the maximum entropy model, using global environmental and soil databases. Then, we collected 10-year literature data about oil tea Camellia soil and applied multiple imputation and factor modeling for an in-depth analysis of soil suitability for growing of oil tea Camellia. The prediction indicated that oil tea Camellia was mainly distributed in Hunan, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Hainan, East Hubei, Southwest Anhui and most of Guangdong. Climatic factors were more influential than soil factors. The minimum temperature of the coldest month, mean temperature of the coldest quarter and annual precipitation were the most significant contributors to the habitat suitability distribution. In the cultivated area of oil tea Camellia, soil fertility was poor, organic matter was the most significant factor for the soil conditions. Based on climatic and soil factor analyses, our data suggest there is a great potential to spread the oil tea Camellia cultivation industry.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 305: Adapting Cultural Heritage to Climate Change Risks: Perspectives of Cultural Heritage Experts in Europe Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8080305 Authors: Elena Sesana Alexandre S. Gagnon Chiara Bertolin John Hughes Changes in rainfall patterns, humidity, and temperature, as well as greater exposure to severe weather events, has led to the need for adapting cultural heritage to climate change. However, there is limited research accomplished to date on the process of adaptation of cultural heritage to climate change. This paper examines the perceptions of experts involved in the management and preservation of cultural heritage on adaptation to climate change risks. For this purpose, semi-structured interviews were conducted with experts from the UK, Italy, and Norway as well as a participatory workshop with stakeholders. The results indicate that the majority of interviewees believe that adaptation of cultural heritage to climate change is possible. Opportunities for, barriers to, and requirements for adapting cultural heritage to climate change, as perceived by the interviewees, provided a better understanding of what needs to be provided and prioritized for adaptation to take place and in its strategic planning. Knowledge of management methodologies incorporating climate change impacts by the interviewees together with best practice examples in adapting cultural heritage to climate change are also reported. Finally, the interviewees identified the determinant factors for the implementation of climate change adaptation. This paper highlights the need for more research on this topic and the identification and dissemination of practical solutions and tools for the incorporation of climate change adaptation in the preservation and management of cultural heritage.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 504: Preferences for Urban Building Materials: Does Building Culture Background Matter? † Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080504 Authors: Olav Høibø Eric Hansen Erlend Nybakk Marius Nygaard A fast-growing global population, increasing urbanization, and an increasing flow of people with different building cultural backgrounds bring material use in the housing sector into focus. The aim of this study is to identify material preferences in the building environment in cities and to determine if the building cultural background impacts those preferences. The data in this study consisted of responses from two groups of dwellers in Norway, including immigrants from countries where wood is an uncommon building material and native Norwegians from a building culture where wood is common. We found that the most preferred materials were often the same as the most common materials currently used in city buildings. Only small differences were found between the two groups of dwellers that were studied. Most differences were related to concerns about material choice in general and where individuals wanted to live. Respondents who preferred city living preferred commonly used city materials, such as concrete and steel. For cladding materials, stone/bricks were the most preferred. However, stained or painted wood was one of the most preferred, even though it is not commonly used in city buildings.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 503: Environmental, Structural, and Disturbance Influences over Forest Floor Components in Interior Douglas-Fir Forests of the Intermountain West, USA Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080503 Authors: Andrew D. Giunta John D. Shaw Downed woody material (DWM) is a key component in forest ecosystems with age, structure, and disturbance described as primary factors that influence DWM dynamics. In particular, much emphasis is placed on large coarse woody debris (CWD). Fine woody debris (FWD) (less than 7.62 cm diameter), duff, and litter also contribute to carbon stocks, provide habitat, add to nutrient cycling, and are often the most available fuels for fire, yet are regularly overlooked in studies describing the forest floor. Throughout the middle montane zone within the Intermountain West region USA, interior Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca Mirb. Franco) is a predominant forest type, yet little is known about the forest floor complex in these forests. We used a chronosequence approach to compare DWM patterns over the course of stand development among stands with different disturbance histories. Using classification and regression trees, we also evaluated an assemblage of environmental, structural, and disturbance variables to determine factors of most importance for estimating loading for DWM, duff, and litter. We found CWD resembled a U-shaped pattern of buildup while FWD components remained stable over the course of stand development regardless of disturbance history. Our results indicate that large DWM components are most closely associated with the amount of standing dead material in a stand, primarily the density and basal area of snags. Fine woody material was more aligned with live stand components, while duff and litter were more influenced by disturbance.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 502: Invasive-Plant-Removal Frequency—Its Impact on Species Spread and Implications for Further Integration of Forest-Management Practices Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080502 Authors: Bernabas Wolde Pankaj Lal For a given invasive plant species and control method, effective invasive plant eradication requires regular monitoring and management. While most previous studies characterize invasive plant species, develop appropriate control methods, or prioritize species for management using aggressiveness and other considerations, few study why some forestland owners are less likely than others to regularly remove invasive plant species. Such information is useful in prioritizing and targeting forestland owners who are at greater risk for invasion, with the stands threatening adjacent forestlands. Towards this end, we surveyed 1800 forestland owners in Virginia and Texas. We use data on forestland owners’ socioeconomics and forestland features—such as acreage, forestland ownership objectives, and forest management activities—to determine how these factors affect the regularity of invasive-plant removal. For these purposes, we used the Cochran–Armitage trend test, the Cochran–Mantel–Haenszal regression, odds ratio estimates, and partition-analysis techniques. Our results suggest that female forestland owners, owners with smaller forestlands, and forestland owners without written forest-management plans are less likely than others to regularly remove invasive plant species. Forest-management activities, such as building/maintaining roads in the forestland, partially harvesting stands, and wildlife- and fisheries-improvement projects, also significantly predict a more regular invasive-plant-removal tendency. However, since these activities are potential pathways for the spread of invasive plant species, we controlled for the other significant covariates and measured the relationship between frequent practice of the given forest-management activities and having a tendency to regularly remove invasive plant species. The results suggest that forestland owners that regularly practiced the said forest-management activities have higher odds for tending to remove invasive plant species regularly, suggesting that, despite their demonstrated effort at removing invasive plant species from their forest, their management activities may be inadvertently contributing to the spread of invasive plant species. These results highlight the importance of integrating invasive-plant-removal plans with forest-management plans as well as forestland owners’ educational and outreach needs.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 501: Determining Noise and Vibration Exposure in Conifer Cross-Cutting Operations by Using Li-Ion Batteries and Electric Chainsaws Forests doi: 10.3390/f9080501 Authors: Francesco Neri Andrea Laschi Cristiano Foderi Fabio Fabiano Lucia Bertuzzi Enrico Marchi In many activities, chainsaw users are exposed to the risk of injuries and several other hazard factors that may cause health problems. In fact, environmental and working conditions when using chainsaws result in workers’ exposure to hazards such as noise, vibration, exhaust gases, and wood dust. Repeated or continuous exposure to these unfavourable conditions can lead to occupational diseases that become apparent after a certain period of time has elapsed. Since the use of electric tools is increasing in forestry, the present research aims to evaluate the noise and vibration exposure caused by four models of electric chainsaws (Stihl MSA160T, Stihl MSA200C Li-Ion battery powered and Stihl MSE180C, Stihl MSE220C wired) during cross-cutting. Values measured on the Stihl MSA160T chainsaw (Li-Ion battery) showed similar vibration levels on both right and left handles (0.9–1.0 m s−2, respectively) and so did the other battery-powered chainsaw, the Stihl MSA200C (2.2–2.3 m s−2 for right and left handles, respectively). Results showed a range of noise included between 81 and 90 dB(A) for the analysed chainsaws. In conclusion, the vibrations and noise were lower for the battery chainsaws than the wired ones, but, in general, all the values were lower than those measured in previous studies of endothermic chainsaws.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 331: Use of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) for Updating Farmland Cadastral Data in Areas Subject to Landslides ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080331 Authors: Edyta Puniach Agnieszka Bieda Paweł Ćwiąkała Anita Kwartnik-Pruc Piotr Parzych The purpose of this study was to verify the applicability of unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) to update cadastral records in areas affected by landslides. Its authors intended to compare the accuracy of coordinates determined using different UAV data processing methods for points which form the framework of a cadastral database, and to find out whether products obtained as a result of such UAV data processing are sufficient to define the extent of changes in the cadastral objects. To achieve this, an experiment was designed to take place at the site of a landslide. The entire photogrammetry mission was planned to cover an area of more than 70 ha. Given the steep grade of the site, the UAV was flown over each line at a different, individually preset altitude, such as to ensure consistent mean shooting distance (height above ground level), and thus, appropriate ground sample distance (GSD; pixel size). The results were analyzed in four variants, differing from each other in terms of the number of control points used and the method of their measurement. This allowed identification of the factors that affect surveying accuracy and the indication of the cadastral data updatable based on an UAV photogrammetric survey.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 332: Using the Spatial Knowledge of Map Users to Personalize City Maps: A Case Study with Tourists in Madrid, Spain ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7080332 Authors: María-Teresa Manrique-Sancho Silvania Avelar Teresa Iturrioz-Aguirre Miguel-Ángel Manso-Callejo The aim of personalized maps is to help individual users to read maps and focus on the most task-relevant information. Several approaches have been suggested to develop personalized maps for cities, but few consider the spatial knowledge of its users. We propose the design of “cognitively-aware” personalized maps, which take into account the previous experience of users in the city and how the urban space is configured in their minds. Our aim is to facilitate users’ mental links between maps and city places, stimulating users to recall features of the urban space and to assimilate new spatial knowledge. To achieve this goal, we propose the personalization of maps through a map design process based on user modeling and on inferring personalization guidelines from hand-drawn sketches of urban spaces. We applied this process in an experiment with tourists in Madrid, Spain. We categorized the participants into three types of tourists—“Guided”, “Explorer”, and “Conditioned”—according to individual and contextual factors that can influence their spatial knowledge of the city. We also extracted design guidelines from tourists’ sketches and developed map prototypes. The empirical results seem to be promising for developing personalized city maps that could be produced on-the-fly in the future.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 312: Lake Nyos, a Multirisk and Vulnerability Appraisal Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8090312 Authors: Mesmin Tchindjang Situated at the northern flank of the Oku Massif, Lake Nyos crater epitomizes landscape features originating from volcanic explosions during the Quaternary. The Cameroon Volcanic Line (CVL), to which it belongs, constitutes the most active volcanic region in Cameroon. In 1986, an outgas explosion occurred from beneath the lake and killed 1746 people in several neighbouring villages. The event influenced a radial area of 25 to 40 km wide, particularly in eastern and western direction. This was mainly due to: (1) the rugged nature of the landscape (fault fields), which enabled the heavier gas to follow valleys framed by faults corridors without affecting elevated areas; and (2) the seasonal dominating western wind direction, which channeled the gas along tectonic corridors and valleys. This paper assesses the geological risk and vulnerability in the Lake Nyos before and after several proposal to mitigate future outgas events. Remotely sensed data, together with GIS tools (topographic maps, aerial photographs), helped to determine and assess lineaments and associated risks. A critical grid combining severity and frequency analysis was used to assess the vulnerability of the local population. There is evidence that along the main fault directions (SW–NE), anthropogenic activities are most intensive and they may play an aggravating role for disasters. This requires the local population’s consciousness-raising. The results also show that population around Lake Nyos still remains vulnerable to volcanic hazards and floods. However, the area has been safe since the last degassing and jet grouting through multiple procedures and actions proposed in the National Contingency Plan, and equally by the relief organization plan (DROP or ORSEC plan) for the Menchum Division. Another issue is that the local population is concerned with the idea of returning to the affected areas in order to stay close to their ancestors or the deceased. Therefore, even after jet grouting and degassing, the problem of risk minimization for local residents remains.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 333: Generating a High-Precision True Digital Orthophoto Map Based on UAV Images ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7090333 Authors: Yu Liu Xinqi Zheng Gang Ai Yi Zhang Yuqiang Zuo Unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) low-altitude remote sensing technology has recently been adopted in China. However, mapping accuracy and production processes of true digital orthophoto maps (TDOMs) generated by UAV images require further improvement. In this study, ground control points were distributed and images were collected using a multi-rotor UAV and professional camera, at a flight height of 160 m above the ground and a designed ground sample distance (GSD) of 0.016 m. A structure from motion (SfM), revised digital surface model (DSM) and multi-view image texture compensation workflow were outlined to generate a high-precision TDOM. We then used randomly distributed checkpoints on the TDOM to verify its precision. The horizontal accuracy of the generated TDOM was 0.0365 m, the vertical accuracy was 0.0323 m, and the GSD was 0.0166 m. Tilt and shadowed areas of the TDOM were eliminated so that buildings maintained vertical viewing angles. This workflow produced a TDOM accuracy within 0.05 m, and provided an effective method for identifying rural homesteads, as well as land planning and design.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 342: Accuracy Assessment of Point Clouds from LiDAR and Dense Image Matching Acquired Using the UAV Platform for DTM Creation ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7090342 Authors: Adam Salach Krzysztof Bakuła Magdalena Pilarska Wojciech Ostrowski Konrad Górski Zdzisław Kurczyński In this paper, the results of an experiment about the vertical accuracy of generated digital terrain models were assessed. The created models were based on two techniques: LiDAR and photogrammetry. The data were acquired using an ultralight laser scanner, which was dedicated to Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) platforms that provide very dense point clouds (180 points per square meter), and an RGB digital camera that collects data at very high resolution (a ground sampling distance of 2 cm). The vertical error of the digital terrain models (DTMs) was evaluated based on the surveying data measured in the field and compared to airborne laser scanning collected with a manned plane. The data were acquired in summer during a corridor flight mission over levees and their surroundings, where various types of land cover were observed. The experiment results showed unequivocally, that the terrain models obtained using LiDAR technology were more accurate. An attempt to assess the accuracy and possibilities of penetration of the point cloud from the image-based approach, whilst referring to various types of land cover, was conducted based on Real Time Kinematic Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS-RTK) measurements and was compared to archival airborne laser scanning data. The vertical accuracy of DTM was evaluated for uncovered and vegetation areas separately, providing information about the influence of the vegetation height on the results of the bare ground extraction and DTM generation. In uncovered and low vegetation areas (0–20 cm), the vertical accuracies of digital terrain models generated from different data sources were quite similar: for the UAV Laser Scanning (ULS) data, the RMSE was 0.11 m, and for the image-based data collected using the UAV platform, it was 0.14 m, whereas for medium vegetation (higher than 60 cm), the RMSE from these two data sources were 0.11 m and 0.36 m, respectively. A decrease in the accuracy of 0.10 m, for every 20 cm of vegetation height, was observed for photogrammetric data; and such a dependency was not noticed in the case of models created from the ULS data.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 507: Influence of Fuel Moisture Content, Packing Ratio and Wind Velocity on the Ignition Probability of Fuel Beds Composed of Mongolian Oak Leaves via Cigarette Butts Forests doi: 10.3390/f9090507 Authors: Ping Sun Yunlin Zhang Long Sun Haiqing Hu Futao Guo Guangyu Wang Heng Zhang Cigarette butts are an important human firebrand and account for a significant amount of man-made fires. To better address forest fires caused by cigarette butts, the influencing factors governing the ignition probability of cigarette butts can be used to establish a prediction model. This study obtains the influencing factors of the ignition probability of cigarette butts in order to establish a prediction model by constructing fuel beds composed of Mongolian oak leaves with varied fuel moisture content and packing ratios. A total of 2520 ignition experiments were then conducted by dropping cigarette butts on the fuel beds to test the burning probability of the fuels under varied wind speeds. Moisture content, wind speed, and their interaction significantly influenced ignition probability. In the absence of wind, the ignition probability is zero. The maximum moisture content of Mongolian oak leaves that could be ignited by cigarette butts was 15%. A logistic model and self-built model for predicting the ignition probability were established using these results; the mean absolute error values for the two models were 2.71% and 1.13%, respectively, and the prediction error of the self-built model was lower than that of the logistic model. This is important research to mitigate the threat of forest fires due to cigarette butts given the frequent occurrence of these events.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 313: Micromorphological and Chemical Features of Soils as Evidence of Bronze Age Ancient Anthropogenic Impact (Late Bronze Age Muradymovo Settlement, Ural Region, Russia) Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8090313 Authors: Alexandra Golyeva Olga Khokhlova Marina Lebedeva Nickolay Shcherbakov Iia Shuteleva In some cases, the human impact on ancient landscapes has been so profound that local soils still remain significantly affected even after hundreds and thousands of years after ending impact. We studied the Late Bronze Age Muradymovo settlement located in the Urals, Russia, aiming to estimate the consequences of the ancient people’s activity on the environment. Despite the present humid climate, the modern soils inside the cultural layer of the study site contain more than 27% of gypsum at a depth of just 10 cm from the surface, and a microrelief of the study site is typical of a gypsum desert. The nearby background Chernozems are gypsum-free to a depth of 2 m. According to the archaeological data, the ancient people belonged to the ‘Srubno-Alakul’ archaeological culture (1750–1350 years B.C. cal (calibrated years before Christ)) and had a tradition of building their houses from gypsum rocks. At the present time, this area is still unsuitable for human settlement. The properties of modern soils inside the cultural layer of the study site are directly affected by the Late Bronze Age human activities. It has been identified on soil morphology, micromorphology, and chemical properties of soils developed inside the cultural layer of the settlement.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 506: Recovery of Functional Diversity Following Shifting Cultivation in Tropical Monsoon Forests Forests doi: 10.3390/f9090506 Authors: Fuying Deng Yunling He Runguo Zang The relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem functioning is an important issue in ecology. Plant functional traits and their diversity are key determinants of ecosystem function in changing environments. Understanding the successional dynamics of functional features in forest ecosystems is a first step to their sustainable management. In this study, we tested the changes in functional community composition with succession in tropical monsoon forests in Xishuangbanna, China. We sampled 33 plots at three successional stages—~40-year-old secondary forests, ~60-year-old secondary forests, and old growth forests—following the abandonment of the shifting cultivation land. Community-level functional traits were calculated based on measurements of nine functional traits for 135 woody plant species. The results show that the community structures and species composition of the old-growth forests were significantly different to those of the secondary stands. The species diversity, including species richness (S), the Shannon–Weaver index (H), and Pielou’s evenness (J), significantly increased during the recovery process after shifting cultivation. The seven studied leaf functional traits (deciduousness, specific leaf area, leaf dry matter content, leaf nitrogen content, leaf phosphorus content, leaf potassium content and leaf carbon content) changed from conservative to acquisitive syndromes during the recovery process, whereas wood density showed the opposite pattern, and seed mass showed no significant change, suggesting that leaf traits are more sensitive to environmental changes than wood or seed traits. The functional richness increased during the recovery process, whereas the functional evenness and divergence had the highest values in the 60-year-old secondary communities. Soil nutrients significantly influenced functional traits, but their effects on functional diversity were less obvious during the secondary succession after shifting cultivation. Our study indicates that the recovery of tropical monsoon forests is rather slow; secondary stands recover far less than the old growth stands in terms of community structure and species and functional diversity, even after about half a century of recovery, highlighting the importance of the conservation of old growth tropical monsoon forest ecosystems.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 348: Nesting Patterns of Loggerhead Sea Turtles (Caretta caretta): Development of a Multiple Regression Model Tested in North Carolina, USA ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7090348 Authors: Joanne N. Halls Alyssa L. Randall Numerous environmental conditions may influence when a female Loggerhead sea turtle (Caretta caretta) selects a nesting site. Limited research has used Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and statistical analysis to study sea turtle spatial patterns and temporal trends. Therefore, the goals of this research were to identify areas that were most prevalent for nesting and to test social and environmental variables to create a nesting suitability predictive model. Data were analyzed at all barrier island beaches in North Carolina, USA (515 km) and several variables were statistically significant: distance to hardened structures, beach nourishment, house density, distance to inlets, and beach elevation, slope, and width. Interestingly, variables that were not significant were population density, proximity to the Gulf Stream, and beach aspect. Several statistical techniques were tested and Negative Binomial Distribution produced good regional results while Geographically Weighted Regression models successfully predicted the number of nests with an average of 75% of the variance explained. Therefore, the combination of traditional and spatial statistics provided insightful predictive modeling results that may be incorporated into management strategies and may have important implications for the designation of critical Loggerhead nesting habitats.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 511: Species Richness of the Family Ericaceae along an Elevational Gradient in Yunnan, China Forests doi: 10.3390/f9090511 Authors: Ji-Hua Wang Yan-Fei Cai Lu Zhang Chuan-Kun Xu Shi-Bao Zhang Knowledge about how species richness varies along spatial and environmental gradients is important for the conservation and use of biodiversity. The Ericaceae is a major component of alpine and subalpine vegetation globally. However, little is known about the spatial pattern of species richness and the factors that drive that richness in Ericaceae. We investigated variation in species richness of Ericaceae along an elevational gradient in Yunnan, China, and used a variation partitioning analysis based on redundancy analysis ordination to examine how those changes might be influenced by the mid-domain effect, the species-area relationship, and climatic variables. Species richness varied significantly with elevation, peaking in the upper third of the elevational gradient. Of the factors examined, climate explained a larger proportion of the variance in species richness along the elevational gradient than either land area or geometric constraints. Species richness showed a unimodal relationship with mean annual temperature and mean annual precipitation. The elevational pattern of species richness for Ericaceae was shaped by the combined effects of climate and competition. Our findings contribute to a better understanding of the potential effects of climate change on species richness for Ericaceae.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 514: Mediterranean Islands Hosting Marginal and Peripheral Forest Tree Populations: The Case of Pinus brutia Ten. in Cyprus Forests doi: 10.3390/f9090514 Authors: Nicolas-George H. Eliades Filippos (Phil) A. Aravanopoulos Andreas K. Christou Mediterranean islands have served as important Tertiary and glacial refuges, hosting important peripheral and ecologically marginal forest tree populations. These populations, presumably harboring unique gene complexes, are particularly interesting in the context of climate change. Pinus brutia Ten. is widespread in the eastern Mediterranean Basin and in Cyprus in particular it is the most common tree species. This study evaluated genetic patterns and morphoanatomical local adaptation along the species geographical distribution and altitudinal range in Cyprus. Analysis showed that the Cyprus population of P. brutia is a peripheral population with high genetic diversity, comprised of different subpopulations. Evidence suggests the presence of ongoing dynamic evolutionary processes among the different subpopulations, while the most relic and isolated subpopulations exhibited a decreased genetic diversity compared to the most compact subpopulations in the central area of the island. These results could be the consequence of the small size and prolonged isolation of the former. Comparing populations along an altitude gradient, higher genetic diversity was detected at the middle level. The phenotypic plasticity observed is particularly important for the adaptive potential of P. brutia in an island environment, since it allows rapid change in local environmental conditions.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 513: Development of a New TRIPLEX-Insect Model for Simulating the Effect of Spruce Budworm on Forest Carbon Dynamics Forests doi: 10.3390/f9090513 Authors: Zelin Liu Changhui Peng De Grandpré Louis Jean-Noël Candau Xiaolu Zhou Daniel Kneeshaw The spruce budworm (SBW) defoliates and kills conifer trees, consequently affecting carbon (C) exchanges between the land and atmosphere. Here, we developed a new TRIPLEX-Insect sub-model to quantify the impacts of insect outbreaks on forest C fluxes. We modeled annual defoliation (AD), cumulative defoliation (CD), and tree mortality. The model was validated against observed and published data at the stand level in the North Shore region of Québec and Cape Breton Island in Nova Scotia, Canada. The results suggest that TRIPLEX-Insect performs very well in capturing tree mortality following SBW outbreaks and slightly underestimates current annual volume increment (CAI). In both mature and immature forests, the simulation model suggests a larger reduction in gross primary productivity (GPP) than in autotrophic respiration (Ra) at the same defoliation level when tree mortality was low. After an SBW outbreak, the growth release of surviving trees contributes to the recovery of annual net ecosystem productivity (NEP) based on forest age if mortality is not excessive. Overall, the TRIPLEX-Insect model is capable of simulating C dynamics of balsam fir following SBW disturbances and can be used as an efficient tool in forest insect management.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 317: Time Series Regression for Forecasting Flood Events in Schenectady, New York Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8090317 Authors: Thomas A. Plitnick Antonios E. Marsellos Katerina G. Tsakiri Floods typically occur due to ice jams in the winter or extended periods of precipitation in the spring and summer seasons. An increase in the rate of water discharge in the river coincides with a flood event. This research combines the time series decomposition and the time series regression model for the flood prediction in Mohawk River at Schenectady, New York. The time series decomposition has been applied to separate the different frequencies in hydrogeological and climatic data. The time series data have been decomposed into the long-term, seasonal-term, and short-term components using the Kolmogorov-Zurbenko filter. For the application of the time series regression model, we determine the lags of the hydrogeological and climatic variables that provide the maximum performance for the model. The lags applied in the predictor variables of the model have been used for the physical interpretation of the model to strengthen the relationship between the water discharge and the climatic and hydrogeological variables. The overall model accuracy has been increased up to 73%. The results show that using the lags of the variables in the time regression model, and the forecasting accuracy has been increased compared to the raw data by two times.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 512: Policy Design to Support Forest Restoration: The Value of Focused Investment and Collaboration Forests doi: 10.3390/f9090512 Authors: Courtney A. Schultz Kathleen B. Mclntyre Laren Cyphers Chad Kooistra Autumn Ellison Cassandra Moseley To address rapid change and complex environmental management challenges, governance approaches must support collective action across actors and jurisdictions, and planning at appropriate spatial extents to affect ecological processes. Recent changes in U.S. national forest policy incorporate new tools to facilitate collaborative landscape restoration, providing an opportunity to examine the relationship between policy design and governance change. Based on 151 interviews with agency personnel and partners, and a survey of 425 agency staff members, we investigated how two new policy approaches affected the governance of forest restoration and also looked at the other factors that most significantly affected policy implementation. Our findings reveal that, under these policies, multi-year funding commitments to specific landscapes, combined with requirements to work collaboratively, resulted in larger scales of planning, improved relationships, greater leveraged capacity, and numerous innovations compared to the past. A history of collaborative relationships, leadership, and agency capacity were the most significant variables that affected the implementation of policies designed to support collaborative landscape restoration. Our findings suggest that policies that provide focused investment to undertake landscape approaches to restoration, along with specific requirements for interagency and partner collaboration, are yielding positive results and may represent a new era in forest policy in the United States.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 318: Objective Regolith-Landform Mapping in a Regolith Dominated Terrain to Inform Mineral Exploration Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8090318 Authors: Alicia S. Caruso Kenneth D. Clarke Caroline J. Tiddy Steven Delean Megan M. Lewis An objective method for generating statistically sound objective regolith-landform maps using widely accessible digital topographic and geophysical data without requiring specific regional knowledge is demonstrated and has application as a first pass tool for mineral exploration in regolith dominated terrains. This method differs from traditional regolith-landform mapping methods in that it is not subject to interpretation and bias of the mapper. This study was undertaken in a location where mineral exploration has occurred for over 20 years and traditional regolith mapping had recently been completed using a standardized subjective methodology. An unsupervised classification was performed using a Digital Elevation Model, Topographic Position Index, and airborne gamma-ray radiometrics as data inputs resulting in 30 classes that were clustered to eight groups representing regolith types. The association between objective and traditional mapping classes was tested using the ‘Mapcurves’ algorithm to determine the ‘Goodness-of-Fit’, resulting in a mean score of 26.4% between methods. This Goodness-of-Fit indicates that this objective map may be used for initial mineral exploration in regolith dominated terrains.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 321: Groundwater Characterization by Means of Conservative (δ18O and δ2H) and Non-Conservative (87Sr/86Sr) Isotopic Values: The Classical Karst Region Aquifer Case (Italy–Slovenia) Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8090321 Authors: Chiara Calligaris Kim Mezga Francesca Federica Slejko Janko Urbanc Luca Zini The study of the different hydrogeological compartments is a prerequisite for understanding and monitoring different fluxes, thereby evaluating the environmental changes in an ecosystem where anthropogenic disturbances are present in order to preserve the most vulnerable groundwaters from contamination and degradation. In many karst domains in the Mediterranean, areas groundwaters and surface waters are a single system, as a result of the features that facilitate the ingression of waters from surface to subsurface. This is also the case for the Classical Karst hydrostructure, which is a carbonate plateau that rises above the northern Adriatic Sea, shared between Italy and Slovenia. The main suppliers to the aquifer are the effective precipitations and the waters from three different rivers: Reka/Timavo, Soča/Isonzo and Vipava/Vipacco. Past and ongoing hydrogeological studies on the area have focused on the connections within the Classical Karst Region aquifer system through the analysis of water caves and springs hydrographs and chemographs. In this paper, the authors present new combined data from major ions, oxygen, hydrogen and strontium stable and radiogenic isotopes which have allowed a more complementary knowledge of the groundwater circulation, provenance and water-rock interactions. All the actions occurred in the framework of the European project HYDROKARST.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 357: Space–Time Analysis of Vehicle Theft Patterns in Shanghai, China ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7090357 Authors: Yuanyuan Mao Shenzhi Dai Jiajun Ding Wei Zhu Can Wang Xinyue Ye To identify and compare the space–time patterns of vehicle thefts and the effects of associated environmental factors, this paper conducts a case study of the Pudong New Area (PNA), a major urban district in Shanghai, China’s largest city. Geographic information system (GIS)-based analysis indicated that there was a stable pattern of vehicle theft over time. Hotspots of vehicle theft across different time periods were identified. These data provide clues for how law enforcement can prioritize the deployment of limited patrol and investigative resources. Vehicle thefts, especially those of non-motor vehicles, tend to be concentrated in the central-western portion of the PNA, which experienced a dramatic rate of urbanization and has a high concentration of people and vehicles. Important factors contributing to vehicle thefts include a highly mobile and transitory population, a large population density, and high traffic volume.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 354: On the Risk Assessment of Terrorist Attacks Coupled with Multi-Source Factors ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7090354 Authors: Xun Zhang Min Jin Jingying Fu Mengmeng Hao Chongchong Yu Xiaolan Xie Terrorism has wreaked havoc on today’s society and people. The discovery of the regularity of terrorist attacks is of great significance to the global counterterrorism strategy. In this study, we improve the traditional location recommendation algorithm coupled with multi-source factors and spatial characteristics. We used the data of terrorist attacks in Southeast Asia from 1970 to 2016, and comprehensively considered 17 influencing factors, including socioeconomic and natural resource factors. The improved recommendation algorithm is used to build a spatial risk assessment model of terrorist attacks, and the effectiveness is tested. The model trained in this study is tested with precision, recall, and F-Measure. The results show that, when the threshold is 0.4, the precision is as high as 88%, and the F-Measure is the highest. We assess the spatial risk of the terrorist attacks in Southeast Asia through experiments. It can be seen that the southernmost part of the Indochina peninsula and the Philippines are high-risk areas and that the medium-risk and high-risk areas are mainly distributed in the coastal areas. Therefore, future anti-terrorism measures should pay more attention to these areas.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 353: Novel Method for Virtual Restoration of Cultural Relics with Complex Geometric Structure Based on Multiscale Spatial Geometry ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7090353 Authors: Miaole Hou Su Yang Yungang Hu Yuhua Wu Lili Jiang Sizhong Zhao Putong Wei Because of the age of relics and the lack of historical data, the geometric forms of missing parts can only be judged by the subjective experience of repair personnel, which leads to varying restoration effects when the geometric structure of the complex relic is reconstructed. Therefore, virtual repair effects cannot fully reflect the historical appearance of cultural relics. In order to solve this problem, this paper presents a virtual restoration method based on the multiscale spatial geometric features of cultural relics in the case of complex construction where the geometric shape of the damaged area is unknown, using the Dazu Thousand-Hand Bodhisattva statue in China as an example. In this study, the global geometric features of the three-dimensional (3D) model are analyzed in space to determine the geometric shape of the damaged parts of cultural relics. The local geometric features are represented by skeleton lines based on regression analysis, and a geometric size prediction model of the defective parts is established, which is used to calculate the geometric dimensions of the missing parts. Finally, 3D surface reconstruction technology is used to quantitate virtual restoration of the defective parts. This method not only provides a new idea for the virtual restoration of artifacts with complex geometric structure, but also may play a vital role in the protection of cultural relics.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 522: Spatial and Seasonal Variations of Standardized Photosynthetic Parameters under Different Environmental Conditions for Young Planted Larix olgensis Henry Trees Forests doi: 10.3390/f9090522 Authors: Qiang Liu Fengri Li Understanding the spatial and seasonal variations in leaf physiology is critical for accurately modeling the carbon uptake, physiological processes and growth of entire canopies and stands. For a 17-year-old Larix olgensis Henry plantation, vertical whorl-by-whorl sampling and analyses of seasonally repeated measurements of major photosynthetic parameters were conducted, and the correlations between photosynthetic parameters and environmental conditions, leaf morphological traits and spatial position within the crown were analyzed. According to the correlations, the photosynthetic parameters were standardized based on the environmental conditions to avoid the influence of the changing environment on the patterns of spatial and seasonal variations of photosynthetic parameters. The results showed that the standardized light-saturated net photosynthetic rate (SPmax), standardized dark respiration (SRd) and standardized stomatal conductance under saturated light (Sgs-sat) were all negatively related to the relative depth into the crown (RDINC) throughout the growing season. However, their vertical patterns were different during the development of the phenological phase. In addition, different gradients of environmental conditions also influenced the values and the range of the vertical variation in photosynthesis. High temperature and low humidity usually resulted in smaller values and weaker vertical variations of SPmax and Sgs-sat, but larger values and more obvious vertical variations in SRd. SPmax and Sgs-sat usually exhibited a parabolic seasonal pattern in different vertical positions within the crown; however, SRd generally followed a concave pattern. These seasonal patterns were all weaker with increasing RDINC. Different environments also exhibited a significant influence on the seasonal patterns of photosynthesis. We suggested that standardization is necessary before analyzing spatial and seasonal variations. A single environmental condition could not represent the spatial and seasonal patterns under all gradients of the environment. Spatial and seasonal variations should be simultaneously analyzed because they are related to each other.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 520: Detecting the Competition between Moso Bamboos and Broad-Leaved Trees in Mixed Forests Using a Terrestrial Laser Scanner Forests doi: 10.3390/f9090520 Authors: Yingjie Yan Mingpeng Xia Shaohui Fan Meichun Zhan Fengying Guan The growth of individual trees in a forest is affected by many factors, a crucial one being the intensity of competition among trees, because it affects the spatial structure of the forest and is in turn influenced by silvicultural practices. In a mixed forest in particular, the growth of trees is affected by multiple interactions. To analyse the competition between moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens (Pradelle) Mazel ex J.Houz.) and broad-leaved trees in a mixed forest, data were extracted by sampling six spots within such a forest using terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). The convex hull algorithm was used for calculating the overlap volume between the crowns of the broad-leaved trees and the bamboo canopy. Bamboos growing at least 3 m away from any of the broad-leaved trees were the most numerous and the diameter at breast height (DBH) is larger than those growing closer than that, which suggests that broad-leaved trees suppressed the growth of bamboo if they are closer but promote it beyond 3 m up to a point at which the distance is too great for any such effect. The modified Hegyi’s competition index was constructed based on the canopy factor, which may better describe the competitive interaction among the trees and bamboos. Using TLS can enhance our understanding of the competition among trees in mixed forests and help in planning the spatial structure of such forests in general and provide a benchmark for choosing planting distances in particular.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 519: Structure, Diversity, and Carbon Stocks of the Tree Community of Kumasi, Ghana Forests doi: 10.3390/f9090519 Authors: Bertrand Festus Nero Daniel Callo-Concha Manfred Denich Urban forestry has the potential to address many urban environmental and sustainability challenges. Yet in Africa, urban forest characterization and its potential to contribute to human wellbeing are often neglected or restrained. This paper describes the structure, diversity, and composition of an urban forest and its potential to store carbon as a means of climate change mitigation and adaptation in Kumasi. The vegetation inventory included a survey of 470,100-m2 plots based on a stratified random sampling technique and six streets ranging from 50 m to 1 km. A total of 3757 trees, comprising 176 species and 46 families, were enumerated. Tree abundance and species richness were left skewed and unimodally distributed based on diameter at breast height (DBH). Trees in the diameter classes >60 cm together had the lowest species richness (17%) and abundance (9%), yet contributed more than 50% of the total carbon stored in trees within the city. Overall, about 1.2 million tonnes of carbon is captured in aboveground components of trees in Kumasi, with a mean of 228 t C ha−1. Tree density, DBH, height, basal area, aboveground carbon storage, and species richness were significantly different among green spaces (p < 0.05). The diversity was also significantly different among urban zones (p < 0.0005). The DBH distribution of trees followed a modified reverse J-shaped model. The urban forest structure and composition is quite unique. The practice of urban forestry has the potential to conserve biological diversity and combat climate change. The introduction of policies and actions to support the expansion of urban forest cover and diversity is widely encouraged.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 521: Variation in Organ Biomass with Changing Climate and Forest Characteristics across Chinese Forests Forests doi: 10.3390/f9090521 Authors: Yiran Fang Xiaojun Zou Zhiyang Lie Li Xue Forest biomass allocation patterns are important for understanding global carbon cycling and climate change, which might change with environmental conditions and forest characteristics. However, the effects of climate and forest characteristics on biomass allocation fractions (the fraction of total forest biomass distributed in organs) remains unknown. The authors use a large Chinese biomass dataset (1081 forests encompassing 10 forest types) to analyse the responses of biomass allocation fractions to biogeography, climate, and forest characteristics. The authors found that the stem mass fraction significantly increased with age and precipitation and significantly decreased with latitude and temperature. The branch mass fraction significantly decreased with age and density, but significantly increased with temperature and latitude. The leaf mass fraction significantly decreased with age and precipitation and significantly increased with temperature. The root mass fraction significantly increased with latitude and density, and significantly decreased with precipitation. The results suggest that latitude, temperature, precipitation, stand age and density are good predictors of biomass partitioning. These findings support the hypotheses that variation in resource availability constrains organ allocation and provides biogeographically explicit relationships between biomass allocation and both environmental and forest characteristics, which might be used for assessing the impact of changing environmental and forest characteristics on forest carbon dynamics and fixation.

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 523: Landscape Planning—Paving the Way for Effective Conservation of Forest Biodiversity and a Diverse Forestry? Forests doi: 10.3390/f9090523 Authors: Gabriel Michanek Göran Bostedt Hans Ekvall Maria Forsberg Anouschka R. Hof Johnny de Jong Jörgen Rudolphi Astrid Zabel Globally, intensive forestry has led to habitat degradation and fragmentation of the forest landscape. Taking Sweden as an example, this development is contradictory to international commitments, EU obligations, and to the fulfillment of the Parliament’s environmental quality objective “Living Forests”, which according to Naturvårdsverket (The Swedish Environmental Protection Agency) will not be achieved in 2020 as stipulated. One important reason for the implementation deficit is the fragmented forestry management. In a forest landscape, felling and other measures are conducted at different times on separate forest stands (often relatively small units) by different operators. Consequently, the authorities take case by case decisions on felling restrictions for conservation purposes. In contrast, conservation biology research indicates a need for a broad geographical and strategical approach in order to, in good time, select the most appropriate habitats for conservation and to provide for a functioning connectivity between different habitats. In line with the EU Commission, we argue that landscape forestry planning could be a useful instrument to achieve ecological functionality in a large area. Landscape planning may also contribute to the fulfilment of Sweden’s climate and energy policy, by indicating forest areas with insignificant conservation values, where intensive forestry may be performed for biomass production etc. Forest owners should be involved in the planning and would, under certain circumstances, be entitled to compensation. As state resources for providing compensation are scarce, an alternative could be to introduce a tax-fund system within the forestry sector. Such a system may open for voluntary agreements between forest owners for the protection of habitats within a large area.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 325: A Quantitative Comparison of Exoplanet Catalogs Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8090325 Authors: Dolev Bashi Ravit Helled Shay Zucker In this study, we investigated the differences between four commonly-used exoplanet catalogs (exoplanet.eu; exoplanetarchive.ipac.caltech.edu; openexoplanetcatalogue.com; exoplanets.org) using a Kolmogorov–Smirnov (KS) test. We found a relatively good agreement in terms of the planetary parameters (mass, radius, period) and stellar properties (mass, temperature, metallicity), although a more careful analysis of the overlap and unique parts of each catalog revealed some differences. We quantified the statistical impact of these differences and their potential cause. We concluded that although statistical studies are unlikely to be significantly affected by the choice of catalog, it would be desirable to have one consistent catalog accepted by the general exoplanet community as a base for exoplanet statistics and comparison with theoretical predictions.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 322: Review of Potential Risk Factors of Cultural Heritage Sites and Initial Modelling for Adaptation to Climate Change Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8090322 Authors: Paul Carroll Eeva Aarrevaara There are a range of local weather- and climate-related factors that contribute to the degradation of cultural heritage buildings, structures, and sites over time. Some of these factors are influenced by changes in climate and some of these changes manifest themselves through a speeding up of the rate of degradation. It is the intention of this paper to review this situation with special reference to the Nordic Countries, where typical trends resulting from climate change are shorter winters and increased precipitation all year round. An attempt is made to initially draw up a classification of materials and structures relevant to cultural heritage that are affected, with a proposed numeric scale for the urgency to act. The intention is to provide information on where best to concentrate cultural heritage site preservation resources in the future.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 323: Decorrelation of GRACE Time Variable Gravity Field Solutions Using Full Covariance Information Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8090323 Authors: Alexander Horvath Michael Murböck Roland Pail Martin Horwath In this study the feasibility and performance of time variable decorrelation (VADER) filters derived from covariance information on decadal Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment (GRACE) time series are investigated. The VADER filter is based on publicly available data that are provided by several GRACE processing centers, and does not need its own Level-2 processing chain. Numerical closed loop simulations, incorporating stochastic and deterministic error budgets, serve as basis for the design of the filter setup, and the resulting filters are subsequently applied for real data processing. The closed loop experiments demonstrate the impact of temporally varying error and signal covariance matrices that are used for the design of decorrelation filters. The results indicate an average reduction of cumulative geoid height errors of 15% using time-variable instead of static decorrelation. Based on the simulation experience, a real data filtering procedure is designed and set up. It is applied to the ITSG-Grace2014 time variable gravity field time series with its associated full monthly covariance matrices. To assess the validity of the approach, linear mass trend estimates for the Antarctic Peninsula are computed using VADER filters and compared to previous estimates from both, GRACE and other mass balance estimation techniques. The mass change results obtained show very good agreement with other estimates and are robust against variations of the filter strength. The DDK decorrelation filter serves as main benchmark for the assessment of the VADER filter. For comparable filter strengths the VADER filters achieve a better de-striping and deliver smaller formal errors than static filters like the DDK.

Description: Geosciences, Vol. 8, Pages 324: A Multi-Scale Conceptual Model of Flood-Tide Delta Morphodynamics in Micro-Tidal Estuaries Geosciences doi: 10.3390/geosciences8090324 Authors: Timothy P Austin Ana Vila-Concejo Andrew D Short Roshanka Ranasinghe Wave and tide induced sediment transport pathways and rates govern the morphological evolution of estuarine systems. An understanding of the morphodynamics of these systems is required to maintain their commercial, biological and recreational value. The morphodynamics of Port Stephens estuary, a micro-tidal estuary located on a wave dominated southeast coast of Australia were investigated using bathymetric surveys and current velocity data from several locations over the estuary. This provided detailed insight into the rates and direction of movement for the main sedimentary features of the system, and how these features interact with the processes that drive their evolution. We used these findings to develop a conceptual model for estuarine morphodynamics that accounts for fair weather and storm conditions. Our model explains how sediment eroded from the estuarine beaches is trapped by the adjacent flood-tide delta. The model is applicable to fetch-limited estuaries that do not have offshore sources of sediment, where the tidal currents are weak in relation to the incident ocean waves, and that have a wide, stable entrance through which ocean waves can propagate into the estuary. The model is multi-scale in that it encapsulates both short-term and local process, and large scale evolution of an estuary; therefore, it represents a tool that may be used in developing sustainable estuary management strategies.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 360: Share Our Cultural Heritage (SOCH): Worldwide 3D Heritage Reconstruction and Visualization via Web and Mobile GIS ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7090360 Authors: Hari K. Dhonju Wen Xiao Jon P. Mills Vasilis Sarhosis Despite being of paramount importance to humanity, tangible cultural heritage is often at risk from natural and anthropogenic threats worldwide. As a result, heritage discovery and conservation remain a huge challenge for both developed and developing countries, with heritage sites often inadequately cared for, be it due to a lack of resources, nonrecognition of the value by local people or authorities, human conflict, or some other reason. This paper presents an online geo-crowdsourcing system, termed Share Our Cultural Heritage (SOCH), which can be utilized for large-scale heritage documentation and sharing. Supported by web and mobile GIS, cultural heritage data such as textual stories, locations, and images can be acquired via portable devices. These data are georeferenced and presented to the public via web-mapping. Using photogrammetric modelling, acquired images are used to reconstruct heritage structures or artefacts into 3D digital models, which are then visualized on the SOCH web interface to enable public interaction. This end-to-end system incubates an online virtual community to encourage public engagement, raise awareness, and stimulate cultural heritage ownership. It also provides valuable resources for cultural heritage exploitation, management, education, and monitoring over time.

Description: IJGI, Vol. 7, Pages 358: Spatial-Temporal Analysis of Human Dynamics on Urban Land Use Patterns Using Social Media Data by Gender ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information doi: 10.3390/ijgi7090358 Authors: Chengcheng Lei An Zhang Qingwen Qi Huimin Su Jianghao Wang The relationship between urban human dynamics and land use types has always been an important issue in the study of urban problems in China. This paper used location data from Sina Location Microblog (commonly known as Weibo) users to study the human dynamics of the spatial-temporal characteristics of gender differences in Beijing’s Olympic Village in June 2014. We applied mathematical statistics and Local Moran’s I to analyze the spatial-temporal distribution of Sina Microblog users in 100 m × 100 m grids and land use patterns. The female users outnumbered male users, and the sex ratio ( S R varied under different land use types at different times. Female users outnumbered male users regarding residential land and public green land, but male users outnumbered female users regarding workplace, especially on weekends, as the S R on weekends ( S R was 120.5) was greater than that on weekdays ( S R was 118.8). After a Local Moran’s I analysis, we found that High–High grids are primarily distributed across education and scientific research land and residential land; these grids and their surrounding grids have more female users than male users. Low–Low grids are mainly distributed across sports centers and workplaces on weekdays; these grids and their surrounding grids have fewer female users than male users. The average number of users on Saturday was the highest value and, on weekends, the number of female and male users both increased in commercial land, but male users were more active than female users ( S R was 110).

Description: Forests, Vol. 9, Pages 532: Unravelling the Functional Diversity of the Soil Microbial Community of Chinese Fir Plantations of Different Densities Forests doi: 10.3390/f9090532 Authors: Chaoqun Wang Lin Xue Yuhong Dong Yihui Wei Ruzhen Jiao The structure and function of forest ecosystems are directly or indirectly affected by their stand density. However, what effect the density of Chinese fir plantations has on the functional diversity of the soil microbial community remains unclear. The microbial metabolic functional diversity of soils sampled at the topsoil (0–20 cm) of 35-year-old Chinese fir plantations of five initial densities (D1: 1667 stems∙hm−2, D2: 3333 stems∙hm−2, D3: 5000 stems∙hm−2, D4: 6667 stems∙hm−2, and D5: 10,000 stems∙hm−2) was studied by using Biolog ECO technology. The results showed that the soil pH, oxidizable organic carbon (SOOC), available N (AN), available P (AP), and available K (AK) contents all showed a gradual increase from D1 to D4 and a decrease from D4 to D5, while the number of culturable bacteria and total microorganisms, the average well color development (AWCD) values for the single carbon substrate and six types of carbon sources used by the microbial community, as well as the Shannon-Wiener diversity index (H’), Pielou evenness index (J), and McIntosh Diversity Index (U), were the opposite, suggesting that low-densities favored C and N mineralization and the nutrient cycle. The density of Chinese fir plantations had a significant effect on the use of carbohydrates, amino acids, carboxylic acids, and phenolic acids by the soil microbial community, but it had no significant effect on the use of polymers (p < 0.05). Principal component analysis (PCA) revealed that carbohydrates, polymers, and phenolic acids were sensitive carbon sources that caused differences in the metabolic functions of soil microbial communities in Chinese fir plantations. Redundancy analysis (RDA) showed that physicochemical factors have a significant influence on the metabolic function of soil microbial communities (RDA1 and RDA2 explained >85% variance). The changes in density affected the soil physicochemical properties, the composition, and the metabolic functional diversity of microbial communities in Chinese fir plantations, which is certainly useful for the stand density regulation of Chinese fir plantations.