ALBERT

Note: CONTENTS: Introduction. - Topography and hydrography. - Climate, glaciation, permafrost. - Notes on the scientific exploration of the area. - Sea level changes. - C-14 dates on shell material, corrections and errors. - Marine limits. - Emergence curves. - Marine faunas. - Glaciation history. - Pleistocene glaciation. - The Milne Land Moraines. - Glacial retreat, the Rødefjord stages. - Glacial readvance. - Climatic implications. - Comparison with other areas. - Pollen analytical investigations. - Field methods. - Lake sediments. - C-14 dates of lake sediments and rates of sedimentation. - Pollen preparation and calculation procedures. - Pollen identification. - Description of sites and pollen diagrams. - Notes on the present vegetation. - Discussion and reconstruction of vegetation types. - Plant immigration and climatic change. - Summary of the vegetation history. - Comparison with other areas. - General notes on the climatic development. - Acknowledgements. - References.

Note: Contents Table 1 Daily records Table 2 Extreme temperatures Table 3 Montly means Table 4 Mean temperature in the years 1775-1975 Table 5 Daily means of extreme temperatures Table 6 Relative frequency of daily maximum temperature in months Table 7 Relative frequency of daily minimum temperature Table 8 Relative frequency of relative humidity Table 9 Relative frequency of pressure Table 10 Relative frequency of wind Table 11 Relative frequency of cloud amount Table 12 Relative frequency of daily rainfall Table 13 Statistical characteristics of daily observations Table 14 Monthly means in 5 years periods Table 15 Monthly means in 10 years periods Table 16 Monthly means in 50 years periods Table 17 Monthly means of statistical characteristics in the years 1776-1975 Table 18 Monthly means of statistical characteristics in 5 years periods Table 19 Monthly means of statistical characteristics in 10 years periods Table 20 Monthly means of statistical characteristics in 50 years periods Table 21 Mean daily temperature corresponding to the percent of the exceeding probability , In tschechischer, russischer und englischer Sprache

Note: Contents Preface 1 Introduction 1.1 The necessity for measurements 1.2 Definition of a measurement 1.3 Historical aspects 2 Measurement basics 2.1 Overview of methods 2.1.1 Direct and indirect methods 2.1.2 In-situ and remote sensing methods 2.1.3 Instantaneous and integrating methods 2.1.4 On-line and off-line methods, post-processing 2.1.5 Flux measurements 2.2 Main measurement principles 2.3 Measurements by inversion 2.3.1 Inversion with one variable 2.3.2 Inversion with more than one variable 2.3.3 Well-posed and ill-posed problems 2.4 Measurement instruments 2.4.1 Active and passive instruments 2.4.2 Analogue and digital instruments 2.5 Measurement platforms 2.6 Measurement variables 2.7 General characteristics of measured data 2.8 Data logging 2.9 Quality assurance/quality control 3 In-situ measurements of state variables 3.1 Thermometers 3.1.1 Liquid-in-glass thermometers 3.1.2 Bimetal thermometers 3.1.3 Resistance thermometers, thermistors 3.1.4 Thermocouples, thermopiles 3.1.5 Sonic thermometry 3.1.6 Measurement of infrared radiation 3.1.7 Soil thermometer 3.1.8 Recommendations for temperature measurements 3.2 Measuring moisture 3.2.1 Hygrometer 3.2.2 Psychrometers 3.2.3 Dewpoint determination 3.2.4 Capacitive methods 3.2.5 Recommendations for humidity measurements 3.3 Pressure sensors 3.3.1 Barometers 3.3.2 Hypsometers 3.3.3 Electronic barometers 3.3.4 Microbarometer 3.3.5 Pressure balance 3.3.6 Recommendations for pressure measurements 3.4 Wind measurements 3.4.1 Estimation from visual observations 3.4.2 Wind direction 3.4.3 Cup anemometer 3.4.4 Pressure tube 3.4.5 Hot wire anemometer 3.4.6 Ultrasonic anemometer 3.4.7 Propeller anemometer 3.4.8 Recommendations for wind measurements 4 In-situ methods for observing liquid water and ice 4.1 Precipitation 4.1.1 Rain sensors (Present Weather Sensors) 4.1.2 Rain gauges (totalisators) 4.1.3 Pluviographs 4.1.4 Disdrometer 4.1.5 Special instruments for snow 4.1.6 Recommendations for precipitation measurements 4.2 Soil moisture 4.2.1 Gravimetric methods 4.2.2 Neutron probes 4.2.3 Time domain reflectrometry (TDR) 4.2.4 Tensiometers 4.2.5 Resistance block tensiometer 4.2.6 Recommendations for soil moisture measurements 5 In-situ measurement of trace substances 5.1 Measurement of trace gases 5.1.1 Physical methods 5.1.2 Chemical methods 5.1.3 Recommendations for the measurement of trace gases 5.2 Particle measurements 5.2.1 Determination of the particle mass 5.2.2 Measuring particle size distributions 5.2.3 Measurement of the chemical composition of particles 5.2.4 Measuring the particle structure 5.2.5 Saltiphon 5.2.6 Recommendations for particle measurements 5.3 Olfactometry 5.4 Radioactivity 5.4.1 Counter tubes 5.4.2 Scintillation counters 5.4.3 Recommendations for radioactivity monitoring 6 In-situ flux measurements 6.1 Measuring radiation 6.1.1 Measuring direct solar radiation 6.1.2 Measuring shortwave irradiance 6.1.3 Measuring longwave irradiance 6.1.4 Measuring the total irradiance 6.1.5 Measuring chill 6.1.6 Sunshine recorder 6.1.7 Recommendations for radiation measurements 6.2 Visual range 6.3 Micrometeorological flux measurements 6.3.1 Cuvettes 6.3.2 Surface chambers 6.3.3 Mass balance method 6.3.4 Inferential method 6.3.5 Gradient method 6.3.6 Bowen-ratio method 6.3.7 Flux variance method 6.3.8 Dissipation method 6.3.9 Eddy covariance method 6.3.10 Eddy accumulation methods 6.3.11 Disjunct eddy covariance method 6.3.12 Recommendations for the measurement of turbulent fluxes 6.4 Evaporation Atmometers 6.4.2 Lysimeters 6.4.3 Evaporation pans and tanks 6.4.4 Recommendations for evaporation measurements 6.5 Soil heat flux 6.6 Inverse emission flux modelling 7 Remote sensing methods 7.1 Basics of remote sensing 7.2 Active sounding methods 7.2.1 RADAR 7.2.2 Windprofilers 7.2.3 SODAR 7.2.4 RASS 7.2.5 LIDAR 7.2.6 Further LIDAR techniques 7.3 Active path-averaging methods 7.3.1 Scintillometers 7.3.2 FTIR 7.3.3 DOAS 7.3.4 Quantum cascade laser 7.4 Passive methods 7.4.1 Radiometers 7.4.2 Photometers 7.4.3 Infrared-Interferometer 7.5 Tomography 7.5.1 Simultaneous Iterative Reconstruction Technique 7.5.2 Algebraic Reconstruction Technique (ART) 7.5.3 Smooth Basis Function Minimization (SBFM) 8 Remote sensing of atmospheric state variables 8.1 Temperature 8.1.1 Near-surface temperatures 8.1.2 Temperature profiles 8.2 Gaseous humidity 8.2.1 Integral water vapour content 8.2.2 Vertical profiles 8.2.3 Large-scale humidity distribution 8.3 Wind and turbulence 8.3.1 Small-scale near-surface turbulence 8.3.2 Horizontal wind fields 8.3.3 Vertical wind profiles 8.3.4 Turbulence profiles 8.3.5 Cloud winds 8.3.6 Ionospheric winds 8.4 Mixing-layer heights 8.4.1 LIDAR 8.4.2 SODAR 8.5 Turbulent fluxes 8.6 Ionospheric electron densities 8.7 Recommendations for remote sensing of state variables 9 Remote sensing of water and ice 9.1 Precipitation 9.1.1 RADAR 9.1.2 Precipitation measurements from satellites 9.2 Clouds 9.2.1 Cloud base 9.2.2 Cloud cover 9.2.3 Cloud movement 9.2.4 Water content 9.3 Recommendations for remote sensing of liquid water and ice 10 Remote sensing of trace substances 10.1 Trace gases 10.1.1 Horizontal path-averaging methods 10.1.2 Vertical column densities 10.1.3 Sounding methods 10.2 Aerosols 10.2.1 Aerosol optical depths (AOD) 10.2.2 Sounding methods 10.3 Recommendations for remote sensing of trace substances 11 Remote sensing of surface properties 11.1 Properties of the solid surface 11.1.1 Surface roughness 11.1.2 Land surface temperature 11.1.3 Soil moisture 11.1.4 Vegetation 11.1.5 Snow and ice 11.1.6 Fires 11.2 Properties of the ocean surface 11.2.1 Altitudes of the sea surface 11.2.2 Wave heights 11.2.3 Sea surface temperature 11.2.4 Salinity 11.2.5 Ocean currents 11.2.6 Ice cover, size of ice floes 11.2.7 Algae and suspended sediment concentrations 12 Remote sensing of electrical phenomena 12.1 Spherics 12.1.1 Directional analyses 12.1.2 Distance analyses 12.2 Optical lightning detection 13 Outlook on new developments Literature Subject index Appendix: Technical guidelines and standards Index to the Appendix

Note: Contents: 1 The origins of ACSYS / Victor Savtchenko. - PART I OBSERVATIONS: 2 Advances in Arctic atmospheric research / James E. Overland and Mark C. Serreze. - 3 Sea-ice observation: advances and challenges / Humfrey Melling. - 4 Observations in the ocean / Bert Rudels, Leif Anderson, Patrick Eriksson, Eberhard Fahrbach, Martin Jakobsson, E. Peter Jones, Humfrey Melling, Simon Prinsenberg, Ursula Schauer, and Tom Yao. - 5 Observed hydrological cycle / Hermann Mächel, Bruno Rudolf, Thomas Maurer, Stefan Hagemann, Reinhard Hagenbrock, Lev Kitaev, Eirik J. Førland, Vjacheslav Rasuvaev, and Ole Einar Tveito. - 6 Interaction with the global climate system / T. A. McClimans, G. V. Alekseev, O. M. Johannessen, and M. W. Miles. - PART II MODELLING: 7 Mesoscale modelling of the Arctic atmospheric boundary layer and its interaction with sea ice / Christof Lüpkes, Timo Vihma, Gerit Birnbaum, Silke Dierer, Thomas Garbrecht, Vladimir M. Gryanik, Micha Gryschka, Jörg Hartmann, Günther Heinemann, Lars Kaleschke, Siegfried Raasch, Hannu Savijärvi, K. Heinke Schlünzen, and Ulrike Wacker. - 8 Arctic regional climate models / K. Dethloff, A. Rinke, A. Lynch, W. Dorn, S. Saha, and D. Handorf. - 9 Progress in hydrological modeling over high latitudes: under arctic climate system study (ACSYS) / Dennis P. Lettenmaier and Fengge Su. - 10 Sea-ice-ocean modelling / Rüdiger Gerdes and Peter Lemke. - 11 Global climate models and 20th and 21st century Arctic climate change / Cecilia M. Bitz, Jeff K. Ridley, Marika Holland, and Howard Cattle. - 12 ACSYS: Scientific foundation for the climate and cryosphere (CliC) project / Konrad Steffen, Daqing Yang, Vladimir Ryabinin, and Ghassem Asrar.

Note: Contents: About the author. - About the technical reviewer. - Acknowledgments. - Introduction. - Chapter 1: Getting R and getting started. - Chapter 2: Programming in R. - Chapter 3: Writing reusable functions. - Chapter 4: Summary statistics. - Chapter 5: Creating Tables and graphs. - Chapter 6: Discrete probability distributions. - Chapter 7: Computing normal probabilities. - Chapter 8: Creating confidence intervals. - Chapter 9: Performing t tests. - Chapter 10: One-way analysis of variance. - Chapter 11: Advanced analysis of variance. - Chapter 12: Correlation and regression. - Chapter 13: Multiple regression. - Chapter 14: Logistic regression. - Chapter 15: Chi-square tests. - Chapter 16: Nonparametric tests. - Chapter 17: Using R for simulation. - Chapter 18: The 'new' statistics: resampling and bootstrapping. - Chapter 19: Making an R package. - Chapter 20: The R commander package. - Index

Note: Peter Turner and Amanda Turner: Palaeomagnetic Applications in Hydrocarbon Exploration and Production: Introduction / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:1-5, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.01 --- Magnetic Mineral Assemblages and Hydrocarbons --- Hans G. Machel: Magnetic mineral assemblages and magnetic contrasts in diagenetic environments — with implications for studies of palaeomagnetism, hydrocarbon migration and exploration / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:9-29, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.02 --- Palaeomagnetic Properties of Hydrocarbon Reservoirs --- Hervé Perroud, Annick Chauvin, and Michel Rebelle: Hydrocarbon seepage dating through chemical remagnetization / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:33-41, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.03 --- P. Turner, S. D. Burley, D. Rey, and J. Prosser: Burial history of the Penrith Sandstone (Lower Permian) deduced from the combined study of fluid inclusion and palaeomagnetic data / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:43-78, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.04 --- Stuart A. Hall and Ian Evans: Palaeomagnetic and rock magnetic properties of hydrocarbon reservoir rocks from the Permian Basin, southeastern New Mexico, USA / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:79-95, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.05 --- S. A. Johnson, P. Turner, A. Hartley, and D. Rey: Palaeomagnetic implications for the timing of hematite precipitation and remagnetization in the Carboniferous Barren Red Measures, UK southern North Sea / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:97-117, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.06 --- Mark W. Hounslow, Barbara A. Maher, and Laurence Thistlewood: Magnetic mineralogy of sandstones from the Lunde Formation (late Triassic), northern North Sea, UK: origin of the palaeomagnetic signal / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:119-147, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.07 --- Claus Beyer: Results from a palaeomagnetic investigation of the Brent Group sediments in wells 34/10–16 and 34/10–17 showing evidence for complete remagnetization of the sediment / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:149-159, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.08 --- Magnetostratigraphic Applications --- Mark W. Hounslow, Barbara A. Maher, Laurence Thistlewood, and Kevin Dean: Magnetostratigraphic correlations in two cores from the late Triassic Lunde Formation, Beryl Field, northern North Sea, UK / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:163-172, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.09 --- Kifaya N. Belkaaloul, Djafar M. Aissaoui, Michel Rebelle, and Gerard Sambet: Magnetostratigraphic correlations of the Jurassic carbonates from the Paris Basin: implications for petroleum exploration / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:173-186, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.10 --- Eirik Hauger and Paul Van Veen: Application of magnetostratigraphy to Brent Group reservoir zonation in the Visund Field / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:187-204, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.11 --- Gillian M. Turner and Ian D. Bryant: Application of a palaeomagnetic reversal stratigraphy to constrain well correlation and sequence stratigraphic interpretation of the Eocene C1 Sands, Maui Field, New Zealand / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:205-221, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.12 --- R. Thompson and T. D. J. Cameron: Palaeomagnetic study of Cenozoic sediments in North Sea boreholes: an example of a magnetostratigraphic conundrum in a hydrocarbonproducing area / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:223-236, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.13 --- Core Orientation and Susceptibility Logging --- T. C. Rolph, J. Shaw, T. R. Harper, and J. T. Hagan: Viscous remanent magnetization: a tool for orientation of drill cores / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:239-243, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.14 --- E. A. Hailwood and F. Ding: Palaeomagnetic reorientation of cores and the magnetic fabric of hydrocarbon reservoir sands / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:245-258, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.15 --- Reidar Løvlie and Paul Van Veen: Magnetic susceptibility of a 180 m sediment core: reliability of incremental sampling and evidence for a relationship between susceptibility and gamma activity / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:259-266, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.16 --- H. Shi and D. H. Tarling: Magnetic field of a core barrel / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:267-272, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.17 --- D. H. Tarling and H. Shi: Magnetic anisotropy of borehole core samples / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:273-280, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.18 --- Structural Applications --- S. A. Stewart and K. C. Jackson: Palaeomagnetic analysis of fold closure growth and volumetrics / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 98:283-295, doi:10.1144/GSL.SP.1995.098.01.19

Note: Contents Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition 1. Images, Arrays, and Matrices 1.1 Multispectral Satellite Images 1.2 Algebra of Vectors and Matrices 1.2.1 Elementary Properties 1.2.2 Square Matrices 1.2.3 Singular Matrices 1.2.4 Symmetric, Positive Definite Matrices 1.2.5 Linear Dependence and Vector Spaces 1.3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 1.4 Singular Value Decomposition 1.5 Vector Derivatives 1.6 Finding Minima and Maxima 1.7 Exercises 2. Image Statistics 2.1 Random Variables 2.1.1 Discrete Random Variables 2.1.2 Continuous Random Variables 2.1.3 Normal Distribution 2.2 Random Vectors 2.3 Parameter Estimation 2.3.1 Sampling a Distribution 2.3.2 Interval Estimation 2.3.3 Provisional Means 2.4 Hypothesis Testing and Sample Distribution Functions 2.4.1 Chi-Square Distribution 2.4.2 Student-t Distribution 2.4.3 F-Distribution 2.5 Conditional Probabilities, Bayes' Theorem, and Classification 2.6 Ordinary Linear Regression 2.6.1 One Independent Variable 2.6.2 More Than One Independent Variable 2.6.3 Regularization, Duality, and the Gram Matrix 2.7 Entropy and Information 2.7.1 Kullback-Leibler Divergence 2.7.2 Mutual Information 2.8 Exercises 3. Transformations 3.1 Discrete Fourier Transform 3.2 Discrete Wavelet Transform 3.2.1 Haar Wavelets 3.2.2 Image Compression 3.2.3 Multiresolution Analysis 3.2.3.1 Dilation Equation and Refinement Coefficients 3.2.3.2 Cascade Algorithm 3.2.3.3 Mother Wavelet 3.2.3.4 Daubechies D4 Scaling Function 3.3 Principal Components 3.3.1 Primal Solution 3.3.2 Dual Solution 3.4 Minimum Noise Fraction 3.4.1 Additive Noise 3.4.2 Minimum Noise Fraction Transformation in ENVI 3.5 Spatial Correlation 3.5.1 Maximum Autocorrelation Factor 3.5.2 Noise Estimation 3.6 Exercises 4. Filters, Kernels, and Fields 4.1 Convolution Theorem 4.2 Linear Filters 4.3 Wavelets and Filter Banks 4.3.1 One-Dimensional Arrays 4.3.2 Two-Dimensional Arrays 4.4 Kernel Methods 4.4.1 Valid Kernels 4.4.2 Kernel PCA 4.5 Gibbs-Markov Random Fields 4.6 Exercises 5. Image Enhancement and Correction 5.1 Lookup Tables and Histogram Functions 5.2 Filtering and Feature Extraction 5.2.1 Edge Detection 5.2.2 Invariant Moments 5.3 Panchromatic Sharpening 5.3.1 HSV Fusion 5.3.2 Brovey Fusion 5.3.3 PCA Fusion 5.3.4 DWT Fusion 5.3.5 A Trous Fusion 5.3.6 Quality Index 5.4 Topographic Correction 5.4.1 Rotation, Scaling, and Translation 5.4.2 Imaging Transformations 5.4.3 Camera Models and RFM Approximations 5.4.4 Stereo Imaging and Digital Elevation Models 5.4.5 Slope and Aspect 5.4.6 Illumination Correction 5.5 Image-Image Registration 5.5.1 Frequency-Domain Registration 5.5.2 Feature Matching 5.5.2.1 High-Pass Filtering 5.5.2.2 Closed Contours 5.5.2.3 Chain Codes and Moments 5.5.2.4 Contour Matching 5.5.2.5 Consistency Check 5.5.2.6 Implementation in IDL 5.5.3 Resampling and Warping 5.6 Exercises 6. Supervised Classification: Part 1 6.1 Maximum a Posteriori Probability 6.2 Training Data and Separability 6.3 Maximum Likelihood Classification 6.3.1 ENVI's Maximum Likelihood Classifier 6.3.2 Modified Maximum Likelihood Classifier 6.4 Gaussian Kernel Classification 6.5 Neural Networks 6.5.1 Neural Network Classifier 6.5.2 Cost Functions 6.5.3 Backpropagation 6.5.4 Overfitting and Generalization 6.6 Support Vector Machines 6.6.1 Linearly Separable Classes 6.6.1.1 Primal Formulation 6.6.1.2 Dual Formulation 6.6.1.3 Quadratic Programming and Support Vectors 6.6.2 Overlapping Classes 6.6.3 Solution with Sequential Minimal Optimization 6.6.4 Multiclass SVMs 6.6.5 Kernel Substitution 6.6.6 Modified SVM Classifier 6.7 Exercises 7. Supervised Classification: Part 2 7.1 Postprocessing 7.1.1 Majority Filtering 7.1.2 Probabilistic Label Relaxation 7.2 Evaluation and Comparison of Classification Accuracy 7.2.1 Accuracy Assessment 7.2.2 Model Comparison 7.3 Adaptive Boosting 7.4 Hyperspectral Analysis 7.4.1 Spectral Mixture Modeling 7.4.2 Unconstrained Linear Unmixing 7.4.3 Intrinsic End-Members and Pixel Purity 7.5 Exercises 8. Unsupervised Classification 8.1 Simple Cost Functions 8.2 Algorithms That Minimize the Simple Cost Functions 8.2.1 K-Means Clustering 8.2.2 Kernel K-Means Clustering 8.2.3 Extended K-Means Clustering 8.2.4 Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering 8.2.5 Fuzzy K-Means Clustering 8.3 Gaussian Mixture Clustering 8.3.1 Expectation Maximization 8.3.2 Simulated Annealing 8.3.3 Partition Density 8.3.4 Implementation Notes 8.4 Including Spatial Information 8.4.1 Multiresolution Clustering 8.4.2 Spatial Clustering 8.5 Benchmark 8.6 Kohonen Self-Organizing Map 8.7 Image Segmentation 8.7.1 Segmenting a Classified Image 8.7.2 Object-Based Classification 8.7.3 Mean Shift 8.8 Exercises 9. Change Detection 9.1 Algebraic Methods 9.2 Postclassification Comparison 9.3 Principal Components Analysis 9.3.1 Iterated PCA 9.3.2 Kernel PCA 9.4 Multivariate Alteration Detection 9.4.1 Canonical Correlation Analysis 9.4.2 Orthogonality Properties 9.4.3 Scale Invariance 9.4.4 Iteratively Reweighted MAD 9.4.5 Correlation with the Original Observations 9.4.6 Regularization 9.4.7 Postprocessing 9.5 Decision Thresholds and Unsupervised Classification of Changes 9.6 Radiometrie Normalization 9.7 Exercises Appendix A: Mathematical Tools A.l Cholesky Decomposition A.2 Vector and Inner Product Spaces A.3 Least Squares Procedures A.3.1 Recursive Linear Regression A.3.2 Orthogonal Linear Regression Appendix B: Efficient Neural Network Training Algorithms B.1 Hessian Matrix B.1.1 R-Operator B.1.1.1 Determination of Rv{n} B.1.1.2 Determination of Rv{δo} B.1.1.3 Determination of Rv{δh} B.1.2 Calculating the Hessian B.2 Scaled Conjugate Gradient Training B.2.1 Conjugate Directions B.2.2 Minimizing a Quadratic Function B.2.3 Algorithm B.3 Kaiman Filter Training B.3.1 Linearization B.3.2 Algorithm B.4 A Neural Network Classifier with Hybrid Training Appendix C: ENVI Extensions in IDL C.1 Installation C.2 Extensions C.2.1 Kernel Principal Components Analysis C.2.2 Discrete Wavelet Transform Fusion C.2.3 A Trous Wavelet Transform Fusion C.2.4 Quality Index C.2.5 Calculating Heights of Man-Made Structures in High-Resolution Imagery C.2.6 Illumination Correction C.2.7 Image Registration C.2.8 Maximum Likelihood Classification C.2.9 Gaussian Kernel Classification C.2.10 Neural Network Classification C.2.11 Support Vector Machine Classification C.2.12 Probabilistic Label Relaxation C.2.13 Classifier Evaluation and Comparison C.2.14 Adaptive Boosting a Neural Network Classifier C.2.15 Kernel K-Means Clustering C.2.16 Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering C.2.17 Fuzzy K-Means Clustering C.2.18 Gaussian Mixture Clustering C.2.19 Kohonen Self-Organizing Map C.2.20 Classified Image Segmentation C.2.21 Mean Shift Segmentation C.2.22 Multivariate Alteration Detection C.2.23 Viewing Changes C.2.24 Radiometric Normalization Appendix D: Mathematical Notation References Index

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1 Cosmic rays. - 1.1 Origin and nature of cosmic rays. - 1.2 Interaction with magnetic fields. - 1.3 Interactions with the Earth's atmosphere. - 1.4 Interactions with the Earth's surface. - 1.5 Production of cosmogenic nuclides. - 1.6 Detection of cosmic rays. - 2 Cosmogenic nuclides. - 2.1 'Useful' cosmogenic nuclides. - 2.2 Stable cosmogenic nuclides. - 2.3 Cosmogenic radionuclides. - 2.4 Sample preparation. - 2.5 Analytical methods. - 3 Production rates and scaling factors. - 3.1 Deriving production rates. - 3.2 Scaling factors. - 3.3 Building scaling factors. - 4 Application of cosmogenic nuclldes to Earth surface sciences. - 4.1 Exposure dating. - 4.2 Burial dating. - 4.3 Erosion/denudation rates. - 4.4 Uplift rates. - 4.5 Soil dynamics. - 4.6 Dealing with uncertainty. - Appendix A: Sampling checklist. - Appendix B: Reporting of cosrnogenic-nudide data for exposure age and erosion rate determinations. - References. - Index.

Note: Contents I Review of Current Concepts 1 Introduction 1.1 Sequence Stratigraphy: A New Paradigm? 1.2 From Sloss to Vail 1.3 Problems and Research Trends: The Current Status 1.4 Stratigraphic Terminology 2 Methods for Studying Sequence Stratigraphy 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Erecting a Sequence Framework 2.2.1 The Importance of Unconformities 2.2.2 Facies Cycles 2.2.3 Stratigraphic Architecture: The Seismic Method 2.3 Methods for Assessing Regional and Global Changes in Sea Level, Other Than Seismic Stratigraphy 2.3.1 Areas and Volumes of Stratigraphic Units 2.3.2 Hypsometric Curves 2.3.3 Backstripping 2.3.4 Sea-Level Estimation from Paleoshorelines and Other Fixed Points 2.3.5 Documentation of Meter-Scale Cycles 2.4 Integrated Tectonic-Stratigraphic Analysis 3 The Four Basic Types of Stratigraphic Cycle 3.1 Introduction 3.2 The Supercontinent Cycle 3.3 Cycles with Episodicities of Tens of Millions of Years 3.4 Cycles with Million-Year Episodicities 3.5 Cycles with Episodicities of Less Than One Million Years 4 The Basic Sequence Model 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Terminology 4.3 Depositional Systems and Systems Tracts 4.4 Sequence Boundaries 4.5 Other Sequence Concepts 5 The Global Cycle Chart II The Stratigraphic Framework 6 Cycles with Episodicities of Tens to Hundreds of Millions of Years 6.1 Climate, Sedimentation, and Biogenesis 6.2 The Supercontinent Cycle 6.2.1 The Tectonic-Stratigraphic Model 6.2.2 The Phanerozoic Record 6.3 Cycles with Episodicities of Tens of Millions of Years 6.3.1 Intercontinental Correlations 6.3.2 Tectonostratigraphic Sequences 6.4 Main Conclusions 7 Cycles with Million-Year Episodicities 7.1 Extensional and Rifted Clastic Continental Margins 7.2 Foreland Basin of the North American Western Interior 7.3 Other Foreland Basins 7.4 Forearc Basins 7.5 Backarc Basins 7.6 Cyclothems and Mesothems 7;7 Carbonate Cycles of Platforms and Craton Margins 7.8 Evidence of Cyclicity in the Deep Oceans 7.9 Main Conclusions 8 Cycles with Episodicities of Less Than One Million Years 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Neogene Clastic Cycles of Continental Margins 8.3 Pre-Neogene Marine Carbonate and Clastic Cycles 8.4 Late Paleozoic Cyclothems 8.5 Lacustrine elastic and Chemical Rhythms 8.6 Clastic Cycles of Foreland Basins 8.7 Main Conclusions III Mechanisms 9 Long-Term Eustasy and Epeirogeny 9.1 Mantle Processes and Dynamic Topography 9.2 Supercontinent Cycles 9.3 Cycles with Episodicities of Tens of Millions of Years 9.3.1 Eustasy 9.3.2 Dynamic Topography and Epeirogeny 9.4 Main Conclusions 10 Milankovitch Processes 10.1 Introduction 10.2 The Nature of Milankovitch Processes 10.2.1 Components of Orbital Forcing 10.2.2 Basic Climatology 10.2.3 Variations with Time in Orbital Periodicities 10.2.4 Isostasy and Geoid Changes 10.2.5 The Nature of the Cyclostratigraphic Data Base 10.2.6 The Sensitivity of the Earth to Glaciation 10.2.7 Glacioeustasy in the Mesozoic? 10.2.8 Nonglacial Milankovitch Cyclicity 10.3 The Cenozoic Record 10.4 Late Paleozoic Cyclothems 10.5 The End-Ordovician Glaciation 10.6 Main Conclusions 11 Tectonic Mechanisms 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Rifting and Thermal Evolution of Divergent Plate Margins 11.2.1 Basic Geophysical Models and Their Implications for Sea-Level Change 11.2.2 Some Results from the Analysis of Modern Data Sets 11.3 Tectonism on Convergent Plate Margins and in Collision Zones 11.3.1 Magmatic Arcs and Subduction 11.3.2 Tectonism Versus Eustasy in Foreland Basins 11.3.2.1 The North American Western Interior Basin 11.3.2.2 The Appalachian Foreland Basin 11.3.2.3 Pyrenean and Himalayan Basins 11.3.3 Rates of Uplift and Subsidence 11.3.4 Discussion 11.4 Intraplate Stress 11.4.1 The Pattern of Global Stress 11.4.2 In-Plane Stress as a Control of Sequence Architecture 11.4.3 In-Plane Stress and Regional Histories of Sea-Level Change 11.5 Basement Control 11.6 Other Speculative Tectonic Hypotheses 11.7 Sediment Supply and the Importance of Big Rivers 11.8 Environmental Change 11.9 Main Conclusions IV Chronostratigraphy and Correlation: Why the Global Cycle Chart Should Be Abandoned 12 Time in Sequence Stratigraphy 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Hierarchies of Time and the Completeness of the Stratigraphic Record 12.3 Main Conclusions 13 Correlation, and the Potential for Error 13.1 Introduction 13.2 The New Paradigm of Geological Time? 13.3 The Dating and Correlation of Stratigraphic Events: Potential Sources of Uncertainty 13.3.1 Identification of Sequence Boundaries 13.3.2 Chronostratigraphic Meaning of Unconformities 13.3.3 Determination of the Biostratigraphic Framework 13.3.3.1 The Problem of Incomplete Biostratigraphic Recovery 13.3.3.2 Diachroneity of the Biostratigraphic Record 13.3.4 The Value of Quantitative Biostratigraphic Methods 13.3.5 Assessment of Relative Biostratigraphic Precision 13.3.6 Correlation of Biozones with the Global Stage Framework 13.3.7 Assignment of Absolute Ages 13.3.8 Implications for the Exxon Global Cycle Chart 13.4 Correlating Regional Sequence Frameworks with the Global Cycle Chart 13.4.1 Circular Reasoning from Regional Data 13.4.2 A Rigorous Test of the Global Cycle Chart 13.4.3 A Correlation Experiment 13.4.4 Discussion 13.5 Main Conclusions 14 Sea-Level Curves Compared 14.1 Introduction 14.2 The Exxon Curves: Revisions, Errors, and Uncertainties 14.3 Other Sea-Level Curves 14.3.1 Cretaceous Sea-Level Curves 14.3.2 Jurassic Sea-Level Curves 14.3.3 Why Does the Exxon Global Cycle Chart Contain So Many More Events Than Other Sea-Level Curves? 14.4 Main Conclusions V Approaches to a Modern Sequence-Stratigraphic Framework 15 Elaboration of the Basic Sequence Model 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Definitions 15.2.1 The Hierarchy of Units and Bounding Surfaces 15.2.2 Systems Tracts and Sequence Boundaries 15.3 The Sequence Stratigraphy of Clastic Depositional Systems 15.3.1 Pluvial Deposits and Their Relationship to Sea-Level Change 15.3.2 The Concept of the Bayline 15.3.3 Deltas, Beach-Barrier Systems, and Estuaries 15.3.4 Shelf Systems: Sand Shoals and Condensed Sections 15.3.5 Slope and Rise Systems 15.4 The Sequence Stratigraphy of Carbonate Depositional Systems 15.4.1 Platform Carbonates: Catch-Up Versus Keep-Up 15.4.2 Carbonate Slopes 15.4.3 Pelagic Carbonate Environments 15.5 Main Conclusions 16 Numerical and Graphical Modeling of Sequences 16.1 Introduction 16.2 Model Design 16.3 Selected Examples of Model Results 16.4 Main Conclusions VI Discussion and Conclusions 17 Implications for Petroleum Geology 17.1 Introduction 17.2 Integrated Tectonic-Stratigraphic Analysis 17.2.1 The Basis of the Methodology 17.2.2 The Development of an Allostratigraphic Framework 17.2.3 Choice of Sequence-Stratigraphic Models 17.2.4 The Search for Mechanisms 17.2.5 Reservoir Characterization 17.3 Controversies in Practical Sequence Analysis 17.3.1 The Case of the Tocito Sandstone, New Mexico 17.3.2 The Case of Gippsland Basin, Australia 17.3.3 Conclusions: A Modified Approach to Sequence Analysis for Practicing Petroleum Geologists and Geophysicists 17.4 Main Conclusions 18 Conclusions and Recommendations 18.1 Sequences in the Stratigraphic Record 18.1.1 Long-Term Stratigraphic Cycles 18.1.2 Cycles with Million-Year Episodicities 18.1.3 Cycles with Episodicities of Less Than One Million Years 18.2 Mechanisms 18.2.1 Long-Term Eustasy and Epeirogeny 18.2.2 Milankovitch Processes 18.2.3 Tectonic Mechanisms 18.3 Chronostratigraphy and Correlation 18.3.1 Concepts of Time 18.3.2 Correlation Problems, and the Basis of the Global Cycle Chart 18.3.3 Comparison of Sea-Level Curves 18.4 Modern Sequence Analysis 18.4.1 Elaboration of the Basic Sequence Model 18.4.2 Numerical and Graphical Modeling of Stratigraphic Sequences 18.5 Implications for Petroleum Geology 18.6 The Global-Eustasy Paradigm: Working Backwards from the Answer? 18.6.1 The Exxon Factor 18.6.2 Conclusions . 18.7 Recommendations References Author Index Subject Index