ALBERT

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1 Cosmic rays. - 1.1 Origin and nature of cosmic rays. - 1.2 Interaction with magnetic fields. - 1.3 Interactions with the Earth's atmosphere. - 1.4 Interactions with the Earth's surface. - 1.5 Production of cosmogenic nuclides. - 1.6 Detection of cosmic rays. - 2 Cosmogenic nuclides. - 2.1 'Useful' cosmogenic nuclides. - 2.2 Stable cosmogenic nuclides. - 2.3 Cosmogenic radionuclides. - 2.4 Sample preparation. - 2.5 Analytical methods. - 3 Production rates and scaling factors. - 3.1 Deriving production rates. - 3.2 Scaling factors. - 3.3 Building scaling factors. - 4 Application of cosmogenic nuclldes to Earth surface sciences. - 4.1 Exposure dating. - 4.2 Burial dating. - 4.3 Erosion/denudation rates. - 4.4 Uplift rates. - 4.5 Soil dynamics. - 4.6 Dealing with uncertainty. - Appendix A: Sampling checklist. - Appendix B: Reporting of cosrnogenic-nudide data for exposure age and erosion rate determinations. - References. - Index.

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1. Overview of climate variability and climate science. - 1.1 Climate dynamics, climate change and climate prediction. - 1.2 The chemical and physical climate system. - 1.2.1 Chemical and physical aspects of the climate system. - 1.2.2 El Niño and global warming. - 1.3 Climate models: a brief overview. - 1.4 Global change in recent history. - 1.4.1 Trace gas concentrations. - 1.4.2 A word on the ozone hole. - 1.4.3 Some history of global warming studies. - 1.4.4 Global temperatures. - 1.5 El Niño: an example of natural climate variability. - 1.5.1 Some history of El Niño studies. - 1.5.2 Observations of El Niño: the 1997-98 event. - 1.5.3 The first El Niño forecast with a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. - 1.6 Paleoclimate variability. - Notes. - 2. Basics of global climate. - 2.1 Components and phenomena in the climate system. - 2.1.1 Time and space scales. - 2.1.2 Interactions among scales and the parameterization problem. - 2.2 Basics of radiative forcing. - 2.2.1 Blackbody radiation. - 2.2.2 Solar energy input. - 2.3 Globally averaged energy budget: first glance. - 2.4 Gradients of radiative forcing and energy transports. - 2.5 Atmospheric circulation. - 2.5.1 Vertical structure. - 2.5.2 Latitude structure of the circulation. - 2.5.3 Latitude-Iongitude dependence of atmospheric climate features. - 2.6 Ocean circulation. - 2.6.1 Latitude-longitude dependence of oceanic climate features. - 2.6.2 The ocean vertical structure. - 2.6.3 The ocean thermohaline circulation. - 2.7 Land surface proeesses. - 2.8 The carbon cycle. - Notes. - 3. Physical processes in the climate system. - 3.1 Conservation of momentum. - 3.1.1 Coriolis force. - 3.1.2 Pressure gradient force. - 3.1.3 Velocity equations. - 3.1.4 Application: geostrophic wind. - 3.1.5 Pressure-height relation: hydrostatic balance. - 3.1.6 Application: pressure coordinates. - 3.2 Equation of state. - 3.2.1 Equation of state for the atmosphere: ideal gas law. - 3.2.2 Equation of state for the ocean. - 3.2.3 Application: atmospheric height-pressure-temperature relation. - 3.2.4 Application: thermal circulations. - 3.2.5 Application: sea level rise due to oceanic thermal expansion. - 3.3 Temperature equation. - 3.3.1 Ocean temperature equation. - 3.3.2 Temperature equation for air. - 3.3.3 Application: the dry adiabatic lapse rate near the surface. - 3.3.4 Application: decay of a sea surface temperature anomaly. - 3.3.5 Time derivative following the parcel. - 3.4 Continuity equation. - 3.4.1 Oceanic continuity equation. - 3.4.2 Atmospheric continuity equation. - 3.4.3 Application: coastal upwelling. - 3.4.4 Application: equatorial upwelling. - 3.4.5 Application: conservation of warm water mass in an idealized layer above the thermocline. - 3.5 Conservation of mass applied to moisture. - 3.5.1 Moisture equation for the atmosphere and surface. - 3.5.2 Sources and sinks of moisture, and latent heat. - 3.5.3 Application: surface melting on an ice sheet. - 3.5.4 Salinity equation for the ocean. - 3.6 Moist processes. - 3.6.1 Saturation. - 3.6.2 Saturation in convection; lifting condensation level. - 3.6.3 The moist adiabat and lapse rate in convective regions. - 3.6.4 Moist convection. - 3.7 Wave processes in the atmosphere and ocean. - 3.7.1 Gravity waves. - 3.7.2 Kelvin waves. - 3.7.3 Rossby waves. - 3.8 Overview. - Notes. - 4. El Niño and year-to-year climate prediction. - 4.1 Recap of El Niño basics. - 4.1.1 The Bjerknes hypothesis. - 4.2 Tropical Pacific climatology. - 4.3 ENSO mechanisms I: extreme phases. - 4.4 Pressure gradients in an idealized upper layer. - 4.4.1 Subsurface temperature anomalies in an idealized upper layer. - 4.5 Transition into the 1997-98 El Niño. - 4.5.1 Subsurface temperature measurements. - 4.5.2 Subsurface temperature anomalies during the onset of El Niño. - 4.5.3 Subsurface temperature anomalies during the transition to La Niña. - 4.6 El Niño mechanisms II: dynamics of transition phases. - 4.6.1 Equatorial jets and the Kelvin wave. - 4.6.2 The Kelvin wave speed. - 4.6.3 What sets the width of the Kelvin wave and equatorial jet?. - 4.6.4 Response of the ocean to a wind anomaly. - 4.6.5 The delayed oscillator model and the recharge oscillator model. - 4.6.6 ENSO transition mechanism in brief. - 4.7 El Niño prediction. - 4.7.1 Limits to skill in ENSO forecasts. - 4.8 El Niño remote impacts: teleconnections. - 4.9 Other interannual climate phenomena. - 4.9.1 Hurricane season forecasts. - 4.9.2 Sahel drought. - 4.9.3 North Atlantic oscillation and annular modes. - Notes. - 5. Climate models. - 5.1 Constructing a climate model. - 5.1.1 An atmospheric model. - 5.1.2 Treatment of sub-grid-scale processes. - 5.1.3 Resolution and computational cost. - 5.1.4 An ocean model and ocean-atmosphere coupling. - 5.1.5 Land surface, snow, ice and vegetation. - 5.1.6 Summary of principal climate model equations. - 5.1.7 Climate system modeling. - 5.2 Numerical representation of atmospheric and oceanic equations. - 5.2.1 Finite-difference versus spectral models. - 5.2.2 Time-stepping and numerical stability. - 5.2.3 Staggered grids and other grids. - 5.2.4 Parallel computer architecture. - 5.3 Parameterization of small-scale processes. - 5.3.1 Mixing and surface fluxes. - 5.3.2 Dry convection. - 5.3.3 Moist convection. - 5.3.4 Land surface processes and soil moisture. - 5.3.5 Sea ice and snow. - 5.4 The hierarchy of climate models. - 5.5 Climate simulations and climate drift. - 5.6 Evaluation of climate model simulations for present-day climate. - 5.6.1 Atmospheric model climatology from specified SST. - 5.6.2 Climate model simulation of climatology. - 5.6.3 Simulation of ENSO response. - Notes. - 6. The greenhouse effect and climate feedbacks. - 6.1 The greenhouse effect in Earth's current climate. - 6.1.1 Global energy balance. - 6.1.2 A global-average energy balance model with a one-layer atmosphere. - 6.1.3 Infrared emissions from a layer. - 6.1.4 The greenhouse effect: example with a completely IR-absorbing atmosphere. - 6.1.5 The greenhouse effect in a one-layer atmosphere, global-average model. - 6.1.6 Temperatures from the one-layer energy balance model. - 6.2 Global warming I: example in the global-average energy balance model. - 6.2.1 Increases in the basic greenhouse effect. - 6.2.2 Climate feedback parameter in the one-layer global-average model. - 6.3 Climate feedbacks. - 6.3.1 Climate feedback parameter. - 6.3.2 Contributions of climate feedbacks to global-average temperature response. - 6.3.3 Climate sensitivity. - 6.4 The water vapor feedback. - 6.5 Snow/ice feedback. - 6.6 Cloud feedbacks. - 6.7 Other feedbacks in the physical climate system. - 6.7.1 Stratospheric cooling. - 6.7.2 Lapse rate feedback. - 6.8 Climate response time in transient climate change. - 6.8.1 Transient climate change versus equilibrium response experiments. - 6.8.2 A doubled-CO2 equilibrium response experiment. - 6.8.3 The role of the oceans in slowing warming. - 6.8.4 Climate sensitivity in transient climate change. - Notes. - 7. Climate model scenarios for global warming. - 7.1 Greenhouse gases, aerosols and other climate forcings. - 7.1.1 Scenarios, forcings and feedbacks. - 7.1.2 Forcing by sulfate aerosols. - 7.1.3 Commonly used scenarios. - 7.2 Global-average response to greenhouse warming scenarios. - 7.3 Spatial patterns of warming for time-dependent scenarios. - 7.3.1 Comparing projections of different climate models. - 7.3.2 Multi-model ensemble averages. - 7.3.3 Polar amplification of warming. - 7.3.4 Summary of spatial patterns of the response. - 7.4 Ice, sea level, extreme events. - 7.4.1 Sea ice and snow. - 7.4.2 Land ice. - 7.4.3 Extreme events. - 7.5 Summary: the best-estimate prognosis. - 7.6 Climate change observed to date. - 7.6.1 Temperature trends and natural variability: scale dependence. - 7.6.2 Is the observed trend consistent with natural variability or anthropogenic forcing?. - 7.6.3 Sea ice, land ice, ocean heat storage and sea level rise. - 7.7 Emissions

Note: Contents: PART I INTRODUCTION, NUMERICAL OVERVIEW, AND DATA-SETS. - 1 The march towards the quantitative analysis of palaeolimnological data. - 2 Overview of numerical metods in Palaeolimnology. - 3 Data-Sets. - PART II NUMERICAL METHODS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF MODERN AND STRATIGRAPHICAL PALAEOLIMNOLOGICAL DATA. - 4 Introduction and overview Part II. - 5 Exploratory data analysis and data display. - Assessment of uncertainities associated with Palaeolimnological laboratory methods and microfossil analysis. - 7 Clustering and partitioning. - 8 From Classical to canonical ordination. - 9 Statistical learning in Palaeolimnology. - PART III NUMERICAL METHODS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF STRATIGRAPHICAL PALAEOLIMNOLOGICAL DATA. - 10 Introduction and overview of Part III. - 11 Analysis of stratigraphical data. - 12 Estimation of age-depth relationships. - 13 Core correlation. - 14 Quantitative environmental reconstructions from biological data. - 15 Analogue methods in Palaeolimnology. - 16 Autocorrelogram and Periodogram analysis of palaeolimnological temporal-series from lakes in Central and Western North America to assess shifts in drought conditions. - PART IV CASE STUDIES AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN QUANTITATIVE PALAEOLIMNOLOGY. - 17 Introduction and overview of Part IV. - 18 Limnological responses to environmental changes at Inter-annual to decadal time-scales. - 19 Human impacts: applications of numerical methods to evaluate surface-water acidification and eutrophication. - 20 Tracking Holocene climatic change with aquatic biota from lake sediments: case studies of commonly used numerical techniques. - 21 Conclusions and future challenges. - Glossary. - Index.

Note: Contents: About the author. - About the technical reviewer. - Acknowledgments. - Introduction. - Chapter 1: Getting R and getting started. - Chapter 2: Programming in R. - Chapter 3: Writing reusable functions. - Chapter 4: Summary statistics. - Chapter 5: Creating Tables and graphs. - Chapter 6: Discrete probability distributions. - Chapter 7: Computing normal probabilities. - Chapter 8: Creating confidence intervals. - Chapter 9: Performing t tests. - Chapter 10: One-way analysis of variance. - Chapter 11: Advanced analysis of variance. - Chapter 12: Correlation and regression. - Chapter 13: Multiple regression. - Chapter 14: Logistic regression. - Chapter 15: Chi-square tests. - Chapter 16: Nonparametric tests. - Chapter 17: Using R for simulation. - Chapter 18: The 'new' statistics: resampling and bootstrapping. - Chapter 19: Making an R package. - Chapter 20: The R commander package. - Index

Note: TABLE OF CONTENTS Introduction Advances in 40Ar/39Ar dating: from archaeology to planetary sciences – introduction / Fred Jourdan, Darren F. Mark and Chrystele Verati / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 1-8, 16 January 2014, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.24 Perspectives on 40Ar/39Ar dating / Ian McDougall / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 9-20, 30 September 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.20 Methodological developments Some footnotes to the optimization-based calibration of the 40Ar/39Ar system / Paul R. Renne / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 21-31, 25 July 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.17 Neutron-induced 37Ar recoil ejection in Ca-rich minerals and implications for 40Ar/39Ar dating / F. Jourdan and P. R. Renne / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 33-52, 25 July 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.15 Direct measurement of recoil effects on 40Ar/39Ar standards / Chris M. Hall / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 53-62, 13 March 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.7 FCs-EK: a new sampling of the Fish Canyon Tuff 40Ar/39Ar neutron flux monitor / L. E. Morgan, D. F. Mark, J. Imlach, D. Barfod and R. Dymock / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 63-67, 30 September 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.21 Petrology and geochronology of ‘muscovite age standard’ B4M / Alexandra R. Heri, Martin Robyr and Igor M. Villa / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 69-78, 24 January 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.2 Argon extraction from geological samples by CO2 scanning laser step-heating / D. N. Barfod, D. F. Mark, A. Tait, R. C. Dymock and J. Imlach / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 79-90, 24 October 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.23 The multi-diffusion domain model: past, present and future / T. Mark Harrison and Oscar M. Lovera / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 91-106, 13 March 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.9 Diffusion of Ar in K-feldspar: Present and absent / Igor M. Villa / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 107-116, 24 January 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.4 40Ar/39Ar geochronology and the diffusion of 39Ar in phengite–muscovite intergrowths during step-heating experiments in vacuo / Marnie A. Forster and Gordon S. Lister / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 117-135, 25 July 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.16 Ar diffusion and solubility measurements in plagioclases using the ultra-violet laser depth-profiling technique / Jo-Anne Wartho, Simon P. Kelley and Stephen C. Elphick / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 137-154, 25 July 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.13 Modelling effect of sericitization of plagioclase on the 40K/40Ar and 40Ar/39Ar chronometers: implication for dating basaltic rocks and mineral deposits / Chrystèle Verati and Fred Jourdan / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 155-174, 25 July 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.14 The other isotopes: research avenues based on 36Ar, 37Ar and 38Ar / Grenville Turner and Ray Burgess / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 175-188, 13 March 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.8 Applications: Tectonics 40Ar/39Ar Thermochronology on Central China Orogen: Cooling, uplift and implications for orogeny dynamics / Fei Wang, Rixiang Zhu, Quanlin Hou, Dewen Zheng, Liekun Yang, Lin Wu, Wenbei Shi, Huile Feng, Haiqing Sang, Hongyuan Zhang and Qing Liu / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 189-206, 24 January 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.3 40Ar/39Ar ages of crystallization and recrystallization of rock-forming polyhalite in Alpine rocksalt deposits / C. Leitner, F. Neubauer, J. Genser, S. Borojević-Šoštarić and G. Rantitsch / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 207-224, 24 January 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.5 Persistent long-term (c. 24 Ma) exhumation in the Eastern Alaska Range constrained by stacked thermochronology / Jeff A. Benowitz, Paul W. Layer and Sam Vanlaningham / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 225-243, 20 June 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.12 40Ar/39Ar hornblende provenance clues about Heinrich event 3 (H3) / Greg E. Downing, Sidney R. Hemming, Anne Jost and Martin Roy / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 245-263, 30 September 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.18 Observation of centimetre-scale argon diffusion in alkali feldspars: implications for 40Ar/39Ar thermochronology / Stephanie Flude, Alison M. Halton, Simon P. Kelley, Sarah C. Sherlock, James Schwanethal and Camilla M. Wilkinson / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 265-275, 10 January 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.25 Applications: Volcanology 40Ar/39Ar age constraints on the Haifanggou and Lanqi formations: When did the first flowers bloom? / Su-Chin Chang, Haichun Zhang, Sidney R. Hemming, Gary T. Mesko and Yan Fang / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 277-284, 24 January 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.1 Timing of geothermal activity in an active island-arc volcanic setting: First 40Ar/39Ar dating from Bouillante geothermal field (Guadeloupe, French West Indies) / C. Verati, P. Patrier-Mas, J. M. Lardeaux and V. Bouchot / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 285-295, 30 September 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.19 Applications: Planetary sciences Issues in dating young rocks from another planet: Martian shergottites / Jisun Park, Donald D. Bogard, Laurence E. Nyquist and G. F. Herzog / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 297-316, 20 June 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.10 A laser probe 40Ar/39Ar investigation of poikilitic shergottite NWA 4797: implications for the timing of shock metamorphism / Erin L. Walton, Simon Kelley, Christopher D. K. Herd and Anthony J. Irving / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 317-332, 20 June 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.11 40Ar/39Ar ages of impacts involving ordinary chondrite meteorites / Timothy D. Swindle, D. A. Kring and J. R. Weirich / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 333-347, 24 January 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.6 A high-precision 40Ar/39Ar age for hydrated impact glass from the Dellen impact, Sweden / D. F. Mark, P. Lindgren and A. E. Fallick / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 378, 349-366, 30 September 2013, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP378.22

Note: Contents: Preface. - Acknowledgements. - PART 1 INTRODUCTION. - 1 Introduction. - 1.1 Humans and the coastal zone. - 1.2 Approaches to the study of coasts. - 1.3 Information sources. - 1.4 Approach and organisation. - References. - 2. Coastal geomorphology. - 2.1 Definition and scope of coastal geomorphology. - 2.2 The coastal zone: definition and nomenclature. - 2.3 Factors influencing coastal morphology and processes. - References. - PART 2 COASTAL PROCESSES. - 3. Sea level fluctuations and changes. - 3.1 Synopsis. - 3.2 Mean sea level, the geoid, and changes in mean sea level. - 3.3 Changes in mean sea level. - 3.4 Astronomical tides. - 3.5 Short-term dynamic changes in sea level. - 3.6 Climate change and sea level rise. - References. - 4. Wind-generated waves. - 4.1 Synopsis. - 4.2 Definition and characteristics of waves. - 4.3 Measurement and description of waves. - 4.4 Wave generation. - 4.5 Wave prediction. - 4.6 Wave climate. - Further reading. - Preferences. - 5. Waves - wave theory and wave dynamics. - 5.1 Synopsis. - 5.2 Wave theories. - 5.3 Wave shoaling and refraction. - 5.4 Wave breaking. - 5.5 Wave groups and low-frequency energy in the surf and swash zones. - Further reading. - References. - 6. Surf zone circulation. - 6.1 Synopsis. - 6.2 Undertow. - 6.3 Rip cells. - 6.4 Longshore currents. - 6.5 Wind and tidal currents. - Further reading. - References. - 7. Coastal sediment transport. - 7.1 Synopsis. - 7.2 Sediment transport mechanisms, boundary layers and bedforms. - 7.3 On-offshore sand transport. - 7.4 Longshore sand transport. - 7.5 Littoral sediment budget and littoral drift cells. - Further reading. - References. - PART 3 COASTAL SYSTEMS. - 8. Beach and nearshore systems. - 8.1 Synopsis. - 8.2 Beach and nearshore sediments and morphology. - 8.3 Nearshore morphodynamics. - 8.4 Beach morphodynamics. - References. - 9. Coastal sand dunes. - 9.1 Synopsis. - 9.2 Morphological components of coastal dunes and dune fields. - 9.3 Plant communities of coastal dunes. - 9.4 Aeolian processes in coastal dunes. - 9.5 Sand deposition. - 9.6 Beach / dune interaction and foredune evolution. - 9.7 Management of coastal dunes. - References. - 10. Barrier systems. - 10.1 Synopsis. - 10.2 Barrier types and morphology. - 10.3 Barrier dynamics: overwash and inlets. - 10.4 Barrier spit morphodynamics. - 10.5 Barrier islands. - 10.6 Management of barrier systems. - References. - 11. Salt marshes and mangroves. - 11.1 Synopsis. - 11.2 Saltmarsh and mangrove ecosystems. - 11.3 Salt marshes. - 11.4 Mangroves. - 11.5 Conservation and management of saltmarshes and mangroves. - Further reading. - References. - 12. Coral reefs and atolls. - 12.1 Synopsis. - 12.2 Corals and reef formation. - 12.3 Geomorphology and sedimentology of coral reefs. - 12.4 Impacts of disturbance on coral reefs. - Further reading. - References. - 13. Cliffed and rocky coasts. - 13.1 Synopsis. - 13.2 Cliffed coast morphology. - 13.3 Cliffed coast erosion system. - 13.4 Cohesive bluff coasts. - 13.5 Rock coasts. - 13.6 Shore platforms. - 13.7 Management of coastal cliff shorelines. - Further reading. - References. - Index

Note: Foreword; Acknowledgements; List of participating members of the Expert Group; CONTENTS; List of tables; List of figures; Executive summary; Part I: Methodology and Data on Levelised Costs for Generating Electricity; Chapter 1 Introduction and context; Chapter 2 Methodology, conventions and key assumptions; Chapter 3 Technology overview; Chapter 4 Country-by-country data on electricity generating costs for different technologies; Part 2: Sensitivity analyses and boundary issues; Chapter 5 Median case; Chapter 6 Sensitivity analyses. , Chapter 7 System integration aspects of variable renewable power generationChapter 8 Financing issues; Chapter 9 Levelised costs and the working of actual power markets; Chapter 10 Carbon capture and storage; Chapter 11 Synthesis report on other studies of the levelised cost of electricity; ANNEXES; Annex 1 Issues concerning data from non-OECD countries and assumptions forthe electricity generating cost calculations; Annex 2 List of abbreviations;.

Note: Earthquakes and fault motion. pp. 1-21. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.002 --- Processing and analysis of recorded seismic signals. pp. 22-40. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.003 --- Mathematical representation of the source. pp. 41-62. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.004 --- Point source models. pp. 63-89. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.005 --- The seismic moment tensor. pp. 90-107. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.006 --- Determination of point source mechanisms. pp. 108-134. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.007 --- Kinematics of extended sources. pp. 135-162. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.008 --- Determination of source dimensions. pp. 163-188. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.009 --- Simple dynamic models. pp. 189-204. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.010 --- Dynamics of fracture. Homogeneous models. pp. 205-231. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.011 --- Fracture dynamics. Heterogeneous models. pp. 232-258. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.012 --- Modeling earthquakes using fracture dynamics. pp. 259-283. doi:10.1017/CBO9781139628792.013

Note: Table of Contents: List of contributors. - Cryosphere Science: Series Preface. - Preface. - Acknowledgments. - About the companion website. - 1 Remote sensing and the cryosphere. - 1.1 Introduction. - 1.2 Remote sensing. - 1.2.1 The electromagnetic spectrum and blackbody radiation. - 1.2.2 Passive systems. - 1.2.3 Active systems. - 1.3 The cryosphere. - References. - 2 Electromagnetic properties of components of the cryosphere. - 2.1 Electromagnetic properties of snow. - 2.1.1 Visible/near-infrared and thermal infrared. - 2.1.2 Microwave region. - 2.2 Electromagnetic properties of sea ice. - 2.2.1 Visible/near-infrared and thermal infrared. - 2.2.2 Microwave region. - 2.3 Electromagnetic properties of freshwater ice. - 2.4 Electromagnetic properties of glaciers and ice sheets. - 2.4.1 Visible/near-infrared and thermal infrared. - 2.4.2 Microwave region. - 2.5 Electromagnetic properties of frozen soil. - 2.5.1 Visible/near-infrared and thermal infrared. - 2.5.2 Microwave region. - References. - Acronyms. - Websites cited. - 3 Remote sensing of snow extent. - 3.1 lntroduction. - 3.2 Visible/near-infrared snow products. - 3.2.1 The normalized difference snow index (NDSI). - 3.3 Passive microwave products. - 3.4 Blended VNIR/PM products. - 3.5 Satellite snow extent as input to hydrological models. - 3.6 Concluding remarks. - Acknowledgments. - References. - Acronyms. - Websites cited. - 4 Remote sensing of snow albedo, grain size, and pollution from space. - 4.1 Introduction. - 4.2 Forward modeling. - 4.3 Local optical properties of a snow layer. - 4.4 Inverse problem. - 4.5 Pitfalls of retrievals. - 4.6 Conclusions. - Acknowledgments. - References. - Acronyms. - Websites cited. - 5 Remote sensing of snow depth and snow water equivalent. - 5.1 Introduction. - 5.2 Photogrammetry. - 5.3 LiDAR. - 5.4 Gamma radiation. - 5.5 Gravity data. - 5.6 Passive microwave data. - 5.7 Active microwave data. - 5.8 Conclusions. - References. - Acronyms. - Websites cited. - 6 Remote sensing of melting snow and ice. - 6.1 Introduction. - 6.2 General considerations on optical/thermal and microwave sensors and techniques for remote sensing of melting. - 6.2.1 Optical and thermal sensors. - 6.2.2 Microwave sensors. - 6.2.3 Electromagnetic properties of dry and wet snow. - 6.3 Remote sensing of melting over land. - 6.4 Remote sensing of melting over Greenland. - 6.4.1 Thermal infrared sensors. - 6.4.2 Microwave sensors. - 6.5 Remote sensing of melting over Antarctica. - 6.6 Conclusions. - References. - Acronyms. - 7 Remote sensing of glaciers. - 7.1 Introduction. - 7.2 Fundamentals. - 7.3 Satellite instruments for glacier research. - 7.4 Methods. - 7.4.1 Image classification for glacier mapping. - 7.4.2 Mapping debris-covered glaciers. - 7.4.3 Glacier mapping with SAR data. - 7.4.4 Assessing glacier changes. - 7.4.5 Area and length changes. - 7.4.6 Volumetrie glacier changes. - 7.4.7 Glacier velocity. - 7.5 Glaciers of the Greenland ice sheet. - 7.5.1 Surface elevation. - 7.5.2 Glacier extent. - 7.5.3 Glacier dynamics. - 7.6 Summary. - References. - Acronyms. - Websites cited. - 8 Remote sensing of accumulation over the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets. - 8.1 Introduction to accumulation. - 8.2 Spaceborne methods for determining accumulation over ice sheets. - 8.2.1 Microwave remote sensing. - 8.2.2 Other remote sensing techniques and combined methods. - 8.3 Airborne and ground-based measurements of accumulation. - 8.3.1 Ground-based. - 8.3.2 Airborne. - 8.4 Modeling of accumulation. - 8.5 The future for remote sensing of accumulation. - 8.6 Conclusions. - References. - Acronyms. - Website cited. - 9 Remote sensing of ice thickness and surface velocity. - 9.1 Introduction. - 9.1.1 Electrical properties of glacial ice. - 9.2 Radar principles. - 9.2.1 Radar sounder. - 9.2.2 Radar equation. - 9.3 Pulse compression. - 9.4 Antennas. - 9.5 Example results. - 9.6 SAR and array processing. - 9.7 SAR Interferometry. - 9. 7.1 Introduction. - 9.7.2 Basic theory. - 9.7.3 Practical considerations of InSAR systems. - 9.7.4 Application of InSAR to Cryosphere remote sensing. - 9.8 Conclusions. - References. - Acronyms. - 10 Gravimetry measurements from space. - 10.1 Introduction. - 10.2 Observing the Earth's gravity field with inter-satellite ranging. - 10.3 Surface mass variability from GRACE. - 10.4 Results. - 10.5 Conclusions. - References. - Acronyms. - 11 Remote sensing of sea ice. - 11.1 Introduction. - 11.2 Sea ice concentration and extent. - 11.2.1 Passive microwave radiometers. - 11.2.2 Active microwave - scatterometry and radar. - 11.2.3 Visible and infrared. - 11.2.4 Operational sea ice analyses. - 11.3 Sea ice drift. - 11.4 Sea ice thickness and age, and snow depth. - 11.4.1 Altimetric thickness estimates. - 11.4.2 Radiometric thickness estimates. - 11.4.3 Sea ice age estimates as a proxy for ice thickness. - 11.5 Sea ice melt onset and freeze-up, albedo, melt pond fraction and surface temperature. - 11.5.1 Melt onset and freeze-up. - 11.5.2 Sea ice albedo and melt pond fraction. - 11.5.3 Sea ice surface temperature. - 11.6 Summary, challenges and the road ahead. - References. - Acronyms. - Website cited. - 12 Remote sensing of lake and river ice. - 12.1 Introduction. - 12.2 Remote sensing of lake ice. - 12.2.1 Ice concentration, extent and phenology. - 12.2.2 Ice types. - 12.2.3 Ice thickness and snow on ice. - 12.2.4 Snow/ice surface temperature. - 12.2.5 Floating and grounded ice: the special case of shallow Arctic/sub-Arctic lakes. - 12.3 Remote sensing of river ice. - 12.3.1 Ice extent and phenology. - 12.3.2 lce types, ice jams and flooded areas. - 12.3.3 Ice thickness. - 12.3.4 Surface flow velocities. - 12.3.5 Incorporating SAR-derived ice information into a GIS-based system in support of river-flow modeling and flood forecasting. - 12.4 Conclusions and outlook. - Acknowledgments. - References. - Acronyms. - Websites cited. - 13 Remote sensing of permafrost and frozen ground. - 13.1 Permafrost - an essential climate variable of the "Global Climate Observing System". - 13.2 Mountain permafrost. - 13.2.1 Remote sensing of surface features and permafrost landforms. - 13.2.2 Generation of digital elevation models. - 13.2.3 Terrain elevation change and displacement. - 13.3 Lowland permafrost - identification and mapping of surface features. - 13.3.1 Land cover and vegetation. - 13.3.2 Permafrost landforms. - 13.3.3 Landforms and processes indicating permafrost degradation. - 13.4 Lowland permafrost - remote sensing of physical variables related to the thermal permafrost state. - 13.4.1 Land surface temperature through thermal remote sensing. - 13.4.2 Freeze-thaw state of the surface soil through microwave remote sensing. - 13.4.3 Permafrost mapping with airborne electromagnetic surveys. - 13.4.4 Regional surface deformation through radar interferometry. - 13.4.5 A gravimetric signal of permafrost thaw?. - 13.5 Outlook - remote sensing data and permafrost models. - References. - Acronyms. - 14 Field measurements for remote sensing of the cryosphere. - 14.1 Introduction. - 14.2 Physical properties of interest. - 14.2.1 Surface properties. - 14.2.2 Sub-surface properties. - 14.3 Standard techniques for direct measurements of physical properties. - 14.3.1 Topography. - 14.3.2 Snow depth. - 14.3.3 Snow water equivalent and density. - 14.3.4 Temperature. - 14.3.5 Stratigraphy. - 14.3.6 Sea ice depth and ice thickness. - 14.4 New techniques for high spatial resolution measurements. - 14.4.1 Topography. - 14.4.2 Surface properties. - 14.4.3 Sub-surface properties. - 14.5 Simulating airborne and spaceborne observations from the ground. - 14.5.1 Active microwave. - 14.5.2 Passive microwave. - 14.6 Sampling strategies for remote sensing field campaigns: concepts and examples. - 14.6.1 Ice sheet campaigns. - 14.6.2 Seasonal snow campaigns. - 14.6.3 Sea ice campaigns. - 14.7 Conclusions. - References. - Acronyms. - Websites cited. - 15 Remote sensing missions and the cryosphere. - 15.1 In

Note: Contents: SUMMARY. - 1 INTRODUCTION. - Study Context and Charge to the Committee. - Study Approach and Methodology. - Report Organization. - 2 RATIONALE FOR CONTINUED ARCTIC RESEARCH. - 3 EMERGING QUESTIONS. - Evolving Arctic. - Will Arctic communities have greater or lesser influence on their futures?. - Will the land be wetter or drier, and what are the associated implications for surface water, energy balances, and ecosystems?. - How much of the variability of the Arctic system is linked to ocean circulation?. - What are the impacts of extreme events in the new ice-reduced system?. - How will primary productivity change with decreasing sea ice and snow cover?. - How will species distributions and associated ecosystem structure change with the evolving cryosphere?. - Hidden Arctic. - What surprises are hidden within and beneath the ice?. - What is being irretrievably lost as the Arctic changes?. - Why does winter matter?. - What can "break or brake" glaciers and ice sheets?. - How unusual is the current Arctic warmth?. - What is the role of the Arctic in abrupt change?. - What has been the Cenozoic evolution of the Arctic Ocean Basin?. - Connected Arctic. - How will rapid Arctic warming change the jet stream and affect weather patterns in lower latitudes?. - What is the potential for a trajectory of irreversible loss of Arctic land ice, and how will its impact vary regionally?. - How will climate change affect exchanges between the Arctic Ocean andsubpolar basins?. - How will Arctic change affect the long-range transport and persistence of biota?. - How will changing societal connections between the Arctic and the rest of the world affect Arctic communities?. - Managed Arctic. - How will decreasing populations in rural villages and increasing urbanization affect Arctic peoples and societies?. - Will local, regional, and international relations in the Arctic move toward cooperation or conflict?. - How can 21st-century development in the Arctic occur without compromising the environment or indigenous cultures while still benefiting global and Arctic inhabitants?. - How can we prepare forecasts and scenarios to meet emerging management needs?. - What benefits and risks are presented by geoengineering and other large-scale technological interventions to prevent or reduce climate change and associated impacts in the Arctic?. - Undetermined Arctic. - Priority Setting. - 4 MEETING THE CHALLENGES. - Enhancing Cooperation. - Interagency. - International. - Interdisciplinary. - Intersectoral. - Cooperation through Social Media. - Sustaining Long-Term Observations. - Rationale for Long-Term Observations. - Coordinating Long-Term Observation Efforts. - Managing and Sharing Information. - Preserving the Legacy of Research through Data Preservation and Dissemination. - Creating a Culture of Data Preservation and Sharing. - Infrastructure to Ensure Data Flows from Observation to Users, Stakeholders, and Archives. - Data Visualization and Analysis. - Maintaining and Building Operational Capacity. - Mobile Platforms. - Fixed Platforms and Systems. - Remote Sensing. - Sensors. - Power and Communication. - Models in Prediction, Projection, and Re-Analyses. - Partnerships with Industry. - Growing Human Capacity. - Community Engagement. - Investing in Research. - Comprehensive Systems and Synthesis Research. - Non-Steady-State Research. - Social Sciences and Human Capacity. - Stakeholder-Initiated Research. - International Funding Cooperation. - Long-Term Observations. - 5 BUILDING KNOWLEDGE AND SOLVING PROBLEMS. - REFERENCES. - APPENDIXES. - A Acronyms and Abbreviations. - B Speaker and Interviewee Acknowledgments. - C Summary of Questionnaire Responses. - D Biographical Sketches of Committee Members.

Note: Contents: Series foreword. - Preface. - Select bibliography. - The authors. - 1 Observed flow in the Earth's midlalitudes. - 1.1 Vertical structure. - 1.2 Horizontal structure. - 1.3 Transient activity. - 1.4 Scales of motion. - 1.5 The Norwegian frontal model of cyclones. - Theme 1 Fluid dynamics of the midlatitude atmosphere. - 2 Fluid dynamics in an inertial frame of reference. - 2.1 Definition of fluid. - 2.2 Flow variables and the continuum hypothesis. - 2.3 Kinematics: characterizing fluid flow. - 2.4 Governing physical principles. - 2.5 Lagrangian and Eulerian perspectives. - 2.6 Mass conservation equation. - 2.7 First Law of Thermodynamics. - 2.8 Newton's Second Law of Motion. - 2.9 Bernoulli's Theorem. - 2.10 Heating and water vapour. - 3 Rotating frames of reference. - 3.1 Vectors in a rotating frame of reference. - 3.2 Velocity and Acceleration. - 3.3 The momentum equation in a rotating frame. - 3.4 The centrifugal pseudo-force. - 3.5 The Coriolis pseudo-force. - 3.6 The Taylor-Proudman theorem. - 4 The spherical Earth. - 4.1 Spherical polar coordinates. - 4.2 Scalar equations. - 4.3 The momentum equations. - 4.4 Energy and angular momentum.- 4.5 The shallow atmosphere approximation. - 4.6 The beta effect and the spherical Earth. - 5 Scale analysis and its applications. - 5.1 Principles of scaling methods. - 5.2 The use of a reference atmosphere. - 5.3 The horizontal momentum equations. - 5.4 Natural coordinates, geostrophic and gradient wind balance. - 5.5 Vertical motion. - 5.6 The vertical momentum equation. - 5.7 The mass continuity equation. - 5.8 The thermodynamic energy equation. - 5.9 Scalings for Rossby numbers that are not small. - 6 Alternative vertical coordinates. - 6.1 A general vertical coordinate. - 6.2 Isobaric coordinates. - 6.3 Other pressure-based vertical coordinates. - 6.4 Isentropic coordinates. - 7 Variations of density and the basic equations. - 7.1 Boussinesq approximation. - 7.2 Anelastic approximation. - 7.3 Stratification and gravity waves. - 7.4 Balance, gravity waves and Richardson number. - 7.5 Summary of the basic equation sets. - 7.6 The energy of atmospheric motions. - Theme 2 Rotation in the atmosphere. - 8 Rotation in the atmosphere. - 8.1 The concept of vorticity. - 8.2 The vorticity equation. - 8.3 The vorticity equation for approximate sets of equations. - 8.4 The solenoidal term. - 8.5 The expansion/contraction term. - 8.6 The stretching and tilting terms. - 8.7 Friction and vorticity. - 8.8 The vorticity equation in alternative vertical coordinates. - 8.9 Circulation. - 9 Vorticity and the barotropic vorticity equation. - 9.1 The barotropic vorticity equation. - 9.2 Poisson's equation and vortex interactions. - 9.3 Flow over a shallow hill. - 9.4 Ekman pumping. - 9.5 Rossby waves and the beta plane. - 9.6 Rossby group velocity. - 9.7 Rossby ray tracing. - 9.8 Inflexion point instability. - 10 Potential vorticity. - 10.1 Potential vorticity. - 10.2 Alternative derivations of Ertel's theorem. - 10.3 The principle of invertibility. - 10.4 Shallow water equation potential vorticity. - 11 Turbulence and atmospheric flow. - 11.1 The Reynolds number . - 11.2 Three-dimensional flow at large Reynolds number. - 11.3 Two-dimensional flow at large Reynolds number. - 11.4 Vertical mixing in a stratified fluid. - 11.5 Reynolds stresses. - Theme 3 Balance in atmospheric flow. - 12 Quasi-geostrophic flows. - 12.1 Wind and temperature in balanced flows. - 12.2 The quasi-geostrophic approximation. - 12.3 Quasi-geostrophic potential vorticity. - 12.4 Ertel and quasi-geostrophic potential vorticities. - 13 The omega equation. - 13.1 Vorticity and thermal advection form. - 13.2 Sutcliffe Form. - 13.3 Q-vector form. - 13.4 Ageostrophic flow and the maintenance of balance. - 13.5 Balance and initialization. - 14 Linear theories of baroclinic instability. - 14.1 Qualitative discussion. - 14.2 Stability analysis of a zonal flow. - 14.3 Rossby wave interpretation of the stability conditions. - 14.4 The Eady model. - 14.5 The Charney and other quasi-geostrophic models. - 14.6 More realistic basic states. - 14.7 Initial value problem. - 15 Frontogenesis. - 15.1 Frontal scales. - 15.2 Ageostrophic circulation. - 15.3 Description of frontal collapse. - 15.4 The semi-geostrophic Eady model. - 15.5 The confluence model. - 15.6 Upper-level frontogenesis. - 16 The nonlinear development of baroclinic waves. - 16.1 The nonlinear domain. - 16.2 Semi-geostrophic baroclinic waves. - 16.3 Nonlinear baroclinic waves on realistic jetson the sphere. - 16.4 Eddy transports and zonal mean flow changes. - 16.5 Energetics of baroclinic waves. - 17 The potential vorticity perspective. - 17.1 Setting the scene. - 17.2 Potential vorticity and vertical velocity. - 17.3 Life cycles of some baroclinic waves. - 17.4 Alternative perspectives. - 17.5 Midlatitude blocking. - 17.6 Frictional and heating effects. - 18 Rossby wave propagation and potential vorticity mixing. - 18.1 Rossby wave propagation. - 18.2 Propagation of Rossby waves into the stratosphere. - 18.3 Propagation through a slowly varying medium. - 18.4 The Eliassen-Palm flux and group velocity. - 18.5 Baroclinic life cycles and Rossby waves. - 18.6 Variations of amplitude. - 18.7 Rossby waves and potential vorticity steps. - 18.8 Potential vorticity steps and the Rhines scale. - Appendices. - Appendix A: Notation. - Appendix B: Revision of vectors and vector calculus. - B.1 Vectors and their algebra. - B.2 Products of vectors. - B.3 Scalar fields and the grad operator. - B.4 The divergence and curl operators. - B.5 Gauss' and Stokes' theorems. - B.6 Some useful vector identities. - Index.

Note: Contents: 1. Introduction. - (1) The purposes of the long-term plan report. - (2) The background and particulars of this report. - (3) Contents of this report. - 2.Changes in the Arctic environment to date and in the near future. - 3. History of Arctic environmental research. - 4. Abstracts of all themes. - (1) Elucidation of abrupt environmental change in the Arctic associated with the on-going global warming. - Theme 1: Arctic amplification of global warming. - Theme 2: Mechanisms and influence of sea ice decline. - Theme 3: Biogeochemical cycles and ecosystem changes. - Theme 4: Ice sheet, glaciers, permafrost, snowfall, snow cover and hydrological cycle. - Theme 5: Interactions between the Arctic and the entire earth. - Theme 6: Predicting future environmental conditions of the Arctic based on paleoenvironmental records. - Theme 7: Effects of the Arctic environment on human society. - (2) Elucidation of environmental change concerning biodiversity. - Theme 8: Effects on terrestrial ecosystems and biodiversity. - Theme 9: Influence on marine ecosystem and biodiversity. - (3) Broad and important subjects on the Arctic environment. - Theme 10: Geospace environment. - Theme 11: Interaction of surface environment change with solid earth. - Theme 12: Basic understanding on formation and transition process of permafrost. - (4) Development of methods enabling breakthroughs in environmental research. - Theme A: Sustainable seamless monitoring. - Theme B: Earth system-modeling for inter-disciplinary research. - Theme C: Data assimilation to connect monitoring and modeling. - 5. Improvement of research foundation. - Authors and reviewers.

Note: Contents: 1 General Introduction. - 1.1 The Climate System. - 1.2 The Atmosphere. - 1.3 Energy Budget and Atmospheric Composition. - 1.4 The Water Cycle. - 1.5 Aerosols and Climate Change. - 1.6 Outline of this Textbook. - References. - Further Reading (Textbooks and Articles. - 2 Atmospheric Aerosols. - 2.1 Definitions. - 2.2 Sources of Aerosols and Aerosol Precursors. - 2.2.1 Marine Aerosols. - 2.2.2 Desert Dust. - 2.2.3 Volcanic Aerosols. - 2.2.4 Biogenic Aerosols. - 2.2.5 Biomass Burning Aerosols. - 2.2.6 Aerosols from Fossil Fuel Combustion. - 2.3 Spatial and Temporal Aerosol Distributions. - 2.4 Aerosol-Cloud-Radiation Interactions. - 2.5 Climate Effects of Aerosols. - References. - Further Reading (Textbooks and Articles). - 3 Physical, Chemical and Optical Aerosol Properties. - 3.1 Fine, Accumulation and Coarse Modes. - 3.2 Size Distribution. - 3.3 Chemical Composition. - 3.3.1 Aerosol Mixture. - 3.3.2 Inorganic Aerosols. - 3.3.3 Black Carbon Aerosols. - 3.3.4 Organic Aerosols. - 3.3.5 Geographic Distribution of Aerosol Chemical Composition. - 3.4 Refractive Index. - 3.5 Deliquescence, Efflorescence and Hysteresis. - 3.6 Definition of Aerosol Optical Properties. - 3.6.1 Absorption and Scattering Cross Sections. - 3.6.2 Phase Function. - 3.6.3 Upscatter Fractions. - 3.7 Calculation of Aerosol Optical Properties. - 3.7.1 Mie Theory. - 3. 7.2 Extinction, Scattering and Absorption. - 3.7.3 Optical Depth and Angström Coefficient. - 3.8 Optical Properties of Nonspherical Aerosols. - 3.9 Aerosols and Atmospheric Visibility. - References. - Further Reading (Textbooks and Articles). - 4 Aerosol Modelling. - 4.1 Introduction. - 4.2 Emissions. - 4.2.1 Generalities. - 4.2.2 Fossil Fuels, Biofuels, and Other Anthropogenic Sources. - 4.2.3 Vegetation Fires. - 4.2.4 Sea Spray. - 4.2.5 Desert Dust. - 4.2.6 Dimethylsulphide. - 4.2.7 Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds. - 4.2.8 Volcanoes. - 4.2.9 Resuspension. - 4.3 Atmospheric Processes. - 4.3.1 Nucleation. - 4.3.2 Condensation of Semi-Volatile Compounds. - 4.3.3 Coagulation. - 4.3.4 In-Cloud Aerosol Production. - 4.3.5 Wet Deposition. - 4.3.6 Dry Deposition. - 4.3.7 Sedimentation. - 4.3.8 Aerosol Transport. - 4.4 Modelling Approaches. - 4.4.1 Bulk Approach. - 4.4.2 Sectional Approach. - 4.4.3 Modal Approach. - 4.5 Example: The Sulphur Budget. - References. - Further Reading (Textbooks and Articles). - 5 Interactions of Radiation with Matter and Atmospheric Radiative Transfer. - 5.1 Introduction. - 5.2 Electromagnetic Radiation. - 5.2.1 Generalities. - 5.2.2 Definitions. - 5.3 Interactions of Radiation with Matter. - 5.3.1 Matter, Energy and Spectral Lines. - 5.3.2 Intensity of Spectral Lines. - 5.3.3 Spectral Line Profiles. - 5.3.4 Processes of lnteractions of Radiation with Matter. - 5.4 Modelling of the Interaction Processes. - 5.4.1 Molecular Absorption Coefficient. - 5.4.2 Scattering Phase Function. - 5.4.3 Molecular Scattering. - 5.4.4 Absorption and Scattering by Aerosols. - 5.4.5 Thermal Emission. - 5.5 Atmospheric Radiative Transfer. - 5.5.1 Equation of Radiative Transfer. - 5.5.2 Extinction Only. - 5.5.3 Scattering Medium. - 5.5.4 Plane-Parallel Atmosphere. - 5.5.5 Resolution of the Equation of Radiative Transfer. - 5.6 Absorption Bands, Energy, and Actinic Fluxes. - 5.6.1 Main Molecular Absorption Bands in the Atmosphere. - 5.6.2 Radiative Flux. - 5.6.3 Two-Flux Method. - 5.6.4 Stefan-Boltzmann Law. - 5.6.5 Radiative Budget. - 5.6.6 Actinic Fluxes. - 5.6.7 Polarization of Radiation. - References. - Further Reading (Textbooks and Articles). - 6 In Situ and Remote Sensing Measurements of Aerosols. - 6.1 Introduction to Aerosol Remote Sensing. - 6.2 Passive Remote Sensing: Measurement of the Extinction. - 6.2.1 General Principles. - 6.2.2 Ground-Based Photometry. - 6.2.3 Spaceborne Occultation Measurements. - 6.2.4 Retrieval of Aerosol Size Distribution. - 6.3 Passive Remote Sensing: Measurement of the Scattering. - 6.3.1 General Principles. - 6.3.2 Ground-Based Measurement of Scattered Radiation. - 6.3.3 Spaceborne Measurements of Scattered Radiation. - 6.4 Measurement of Infrared Radiation. - 6.4.1 General Principles. - 6.4.2 Spaceborne Nadir Measurement of Infrared Radiation. - 6.4.3 Spaceborne Limb Measurement of Infrared Radiation. - 6.5 Active Remote Sensing: Lidar. - 6.5.1 General Principles. - 6.5.2 The Lidar Equation. - 6.5.3 Raman Lidar. - 6.6 In Situ Aerosol Measurements. - 6.6.1 Measurement of Aerosol Concentrations. - 6.6.2 Measurement of Aerosol Chemical Composition. - 6.6.3 Measurement of Aerosol Scattering. - 6.6.4 Measurement of Aerosol Absorption. - 6.7 Conclusions. - References. - Further Reading (Textbooks and Articles). - 7 Aerosol Data Assimilation. - 7.1 Introduction. - 7.2 Basic Principles of Data Assimilation. - 7.3 Applications of Data Assimilation for Aerosols. - References. - Further Reading (Textbooks and Articles). - 8 Aerosol-Radiation Interactions. - 8.1 Introduction. - 8.2 Atmospheric Radiative Effects Due to Aerosols. - 8.2.1 Simplified Equation for Scattering Aerosols. - 8.2.2 Simplified Equation for Absorbing Aerosols. - 8.2.3 Radiative Transfer Calculations. - 8.2.4 Global Estimates and Sources of Uncertainty. - 8.3 Rapid Adjustments to Aerosol-Radiation Interactions. - 8.4 Radiative Impact of Aerosols on Surface Snow and Ice. - References. - Further Reading (Textbooks and Articles). - 9 Aerosol-Cloud lnteractions. - 39.1 Introduction. - 9 .1.1 Cloud Formation. - 9 .1.2 Cloud Distribution. - 9 .1.3 Aerosol-Cloud Interactions. - 9.2 Aerosol Effects on Liquid Clouds. - 9 .2.1 Saturation Pressure of Water Vapour. - 9.2.2 Kelvin Effect. - 9.2.3 Raoult's Law. - . - 9.2.4 Köhler Theory. - 9.2.5 Extensions to the Köhler Theory. - 9.2.6 CCN and Supersaturation in the Cloud. - 9.2.7 Dynamical and Radiative Effects in Clouds. - 9.2.8 Principle of the Cloud Albedo Effect. - 9.2.9 Observations of the Cloud Albedo Effect. - 9.2.10 Adjustments in Liquid Water Clouds. - 9.2.11 Rapid Adjustments Occurring in Liquid Clouds. - 9.3 Aerosols Effects on Mixed-Phased and Ice Clouds. - 9.3.1 Elements of Microphysics of Ice Clouds. - 9.3.2 Impact of Anthropogenic Aerosols on Ice Clouds. - 9.4 Forcing Due to Aerosol-Cloud lnteractions. - 9.5 Aerosols, Contrails and Aviation-Induced Cloudiness. - 9.5.1 Formation of Condensation Trails. - 9.5.2 Estimate of the Climate Impact of Contrails. - References. - Further Reading (Textbooks and Articles). - 10 Climate Response to Aerosol Forcings. - 10.1 Introduction. - 10.2 Radiative Forcing, Feedbacks and Climate Response. - 10.2.1 Radiative Forcing. - 10.2.2 Climate Feedbacks. - 10.2.3 Rapid Adjustments and Effective Radiative Forcing. - 10.2.4 Climate Response and Climate Efficacy. - 10.3 Climate Response to Aerosol Forcings. - 10.3.1 Equilibrium Response. - 10.3.2 Past Emissions. - 10.3.3 Detection and Attribution of Aerosol Impacts. - 10.3.4 Future Emissions Scenarios. - 10.4 Nuclear Winter. - References. - Further Reading (Textbooks and Articles). - 11 Biogeochemical Effects and Climate Feedbacks of Aerosols. - 11 .1 Introduction. - 11.2 Impact of Aerosols on Terrestrial Ecosystems. - 11.2.1 Diffuse Radiation and Primary Productivity. - 11.2.2 Aerosols as a Source of Nutrients. - 11.2.3 Acidification of Precipitation. - 11.3 Impact of Aerosols on Marine Ecosystems. - 11.4 Aerosols-Atmospheric Chemistry Interactions. - 11.4.1 Interactions with Tropospheric Chemistry. - 11.4.2 Impact of Stratospheric Aerosols on the Ozone Layer and Ultravialet Radiation. - 11.5 Climate Feedbacks Involving Marine Aerosols. - 11.5.1 Sulphate Aerosols from DMS Emissions. - 11.5.2 Marine Aerosols. - 11.5.3 Other Aerosols of Maritime Origin. - 11.6 Climate Feedbacks Involving Continental Aerosols. - 11.6.1 Secondary Organic Aerosols. - 11.6.2 Primary Aerosols of Biogenic Origin. - 11.6.3 Aerosols from Vegetation Fires. - 11.6.4 Desert Dust. - 11.7 Climate Feedbacks Involving Stratospheric Aerosols. - References. - Further Reading (Textbooks and Articles). - 12 Strato

Note: Contents: 1. Introducing transnational climate change governance ; 2. Mapping the world of transnational climate change governance 3. Theoretical perspectives on transnational governance ; 4. Origins, agency and the forms of transnational climate change governance ; 5. Constructing transnational climate change governance issues and producing governance spaces ; 6. The uneven geography of transnational climate change governance ; 7. Understanding authority and legitimacy in transnational climate change governance ; 8. Making a difference? Tracing the effects and effectiveness of transnational climate change governance ; 9. Conclusions - looking beyond transnational climate governance

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1. Introduction. - 1.1. Research purpose. - 1.2. Research area and methodology. - 2. Atmospheric circulation and dynamic conditions. - 2.1. Atmospheric circulation. - 2.2. Atmospheric pressure. - 2.3. Wind. - 3. Radiation conditions. - 3.1. Cloud cover. - 3.2. Sunshine duration. - 3.3. Solar radiation. - 4. Thermal conditions. - 4.1. Ground temperature. - 4.2. Air temperature. - 5. Higric conditions. - 5.1. Relative air humidity. - 5.2. Precipitation. - 6. The influence of atmospheric circulation on temperature and humidity conditions. - 6.1. The influence of atmospheric circulation on temperature conditions. - 6.2. The influence of atmospheric circulation on humidity conditions. - 7. Comparison of meteorological conditions in the area of Forlandsundet in the summer seasons of 2010-2011 with meteorological conditions in the years of 1975-2011. - 7.1. Introduction. - 7.2. Kaffiøyra. - 7.3. Waldemar Glacier. - Appendixes.

Note: CONTENS: 1. lntroduction. - 2. Location of the Polish Polar Station at Hornsund. - 3. The principal climatic parameters. - 3.1. Duralion of day and night. - 3.2. Potential insolation. - 3.3. Changes in the sea ice area and the surface temperatures of surrounding seas. - 3.3.1. Sea surface temperature. - 3.3.2. Sea ice cover. - 3.3.3. Factcrs influencing changes of SST and ice cover in the region of Spitsbergen. - 4. The atmospheric circulation. - 4.1. The mean baric field. - 4.2. The frequency of occurrence of the circulation types. - 4.3. Index of zonal circulation - western (W). - 4.4. Index of meridional circulation - southern (S). - 4.5. Index of cyclonicity (C). - 5. The atmospheric pressure. - 5.1. The annual course. - 5.2. Extreme values and interdiurnal variability. - 6. The winds. - 6.1. The structure of wind directions. - 6.2. Wind speeds. - 6.3. The associations between wind directions and speeds. - 7. Cloudiness and sunshine duration. - 7.1. Cloudiness. - 7.2. Clear and cloudy days. - 7.3. Types of clouds, manifestations of local climatic features in the cloudiness. - 7.4. Sunshine duration. - 8. Solar radiation. - 9. Air temperature. - 9.1. Annual air temperature. - 9.2. Monthly air temperatures. - 9.3 The annual patterns of diurnal temperature. - 9.5 Thermal seasons. - 9.5 Factors shaping interannual variability of the air temperature. - 9.5.1. Associations of air temperature at Hornsund with indices describing the large scale atmospheric circulation. - 9.5.2 lnfluence of atmospheric circulation on the air temperature at Hornsund. - 9.5.3. The influence of sea ice cover on the air temperature at Hornsund. - 9.5.4. The influence of sea surface temperature (SST) changes on the air temperature at Hornsund. - 9.5.5. Comprehensive effects of changes of sea ice extent, sea surface temperature and atmospheric circulation on the air temperature at Hornsund. - 10. Humidity. - 10.1. Water vapour pressure. - 10.2. Relative humidity. - 11. Atmospheric precipitation. - 11 .1. General information, materials and methods. - 11.2.Distribution of monthly means and annual totals of precipitation. - 11.3. High diurnal precipitation. - 11.4 Number of days with precipitation. - 11.5 The annual cycle of atmospheric precipitation, taking the modes of occurrence into consideration. - 11.6 Associations of precipitation with atmospheric circulation. - 12. The horizontal visibility and fog. - 12.1 The horizontal visibility. - 12.2 Fog. - 13. States of the weather and weather seasonality. - 13.1 Methods. - 13.2 Structure of states of the weather. - 13.2.1 Weather groups and subgroups. - 13.2.2 Weather classes. - 13.2.3. Types of weather. - 13.2.4 The annual structure of states of the weather. - 13.3 Seasonal structure of the climate in the station region. - 13.3.1. Winter (October 21 - May 10). - 13.3.2. Spring (May 11 - July 10). - 13.3.3. Summer (July 11 - August 31). - 13.3.4. Autumn (September 1 - October 20). - 13.3.5. Remarks on the observed climatic seasonality. - 14. The climate of the station in the light of selected climatic indices. - 14.1. Continentality and oceanicity of the climate. - 14.2. The humidity of the climate. - 14.3. Wind chill. - 14.4. Positive and negative degree-days. - 15. The associations between climatic parameters and a model of changes of climatic conditions in the Hornsund region. - 15.1. Associations between climatic parameters. - 15.2. A model to forecast climatic changes in the Hornsund region. - 16. Changes of climate in the Hornsund station region during the meteorological observation, 1979-2009. - 16.1. Changes of atmospheric pressure. - 16.2. Changes of circulation indices. - 16.2.1. The W index of western zonal circulation. - 16.2.2. The S index of southern meridional circulation. - 16.2.3. The C index of cyclonicity. - 16.3. Changes of direction and velocity of the winds. - 16.4. Changes of cloudiness, sunshine duration and horizontal visibility. - 16.5. Changas of air temperature. - 16.6. Changes of precipitation. - 16.6.1. The multiannual variability of precipitation totals. - 16.6.2. Variability of rainfall and snowfall totals. - 16.6.3. Variability of the number of days with precipitation 〉 0.0 mm. - 16.6.4. Variability of number of days with precipitation [greater-than-or-equal sign] 0.1 mm. - 16.6.5. Variability of number of days with rainfall and snowfall. - 16.6.6. General trends of changes in atmospheric precipitation. - 17. Summary. - 18. Results of Observations. - 18. 1. Results of observations of meteorological parameters made at Hornsund during the Founding Expedition (1957-1958). - 18.2. Results of observations of meteorological parameters at Hornsundin 1978-2012. - 19. Snow cover at the Hornsund station. - 20. Ground temperatures at Hornsund. - REFERENCES. - APPENDICES. - 1. Calendar of circulation types for territory of Spitsbergen. - 1.1. Monthly, annual and seasonal values of circulation type S. - 1.2. Monthly, annual and seasonal values of circulation type W. - 1.3. Monthly, annual and seasonal values of circulation type C. - 2. LF1-4 Index. - 13. DG3L index.

Note: Part I: Introduction to Data Mining Chapter 1 - What's It All About? Chapter 2 - Input: Concepts, Instances, and Attributes Chapter 3 - Output: Knowledge Representation Chapter 4 - Algorithms: The Basic Methods Chapter 5 - Credibility: Evaluating What's Been Learned Part II: Advanced Data Mining Chapter 6 - Implementations: Real Machine Learning Schemes Chapter 7 - Data Transformations Chapter 8 - Ensemble Learning Chapter 9 - Moving on: Applications and Beyond Part III: The Weka Data Mining Workbench Chapter 10 - Introduction to Weka Chapter 11 - The Explorer Chapter 12 - The Knowledge Flow Interface Chapter 13 - The Experimenter Chapter 14 - The Command-Line Interface Chapter 15 - Embedded Machine Learning Chapter 16 - Writing New Learning Schemes Chapter 17 - Tutorial Exercises for the Weka Explorer

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1 Introduction and datatypes. - 1.1 Why ordination?. - 1.2 Datatypes. - 1.3 Data transformation and standardisation. - 1.4 Missing values. - 1.5 Types of analyses. - 2 Using Canoco 5. - 2.1 Philosophy of Canoco 5. - 2.2 Data import and editing. - 2.3 Defining analyses. - 2.4 Visualising results. - 2.5 Beware, CANOCO 4.x users!. - 3 Experimental design. - 3.1 Completely randomised design. - 3.2 Randomised complete blocks. - 3.3 Latin square design. - 3.4 Pseudo replicates. - 3.5 Combining more than one factor. - 3.6 Following the development of objects in time: repeated observations. - 3.7 Experimental and observational data. - 4 Basics of gradient analysis. - 4.1 Techniques of gradient analysis. - 4.2 Models of response to gradients. - 4.3 Estimating species optima by weighted averaging. - 4.4 Calibration. - 4.5 Unconstrained ordination. - 4.6 Constrained ordination. - 4.7 Basic ordination techniques. - 4.8 Ordination axes as optimal predictors. - 4.9 Ordination diagrams. - 4.10 Two approaches. - 4.11 Testing significance of the relation with explanatory variables. - 4.12 Monte Carlo permutation tests for the significance of regression. - 4.13 Relating two biotic communities. - 4.14 Community composition as a cause: using reverse analysis. - 5.1 Permutation tests: the philosophy. - 5.2 Pseudo-F statistics and significance. - 5.3 Testing individual constrained axes. - 5.4 Tests with spatial or temporal constraints. - 5.5 Tests with hierarchical constraints. - 5.6 Simple versus conditional effects and stepwises election. - 5.7 Variation partitioning. - 5.8 Significance adjustment for multiple tests. - 6 Similarity measures and distance-based methods. - 6.1 Similarity measures for presence-absence data. - 6.2 Similarity measures for quantitative data. - 6.3 Similarity of cases versus similarity of communities. - 6.4 Similarity between species in trait values. - 6.5 Principal coordinates analysis. - 6.6 Constrained principal coordinates analysis (db-RDA). - 6.7 Non-metric multidimensional scaling. - 6.8 Mantel test. - 7.1 Example data set properties. - 7.2 Non-hierarchical classification (K-means clustering). - 7.3 Hierarchical classification. - 7.4 TWINSPAN. - 8 Regression methods. - 8.1 Regression models in general. - 8.2 General linear model: terms. - 8.3 Generalized linear models (GLM). - 8.4 Loess smoother. - 8.5 Generalized additive models (GAM). - 8.6 Mixed-effect models (LMM, GLMM and GAMM). - 8.7 Classification and regression trees (CART). - 8.8 Modelling species response curves with Canoco. - 9 Interpreting community composition with functional traits. - 9.1 Required data. - 9.2 Two approaches in traits - environment studies. - 9.3 Community-based approach. - 9.4 Species-based approach. - 10 Advanced use of ordination. - 10.1 Principal response curves (PRC). - 10.2 Separating spatial variation. - 10.3 Linear discriminant analysis. - 10.4 Hierarchical analysis of community variation. - 10.5 Partitioning diversity indices into alpha and beta components. - 10.6 Predicting community composition. - 11 Visualising multivariate data. - 11.1 Reading ordination diagrams of linear methods. - 11.2 Reading ordination diagrams of unimodal methods. - 11.3 Attribute plots. - 11.4 Visualising classification, groups, and sequences. - 11.5 T-value biplot. - 12 Case study 1: Variation in forest bird assemblages. - 12.1 Unconstrained ordination: portraying variation in bird community. - 12.2 Simple constrained ordination: the effect of altitude on bird community. - 12.3 Partial constrained ordination: additional effect of other habitat characteristics. - 12.4 Separating and testing alpha and beta diversity. - 13 Case study 2: Search for community composition patterns and their environmental correlates: vegetation of spring meadows. - 13.1 Unconstrained ordination. - 13.2 Constrained ordination. - 13.3 Classification. - 13.4 Suggestions for additional analyses. - 13.5 Comparing two communities. - 14 Case study 3: Separating the effects of explanatory variables. - 14.1 Introduction. - 14.2 Data. - 14.3 Changes in species richness and composition. - 14.4 Changes in species traits. - 15 Case study 4: Evaluation of experiments in randomised complete blocks. - 15.1 Introduction. - 15.2 Data. - 15.3 Analysis. - 15.4 Calculating ANOVA using constrained ordination. - 16 Case study 5: Analysis of repeated observations of species composition from a factorial experiment. - 16.1 Introduction. - 16.2 Experimental design. - 16.3 Data coding and use. - 16.4 Univariate analyses. - 16.5 Constrained ordinations. - 16.6 Principal response curves. - 16.7 Temporal changes across treatments. - 16.8 Changes in composition of functional traits. - 17 Case study 6: Hierarchical analysis of crayfish community variation. - 17.1 Data and design. - 17.2 Differences among sampling locations. - 17.3 Hierarchical decomposition of community variation. - 18 Case study 7: Analysis of taxonomic data with discriminant analysis and distance-based ordination. - 18.1 Data. - 18.2 Summarising morphological data with PCA. - 18.3 Linear discriminant analysis of morphological data. - 18.4 Principal coordinates analysis of AFLP data. - 18.5 Testing taxon differences in AFLP data using db-RDA. - 18.6 Taking populations into account. - 19 Case study 8: Separating effects of space and environment on oribatid community with PCNM. - 19.1 Ignoring the space. - 19.2 Detecting spatial trends. - 19.3 All-scale spatial variation of community and environment. - 19.4 Variation partitioning with spatial predictors. - 19.5 Visualising spatial variation. - 20 Case study 9: Performing linear regression with redundancy analysis. - 20.1 Data. - 20.2 Linear regression using program R. - 20.3 Linear regression with redundancy analysis. - 20.4 Fitting generalized linear models in Canoco. - Appendix A Glossary. - Appendix B Sample data sets and projects. - Appendix C Access to Canoco and overview of other software. - Appendix D Working with R. - References. - Index to useful tasks in Canoco 5. - Subject index.

Note: Contents: Part 1 Introduction. - 1 Motivation. - 2 Goals. - Reference. - 3 Setting the Stage and Outline. - Part 2 Cosmic Radiation. - 4 Introduction to Cosmic Radiation. - 5 The Cosmic Radiation Near Earth. - 5.1 Introduction and History of Cosmic Ray Research. - 5.2 The "Rosetta Stone" of Paleocosmic Ray Studies. - 5.3 Some Important Definitions. - 5.4 The Origin and Properties of the Galactic Cosmic Radiation. - 5.5 Our Variable Sun. - 5.6 The Heliosphere, the Termination Shock, and the Current Sheet. - 5.7 Modulation of the Cosmic Radiation in the Heliosphere. - 5.7.1 The Cosmic Ray Propagation Equation. - 5.7.2 The Local Interstellar Spectrum. - 5.7.3 The Cosmic Ray Modulation Function and Potential. - 5.7.4 Practical Applications of the Modulation Function. - 5.7.5 Drift Effects (qA Positive and qA Negative Effects). - 5.7.6 Shock Wave Effects (The Forbush Decrease and GMIRs). - 5.8 Geomagnetic Field Effects. - 5.8.1 The Properties of the Geomagnetic Field. - 5.8.2 The Geomagnetic Cut-off Rigidity. - 5.8.3 The Earth's Magnetosphere and the Polar Aurora. - References. - 6 Instrumental Measurements of the Cosmic Radiation. - 6.1 Introduction. - 6.2 Ionization Chambers and Muon Telescopes. - 6.3 The IGY and IQSY Neutron Monitors, and Spaceship Earth. - 6.4 Satellite Borne Detectors. - 6.5 Latitude Effects and the Yield Functions. - 6.6 Inter-calibration of the Different Cosmic Ray Records. - 6.7 Cosmic Ray Archives. - References. - 7 Time Variations of the Cosmic Radiation. - 7.1 Introduction and Atmospheric Effects. - 7.2 The Eleven-and Twenty-Two-Year Variations. - 7.3 The Long-term Variations. - 7.4 Forbush Decreases, Globally Merged Interaction Regions and Some Smaller Effects. - References. - 8 The Solar Cosmic Radiation. - 8.1 Historical Overview. - 8.2 The Observed Production of Cosmic Rays by the Sun. - 8.2.1Ground Level Events. - 8.2.2 SEP Events Observed by Satellites. - 8.2.3 Paleo-Cosmic Ray Measurements of SEP Events. - 8.3 Overall Characteristics of the Solar Cosmic Radiation. - 8.3.1 The Energy Spectra. - 8.3.2 The Effect of Longitude Relative to the Central Solar Meridian. - 8.3.3 The Frequency of Occurrence, and the Detection of Historic SEP Events. - References. - Part 3 Cosmogenic Radionuclides. - 9 Introduction to Cosmogenic Radionuclides. - 10 Production of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in the Atmosphere. - 10.1 Introduction. - 10.2 Interaction of Primary Cosmic Rays with the Atmosphere. - 10.2.1 Production of Secondary Particles. - 10.2.2 Ionization and Excitation Processes. - 10.2.3 Simulated Atmospheric Proton and Neutron Fluxes. - 10.3 Production of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in the Atmosphere. - 10.3.1 Early Production Models. - 10.3.2 Production Cross-Sections. - 10.3.3 Production Rates and Inventories. - 10.4 Production Results and Analytical Tools. - References. - 11 Production of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in Other Environmental Systems. - 11.1 Introduction. - 11.2 Terrestrial Solid Matter (Rocks, Ice). - 11.2.1 36Cl Production in Limestone and Dolomite. - 11.2.2 10Be and 14C Production in Ice. - 11.3 Extraterrestrial Solid Matter. - References. - 12 Alternative Production Mechanisms. - 12.1 Introduction. - 12.2 Natural Production Mechanisms. - 12.2.1 Cosmic Ray Induced Reactions. - 12.2.2 Radioactive Decay-Induced Reactions. - 12.3 Anthropogenic Production Mechanisms. - 12.3.1 Nuclear Power Plant and Nuclear Bomb-Induced Reactions. - 12.3.2 Research, Industrial, and Medical Induced Reactions. - References. - 13 Transport and Deposition. - 13.1 Introduction. - 13.2 Basics of the Atmosphere. - 13.3 Removal or Scavenging Processes. - 13.3.1 Wet Deposition. - 13.3.2 Dry Deposition. - 13.3.3 Gravitational Settling. - 13.3.4 The Big Picture. - 13.4 Modelling the Atmospheric Transport. - 13.4.1 Summary. - 13.5 Geochemical Cycles. - 13.5.1 Introduction. - 13.5.2 The Beryllium Cycle. - 13.5.3 Carbon Cycle. - 13.5.4 The Chlorine Cycle. - 13.5.5 The Iodine Cycle. - References. - 14 Archives. - 14.1 Introduction. - 14.2 Intrinsic Properties of the Cosmogenic Radionuclide Archives. - 14.3 Time Scales. - 14.4 Examples of Archives. - 14.5 Proxies and Surrogates. - 14.6 Properties of Data in the Cosmogenic Archives. - 14.6.1 Sampling Effects. - 14.6.2 Transfer Functions. - 14.7 Modelled Transfer Functions. - 14.7.1 10Be and 7Be in the Atmosphere. - 14.7.2 10Be and 26Al in Deep-Sea Sediments. - References. - 15 Detection. - 15.1 Introduction. - 15.2 Low-Level Decay Counting. - 15.3 Accelerator Mass Spectrometry. - 15.4 Decay Versus Atom Counting. - 15.5 Other Techniques, Optical Methods. - 15.5.1 Final Remarks. - References. - Part 4 Applications. - 16 Introduction to Applications. - 17 Solar Physics. - 17.1 Introduction. - 17.2 Solar Periodicities and the "Grand Minima" in the Cosmogenic Radionuclide Record. - 17.2.1 Solar Periodicities: Time Domain Studies. - 17.2.2 Solar Periodicities: Frequency Domain Studies. - 17.3 Cosmic Rayand Solar Effects in the Past. - 17.3.1 The Past Millennium. - 17.3.2 The Past 10,000 Years (the "Holocene"). - 17.3.3 The Long Solar Minimum of 2007-2009. - 17.4 The Heliomagnetic Field Throughout the Past 10,000 Years. - 17.5 Solar Irradiance and Terrestrial Climate. - 17.6 Radiation Doses on Earth and in Space in the Future. - 17.7 Quantitative Measures of Solar Activity for the Past. - 17.7.1 Reconstructed Sunspot Numbers. - 17.7.2 Modulation Function. - References. - 18 Galactic Astronomy. - 18.1 Introduction. - 18.2 Galactic Structure. - 18.3 Individual Supernova. - References. - 19 Atmosphere. - 19.1 Introduction. - 19.2 Studies of Atmospheric Mixing. - 19.3 36Cl Bomb Pulse as a Tracer of Atmospheric Transport. - 19.4 Concentrations and Fluxes. - References. - 20 Hydrosphere. - 20.1 Introduction. - 20.2 Tritium. - 20.3 Carbon-14. - 20.4 Krypton-81. - 20.5 Chlorine-36. - 20.6 Beryllium-7 to Beryllium-10 Ratio. - References. - 21 Geosphere. - 21.1 Introduction. - 21.2 Geomagnetic Field Intensity. - 21.3 Transport of Cosmogenic Radionuclides in Geological Systems. - 21.3.1 Introduction. - 21.3.2 Migration in Ice. - 21.3.3 Transport in Soils. - 21.3.4 Transport in Rocks. - 21.3.5 Formation of Loess Plateaus. - 21.3.6 Subduction. - References. - 22 Biosphere. - 22.1 Introduction. - 22.2 Radiocarbon Applications. - 22.3 Chlorine-36 in Ecosystems. - 22.4 Iodine-129. - 22.5 Aluminium-26. - References. - 23 Dating. - 23.1 Introduction. - 23.2 Absolute Dating. - 23.2.1 Principle of Radiocarbon Dating. - 23.2.2 Exposure Dating. - 23.2.3 10Be/36Cl- and 7Be/10Be-Dating. - 23.3 Synchronization of Records. - 23.3.1 10Be or 36Cl with 14C During the Holocene. - 23.3.2 The Use of Time Markers. - References. - Glossary. - Index.

Note: Contents: Foreword ; Executive summary ; Acknowledgements ; Chapter 1 The global outlook ; Chapter 2 Tracking clean energy progress ; Chapter 3 Accelerating the transition to sustainable buildings ; Chapter 4 Advancing the low-carbon transition in industry ; Chapter 5 Steering transport towards sustainability ; Chapter 6 Transforming electricity systems ; Chapter 7 Delivering sustainable bioenergy ; Chapter 8 Unlocking the potential of carbon capture and storage ; Annex A Analytical approach ; Annex B Abbreviations and acronyms ; Annex C Definitions, regional and country groupings and units ; Annex D List of figures, tables and boxes

Note: Contents: 1 Overview ; 2 The anatomy of climate-related natural disasters ; 3 The rising threat of climate-related natural disasters ; 4 Climate change mitigation ; 5 Climate adaptation and disaster management ; 6 Transforming mindsets, motivation, and politics ; 7 A new development paradigm

Note: TABLE OF CONTENTS: Contemporary hydrographic network of the North-East of the Russian Plain: chronology of development / A. S. Lavrov, L. M. Potapenko. - Some distinctions of big and smoll interglacials (by way of example of Western Siberia during Late Pleistocene) / S. A. Laukhin, A. M. Firsov. - Pollen spectra in the lithological facies of lake bottom sediment on the White Sea Coast / N. B. Lavrova, V. V. Kolka, O. P. Korsakova. - Barsova Gora is the unical object of glacial geology and Taiga vegetation in the middle Priobie / N. B. Levina, V. A. Tkachenko, V. N. Turin, N. N. Lavrovich, E. V. Shepetova. - Geological role of ice in formation of the Arctic Ocean recent and quaternary sediments composition / M. A. Levitan, K. V. Syromyatnikov. - Granite protrusions as a relief-forming factor of the activated sections of platforms and mobile belts / M. G. Leonov, E. S. Przhiyalgovsky. - Glacial tectonics and the granulated substance mechanics / M. G. Leonov, O. G. Epshtein. - Late Pliocene-Early Pleistocene lake sediments in hollow D'Issyk-kul / O. N. Leflat, T. N. Voskresenskaya. - Complexity and diversity of genetic indication of loose formations and new things in the methods of their identification (according to the results of research of small rivers' valleys of the North of Amur-Zeya Plain, Lower Amur Region and Western Priokhotye / E. Yu. Likutov. - Landscape-geological characteristic of travertine cascade of the ancient thermal source of tract pymvashor / A. A. Ljubas, J. N. Bolotov, M. Y. Gofarov, S. A. lglovskiy. - Lake's lithogenesis: new formations are on the bottom of the drying up Udinsky Streach / L. A. Magaeva, M. T. Ustinov. - Genetic classification of peat deposits based on trophicity degree / G. L. Makarenko. - On the issue of classification of mires based on trophicity degree / G. L. Makarenko. - Some burning issues of a structural interpretation of the plain areas relief / V. I. Makarov, N. V. Makarova, T. V. Sukhanova. - The first experience of the 230Th/U dating of buried wood remains / R. E. Maksimov, V. Yu. Kuznetsov, S. A. Laukhin, I. E. Zherebtsov, S. B. Levchenko, N. G. Baranova. - Variations of the relative intensity of geomagnetic field in bottom sediments of the Bering Sea and North-Western Pacific during the last 380 kyr / M. I. Malakhov, S. A. Gorbarenko, D. Nurnberg, R. Tiedemann, G. Yu. Malakhova, J. Riethdorf. - Using high-resolution records petromagnetic and lithophysic characteristics of the sediments Bering Sea and high-latitude Western Pacific for reconstruction of climate and environment in the Late Pleistocene-Holocene / M. I. Malakhov, S. A. Gorbarenko, D. Nurnberg, R. Tiedemann, G. Yu. Malakhova, J. Riethdorf. - Some information about genetic classification of lakes of the Vepsovsky Hill East of the Leningrad Region / O. V. Malozemova, L. A. Nesterova, D. A. Subetto. - Middle Pleistocene small mammal faunas of Eastern and Central Europe: Chronology, correlation / A. K. Markova, T. van Kolfschoten. - Astronomical and meteorological criteria of defining human activity traces in ancient megalith rock complexes in the North-West Russia / L. S. Marsadolov, G. N. Paranina. - Palynological characteristics of the middle Pleistocene deposits in the Vychegda River Basin, the Komi Republic (preliminary data) / T. I. Marchenko-Vagapova. - Isotope specialization (δ18O, δ13C) of quaternary carbonates from Belarus and potential of palaeoenvironments indication / N. A. Makhnach. - The complex survey of quaternary deposits / A. V. Mashukov, A. E. Mashukova. - Quaternary deposits and construction materials' deposits in the Kaluga Region / S. G. Medvedeva. - Vegetation and climate of Sakhalin in the early Holocene / Yu. A. Mikishin, L. G. Gvozdeva. - Inorganic geochemistry record of stages 6-11 from Elgygytgyn lake sediments (deep drilling data) / P. S. Minyuk, V. Ya. Borkhodoev and Elgygytgyn Scientific Party. - Palaeoshorelines on the Murmansk coast / M. V. Mityaev. - Vertical matter flow in Gulfs on Murmansk and Karelian coasts / M. V. Mityaev, M. V. Gerasimova. - Channel and basin components of sediment yield in the formation of quaternary alluvial suites of rivers of the middle Volga Region / V. V. Mozzherin. - Late Pleistocene interglacial-glacial climatic transition (MIS 5/MIS 4) as derived from palynological analysis and IR-OSL dating of deposits from the Voka Reference Section, Southeastern coast of the Gulf of Finland / A. N. Molodkov, N. S. Bolikhovskaya. - Quaternary sediments in the Central Part of Northern West Siberia / D. V. Nazarov. - Palynological evidences of the postglacial warm event of the Laptev Sea Region / O. D. Naidina. - Some problems of using luminescent methods for absolute dating of glacial deposits (by the example of Chagan Section, SE Altai) / R. K. Nepop, A. R. Agatova, H. Rodnight. - Freshwater travertine-like carbonates of the Izhora Plateau as the natural markers of the structural dislocations / M. U. Nikitin, A. A. Medvedeva. - Fold deformations in late Pleistocene deposits of the Central Part Kola Region and their genesis / S. B. Nikolaeva. - Mammoths and man of stone age in Northern Europe - insight of a question on migrations to European Subarctic by Western paths / A. A. Nikonov. - Formation of present-day deposits in the conditions of technogenic litogenesis / E. N. Ogorodnikova, S. K. Nikolaeva. - Traces cryogenesis of Neopleistocene sediments the lower Irtysh / O. L. Opokina, E. A. Slagoda. - Stratigraphical subdivision of the Eopleistocene deposits of the Simbugino Site and new mollusc finds (Southern Foreurals) / E. M. Osipova, G. A. Danukalova. - Late Pleistocene to Holocene environment and climate in the Upper Ponoy Depression (Kola Peninsula) reconstracted from pollen record of Churozero lake bottom deposits / E. Yu. Pavlova, M. V. Dorozhkina, E. I. Devyatova. - Absolute chronology and climatic conditions of Valdai (Vistulian) terraces formation in the middle Seim River Valley / A. Panin, J.-P. Buylaert, E. Matlakhova, A. Murray, O. Pakholova. - Possibility of reconstruction of climate change in the Mongolian Altai based on analysis of annual records in glaciers and lacustrine sediment / T. S. Papma, E. Yu. Mitrofanova, N. S. Malygina. - Northern labyrinth - thee Gnomon: compass, clock, calendar / G. N. Paranina. - Late Pleistocene and Holocene paleogeography of the coastal lowlands of Is. Paramushir (Kuril Islands) / A. Ju. Pakhomov. - Upper-Kama (Verhnekama) Upland - the newest lifting of the middle Last Pleistocene / M. M. Pakhomov, I. L. Borodatyi. - Dating mass accumulations of Mammoth across Arctic Eurasia / V. V. Pitulko, P. A. Nikolskiy, A. E. Basilyan, E. Y. Pavlova. - Features of vertical distribution of the materials within the marginal zones of permafrost polygonal structures and its importance for dating of quaternary deposits in cryolitozone / V. V. Pitulko, E. Y. Pavlova, A. E. Basilyan, S. G. Kritsuk. - Morfogenesis of the tectonics active area of the Mongolian Altay / S. G. Platonova. - Reference section of the Lichvin interglacial in the North-Western Part of European Russia's Region / E. S. Pleshivtseva, V. L. Garkusha, M. A. Travina. - New radiocarbon dates of Late Quaternary Mammals in the Arkhangelsk Region in connection with reconstructions of the last glaciation in the Eastern Europe / D. V. Ponomarev, T. van Kolfschoten, A. K. Markova, J. van der Plicht. - Geological illustrations of Aral-Caspian Region's latest seismodynamic high activity / V. I. Popkov. - About Karagiinsk closed depression (Mangishlak)'s genesis / V. I. Popkov. - On the issue of formation of the Caucasian mineral waters' modern structural geomorphologic aspect / V. I. Popkov, I. G. Sazonov, D. A. Kolleganova. - Natural climate changes on the border of Late Pleistocene and Holocene / A. N. Popova, D. A. Subetto. - Some problems paleogeomorfologi Volga Region / I. V. Proletkin. - New perspectives on modern geomorphological studies / I. V. Proletkin. - Dynamics of small mammals local assem , In kyrill. Schr. , In engl. und rus. Sprache

Note: 1. Personal beginningsPart I. The Changing Arctic -- 2. The Arctic Messenger -- Part II. Working Together -- 3. The Arctic Messenger gains a voice : the Arctic Monitoring and Assessment Programme -- Part III. What Is the Present State of Knowledge? -- 4. Radioactivity -- 5. Heroic efforts -- 6. Acidification and Arctic haze -- 7. Stratospheric ozone depletion -- 8. Persistent organic pollutants and heavy metals (including mercury) -- 9. Conducting marine science in the Arctic -- 10. Climate change in the Arctic -- Part IV. What Does This All Mean? -- 11. Thoughts on education, the training of Arctic scientists and Arctic research -- 12. The long and short of it : has the Arctic message been noticed? -- 13. Epilogue: keeping the Rovaniemi flame alive..

Note: Contents: 1 Introduction. - 2 Basic Physical Properties of Soil. - 2.1 Geometry of the Soil Matrix. - 2.2 Soil Structure. - 2.3 Fractal Geometry. - 2.4 Geometry of the Pore Space. - 2.5 Specific Surface Area. - 2.6 Averaging. - 2.7 Bulk Density, Water Content and Porosity. - 2.8 Relationships between Variables. - 2.9 Typical Values of Physical Properties. - 2.10 Volumes and Volumetric Fractions for a Soil Prism. - 2.11 Soil Solid Phase. - 2.12 Soil Texture. - 2.13 Sedimentation Law. - 2.14 Exercises. - 3 Soil Gas Phase and Gas Diffusion. - 3.1 Transport Equations. - 3.2 The Diffiisivity of Gases in Soil. - 3.3 Computing Gas Concentrations. - 3.4 Simulating One-Dimensional Steady-State Oxygen Diffusion in a Soil Profile. - 3.5 Numerical Implementation. - 3.6 Exercises. - 4 Soil Temperature and Heat Flow. - 4.1 Differential Equations for Heat Conduction. - 4.2 Soil Temperature Data. - 4.3 Numerical Solution of the Heat Flow Equation. - 4.4 Soil Thermal Properties. - 4.5 Numerical Implementation. - 4.6 Exercises. - 5 Soil Liquid Phase and Soil-Water Interactions. - 5.1 Properties of Water. - 5.2 Soil Water Potential. - 5.3 Water Potential-Water Content Relations. - 5.4 Liquid- and Vapour-Phase Equilibrium. - 5.5 Exercises. - 6 Steady-State Water Flow and Hydraulic Conductivity. - 6.1 Forces on Water in Porous Media. - 6.2 Water Flow in Saturated Soils. - 6.3 Saturated Hydraulic Conductivity. - 6.4 Unsaturated Hydraulic Conductivity. - 6.5 Exercises. - 7 Variation in Soil Properties. - 7.1 Frequency Distributions. - 7.2 Probability Density Functions. - 7.3 Transformations. - 7.4 Spatial Correlation. - 7.5 Approaches to Stochastic Modelling. - 7.6 Numerical Implementation. - 7.7 Exercises. - 8 Transient Water Flow. - 8.1 Mass Conservation Equation. - 8.2 Water Flow. - 8.3 Infiltration. - 8.4 Numerical Simulation of Infiltration. - 8.5 Numerical Implementation. - 8.6 Exercises. - 9 Triangulated Irregular Network. - 9.1 Digital Terrain Model. - 9.2 Triangulated Irregular Network. - 9.3 Numerical Implementation. - 9.4 Main. - 9.5 Triangulation. - 9.6 GIS Functions. - 9.7 Boundary. - 9.8 Geometrical Properties of Triangles. - 9.9 Delaunay Triangulation. - 9.10 Refinement. - 9.11 Utilities. - 9.12 Visualization. - 9.13 Exercise. - 10 Water Flow in Three Dimensions. - 10.1 Governing Equations. - 10.2 Numerical Formulation. - 10.3 Coupling Surface and Subsurface Flow. - 10.4 Numerical Implementation. - 10.5 Simulation. - 10.6 Visualization and Results. - 10.7 Exercises. - 11 Evaporation. - 11.1 General Concepts. - 11.2 Simultaneous Transport of Liquid and Vapour in Isothermal Soil. - 11.3 Modelling evaporation. - 11.4 Numerical Implementation. - 11.5 Exercises. - 12 Modelling Coupled Transport. - 12.1 Transport Equations. - 12.2 Partial Differential Equations. - 12.3 Surface Boundary Conditions. - 12.4 Numerical Implementation. - 12.5 Exercises. - 13 Solute Transport in Soils. - 13.1 Mass Flow. - 13.2 Diffusion. - 13.3 Hydrodynamic Dispersion. - 13.4 Advection-Dispersion Equation. - 13.5 Solute-Soil Interaction. - 13.6 Sources and Sinks of Solutes. - 13.7 Analytical Solutions. - 13.8 Numerical Solution. - 13.9 Numerical Implementation. - 13.10 Exercises. - 14 Transpiration and Plant-Water Relations. - 14.1 Soil Water Content and Soil Water Potential under a Vegetated Surface. - 14.2 General Features of Water Flow in the SPAC. - 14.3 Resistances to Water Flow within the Plant. - 14.4 Effect of Environment on Plant Resistance. - 14.5 Detailed Consideration of Soil and Root Resistances. - 14.6 Numerical Implementation. - 14.7 Exercises. - 15 Atmospheric Boundary Conditions. - 15.1 Radiation Balance at the Exchange Surface. - 15.2 Boundary-Layer Conductance for Heat and Water Vapour. - 15.3 Evapotranspiration and the Penman-Monteith Equation. - 15.4 Partitioning of Evapotranspiration. - 15.5 Exercise. - Appendix A: Basic Concepts and Examples of Python Programming. - A.1 Basic Python. - A.2 Basic Concepts of Computer Programming. - A.3 Data Representation: Variables. - A.4 Comments Rules and Indendation. - A.5 Arithmetic Expression. - A.6 Functions. - A.7 Flow Control. - A.8 File Input and Output. - A.9 Arrays. - A.10 Reading Date Time. - A.11 Object-Oriented Programming in Python. - A.12 Output and Visualization. - A.13 Exercises. - Appendix B: Computational Tools. - B.1 Numerical Differentiation. - B.2 Numerical Integration. - B.3 Linear Algebra. - B.4 Exercises. - List of Symbols. - List of Python Variables. - List of Python Projects. - References. - Index.

Note: Contents: Lists of figures. - List of contributors. - Preface. - 1. Challenges for ice age dynamics: a dynamical systems perspective / Michel Crucifix, Guillaume Lenoir and Takahito Mitsui. - 2. Tipping points in the climate system / Peter Ditlevsen. - 3. Atmospheric teleconnection patterns / Steven B. Feldstein and Christian L. E. Franzke. - 4. Atmospheric regimes: the link between weather and the large scale circulation / David M. Straus, Franco Molteni and Susanna Corti. - 5. Low-frequency regime transitions and predictability of regimes in a barotropic model / Balu T. Nadiga and Terence J. O'Kane. - 6. Complex network techniques for climatological data analysis / Reik V. Donner, Marc Wiedermann and Jonathan F. Donges. - 7. On inference and validation of causality relations in climate teleconnections / Illia Horenko, Susanne Gerber, Terence J. O'Kane, James S. Risbey and Didier P. Monselesan. - 8. Stochastic climate theory / Georg A. Gottwald, Daan T. Crommelin and Christian L. E. Franzke. - 9. Stochastic subgrid modelling for geophysical and three-dimensional turbulence / Jorgen S. Frederiksen, Vassili Kitsios, Terence J. O'Kane and Meelis J. Zidikheri. - 10. Model error in data assimilation / John Harlim. - 11. Long-term memory in climate: detection, extreme events, and significance of trends / Armin Bunde and Josef Ludescher. - 12. Fractional stochastic models for heavy tailed, and long-range dependent, fluctuations in physical systems / Nicholas W. Watkins. - 13. Modelling spatial extremes using Max-Stable Processes / Mathieu Ribatet. - 14. Extreme value analysis in dynamical systems: two case studies / Tamás Bódai. - Index.

Note: Introduction.The role of compliance in an evolving climate regime / Lavanya Rajamani, Jutta Brunnée, and Meinhard Doelle -- The emerging post-Cancun climate regime / Jennifer Morgan -- Promoting compliance with multilateral environmental agreements / Jutta Brunnée -- Compliance regimes in multilateral environmental agreements / Jane Bulmer -- Key features of the Kyoto Protocol's compliance system / René Lefeber and Sebastian Oberthür -- Experience with the facilitative and enforcement branches of the Kyoto compliance system / Meinhard Doelle -- Experiences with Articles 5, 7, and 8 defining the monitoring, reporting and verification system under the Kyoto Protocol / Anke Herold -- The role of non-state actors in climate compliance / Eric Dannenmaier -- Facilitation of compliance / Catherine Redgwell -- Enforcing compliance in an evolving climate regime / Michael Mehling -- Financial mechanisms under the climate regime / Haroldo Machado-Filho -- Post-2012 compliance and carbon markets / Franceso Sindico -- Compliance and the use of trade measures / Jacob Werksman -- 'Comparability of efforts' among developed country parties and the post-2012 compliance system / M.J. Mace -- From the Kyoto Protocol compliance system to MRV : what is at stake for the European Union? / Sandrine Maljean-Dubois and Anne-Sophie Tabau -- Compliance in transition countries / Christina Voigt -- Developing countries and compliance in the climate regime / Lavanya Rajamani -- The role of dispute settlement in the climate regime / Ruth Mackenzie -- Depoliticizing compliance / Geir Ulfstein -- Conclusion.Promoting compliance in an evolving climate regime / Meinhard Doelle, Jutta Brunnée, and Lavanya Rajamani..

Note: Machine generated contents note: 1. The role of experts in international and European decision-making processes: setting the scene Monika Ambrus, Karin Arts, Ellen Hey and Helena Raulus; Part I. Theorizing Expert Involvement in International and European Decision-Making: 2. Ideas, experts and governance Peter M. Haas; 3. The politics of expertise: applying paradoxes of scientific expertise to international law Wouter G. Werner; 4. Reflections on the different roles of expertise in regulatory policy-making Lorna Schrefler; 5. The virtues of expertise Jan Klabbers; Part II. Expert Involvement in International Decision-Making in the Environmental Sphere: 6. The role of scientific expertise in multilateral environmental agreements: influence and effectiveness Steinar Andresen; 7. Changing demands at the science-policy interface: organisational learning in the IPCC Bernd Siebenhüner; 8. Global scientific assessments and environmental resource governance: towards a science-policy interface ladder Joyeeta Gupta; Part III. Experts in the WTO and Risk Regulation: 9. The structural logic of expert participation in WTO decision-making processes Jessica Lawrence; 10. Health risks, experts and decision making within the SPS Agreement and the Codex Alimentarius Alexia Herwig; 11. The role of experts in environmental and health-related trade disputes in the WTO: deconstructing decision-making processes Lukasz Gruszczynski; Part IV. Experts in Human Rights Related Decision-Making Processes: 12. Human rights experts in the United Nations: a review of the role of UN special procedures Surya P. Subedi; 13. 'Experts': the mantra of irregular migration and the reproduction of hierarchies Jeff Handmaker and Claudia Mora; 14. Private carriers as experts in immigration control Sophie Scholten and Ashley Terlouw; Part V. Experts in Decision-Making Processes of the European Union: 15. The European system of financial supervision: a technology of expertise Michelle Everson; 16. The role of experts and financial supervision in the European Union: the de Larosière Commission Karim Knio; 17. Expertise at the crossroads of national and international policy-making: a public management perspective Adriaan Schout and Jaap Sleifer; 18. Blurred areas of responsibility: European agencies' scientific 'opinions' under scrutiny E. Madalina Busuioc..

Note: Extra features: Film festival Q&AsMaking chasing ice -- Science update-- Original theatrical trailer.. , DVD; NTSC, Region 1; widescreen presentation; Dolby Digital 5.1 Surround , In English with optional subtitles in German

Note: Contents: Part I: Introduction to Grounded Theory of Anselm Strauss ; Chapter 1: Inspiration and Background ; Chapter 2: Theoretical Foundations ; Chapter 3: Practical Considerations for Getting Started ; Chapter 4: Prelude to Analysis ; Chapter 5: Strategies for Qualitative Data Analysis ; Chapter 6: Memos and Diagrams ; Chapter 7: Theoretical Sampling ; Chapter 8: Context ; Chapter 9: Process ; Chapter 10: Techniques for Achieving Theoretical Integration ; Chapter 11: The Use of Computer Programs in Qualitative Data Analysis ; Part II: Research Demonstration Project ; Chapter 12 Open Coding: Identifying Concepts ; Chapter 13: Developing Concepts in Terms of Their Properties and Dimensions ; Chapter 14: Analyzing Data for Context ; Chapter 15: Bringing Process Into the Analysis ; Chapter 16: Integrating Categories ; Part III: Finishing the Research Project ; Chapter 17: Writing Theses, Monographs, and Dissertations, and Giving Talks About Your Research ; Chapter 18: Criteria for Evaluation ; Chapter 19: Student Questions and Answers

Note: Contents: Introduction ; 01 A framework for understanding risk ; 02 Engineering supply chain resilience ; 03 Industry sector resilience to supply chain threats ; 04 Natural disasters and pandemics ; 05 Climate change and emissions policy ; 06 Economic risks to the supply chain ; 07 Societal risks to supply chains ; 08 Corruption in the logistics industry ; 09 Cargo crime and piracy ; 10 Political risks in supply chains ; 11 Illicit supply chains ; 12 Terrorism and security ; Conclusion

Note: Contents: 1: Introduction ; 2: Framework ; 3: Traditional topics ; 4: Constrained credit ; 5: Net worth ; 6: Real estate ; 7: Commerical banks ; 8: Methods

Note: Debunking revisionist understandings of environmental cooperative federalism : collective action responses to air pollution / Robert L. Glicksman and Jessica A. Wentz -- Dynamic federalism and the Clean Water Act : completing the task / William L. Andreen -- CERCLA, federalism, and common law claims / Alexandra B. Klass and Emma Fazio -- Fragmented forest federalism / Blake Hudson -- Coordinating the overlapping regulation of biodiversity and ecosystem management / Kalyani Robbins -- Evolving energy federalism : current allocations of authority and the need for inclusive governance / Hanna J. Wiseman -- Climate federalism, regulatory failure and reversal risks, and entrenching innovation incentives / William W. Buzbee -- The enigma of state climate change policy innovations / Kirsten H. Engel -- Cooperative federalism and adaptation / Alice Kaswan -- Reverse preemption in federal water law / Ann E. Carlson -- The cost of federalism : ecology, community, and the pragmatism of land use / Keith H. Hirokawa and Jonathan Rosenbloom -- The Australian experience with environmental federalism : constitutional and political perspectives / Robert Fowler -- German environmental federalism in the multilevel system of the European Union / Nathalie Behnke and Annegret Eppler -- The paradox of environmental federalism in India / Sairam Bhat -- Environmental federalism's tug of war within / Erin Ryan.

Note: 1. Introduction : high hopes and down-to-earth realism / Frans Oosterhuis and Patrick ten Brink2. A global survey of potentially environmentally harmful subsidies / Ronald Steenblik -- 3. Hidden subsidies : the invisible part of the EHS iceberg / Sirini Withana ... [et al.] -- 4. Can we recognise an environmentally harmful subsidy if we see one? / Jan Pieters -- 5. Quantifying the impacts of environmentally harmful subsidies / Cees van Beers and Jeroen van den Bergh -- 6. Energy subsidies / Frans Oosterhuis and Katharina Umpfenbach -- 7. Environmentally harmful subsidies in the transport sector / Laurent Franckx and Inge Mayeres -- 8. Agriculture, food and water / Frans Oosterhuis and Kris Bachus -- 9. Environmentally harmful subsidies and biodiversity / Patrick ten Brink ... [et al.] -- 10. Reforming EHS in Europe : success stories, failures and agenda setting / Jacqueline Cottrell -- 11. Phasing out environmentally harmful subsidies worldwide / Anja von Moltke -- 12. Reform of environmentally harmful subsidies : distributional issues / Annegrete Bruvoll and Haakon Vennemo -- 13. The way forward : reforming EHS in the transition to a green economy / Patrick ten Brink, Sirini Withana and Frans Oosterhuis..

Note: Contents: 1. World at a Tipping Point 2. Framing Earth Governance 3. Commons 4. The Global Commons 5. Trusteeship 6. State as Environmental Trustee 7. Trusteeship and the United Nations 8. Institutionalizing Trusteeship for the Global Commons Conclusion: There is Another Way Bibliography Index

Note: Contents: Section 3: Financial-Real Connections ; Chapter 17: "Wholesale Banking and Bank Runs in Macroeconomic Modelling of Financial Crises" ; Chapter 18: "Housing and Credit Markets: Bubbles and Crashes" ; Chapter 19: Macro, Money and Finance: A Continuous-Time Approach ; Chapter 20: Housing and Macroeconomics ; Chapter 21: Term Structure of Uncertainty in the Macroeconomy ; Chapter 22: Quantitative Models of Sovereign Debt Crises ; Section 4: Models of Economic Growth and Fluctuations ; Chapter 23: Families in Macroeconomics ; Chapter 24: Environmental Macroeconomics ; Chapter 25: The Staying Power of Staggered Wage and Price Setting Models in Macroeconomics ; Chapter 26: Neoclassical Models in Macroeconomics ; Chapter 27: Macroeconomics of Persistent Slumps ; Chapter 28: Macroeconomics and the Labor Market ; Section 5: Macroeconomic Policy ; Chapter 29: Challenges for Central Banks' Macro Models ; Chapter 30: Liquidity requirements, liquidity choice and financial stability ; Chapter 31: "Understanding Inflation as a Joint Monetary-Fiscal Phenomenon" ; Chapter 32: "Fiscal Multipliers: Liquidity Traps and Currency Unions" ; Chapter 33: What is a Sustainable Public Debt? ; Chapter 34: The Political Economy of Government Debt

Note: Contents: Chapter 1 Introduction and State-of-the-Art ; EVIDENCE OF CLIMATE CHANGE, MIGRATION AND ADAPTATION ; Chapter 2 Environment, Political Economies and Livelihood Change ; Chapter 3 Riverbank Erosion and Migration In Bangladesh's Char Lands ; Chapter 4 No more famines? Food Security and Migration in Times of Climate Change ; Chapter 5 Climate Change, Hunger or Social Inequality - Which one drives Migration? ; Chapter 6 Translocal Livelihoods and Labor Migration Systems in Bangladesh ; Chapter 7 Cyclone-Induced Migration in Southwest Coastal Bangladesh ; Chapter 8 Displacement and Migration from Cyclone-affected Coastal Areas ; Chapter 9 Environmental Migration, Adaptation, and Gender Relations: A study in Dhaka ; Chapter 10 Coping with Flood Risks: Microcredit versus Micro-insurance ; POLITICS OF CLIMATE CHANGE, MIGRATION AND ADAPTATION ; Chapter 11 Climate-induced Migration and interdependent Vulnerabilities between Bangladesh and India ; Chapter 12 Local Experts' Perceptions of Climate Change and Migration in Bangladesh ; Chapter 13 Governing Environmentally-Related Migration: Mobility, Rights, and the Causality Problem ; Chapter 14 Civil Society Organizations and Climate Change Policy Formulation in Bangladesh ; Chapter 15 Exploring Legal and Policy Avenues for dealing with Climate-Induced Migration ; Chapter 16 Bangladesh's Role in International Negotiations on Climate Refugees ; Chapter 17 Reflections

Note: Introductory essay / by Ian Hacking -- Preface -- Introduction: a role for history -- The route to normal science -- The nature of normal science -- Normal science as puzzle-solving -- The priority of paradigms -- Anomaly and the emergence of scientific discoveries -- Crisis and the emergence of scientific theories -- The response to crisis -- The nature and necessity of scientific revolutions -- Revolutions as changes of world view -- The invisibility of revolutions -- The resolution of revolutions -- Progress through revolutions -- Postscript-1969..

Note: Contents: 1. Global politics and the environment ; Part I. Why Do Environmental Problems Occur?: 2. The tragedy of the commons ; 3. Population and poverty ; 4. Capitalism ; Part II. Responding to Global Environmental Problems: 5. Conflict and securitisation - water ; 6. Multilateral diplomacy - sustainable development ; 7. Transnational governance experiments - climate change ; 8. Aid and finance - deforestation ; 9. Individualising responsibility - unsustainable consumption ; 10. Problem displacement - hazardous substances ; 11. Resistance and localisation - unsustainable agriculture ; 12. Appraising global environmental governance

Note: Contents: 1. A looming crisis Part I Status and challenges 2. Rising demand and dwindling per capita resources 3. Water and poverty 4. Governance and finance 5. Pollution and water-related disease 6. Water, land and wildlife 7. Dams and diversions 8. Trading water - real and virtual 9. Water, war and terrorism 10. The threat of global warming Part II Nature's resources 11. The restless water cycle 12. Shrinking freshwater stores Part III Towards sustainability 13. Cutting demand 14. Increasing supplies 15. Cleaning up and protecting the aquatic environment 16. Using seawater 17. Controlling the weather 18. Improved monitoring and data management 19. Improving prediction and risk assessment 20. Improving management and justice 21. Aid for the developing world Conclusions 22. Is sustainability achievable?

Note: The Application of IR Spectroscopy to the Investigation of MineralsThe Discrete Approach -- The Full-Profile Analysis -- Polymerization of coordination polyhedra and structure topology -- Hydrogen-bearing groups and hydrogen bonding -- Solid-solution series -- Force parameters of cations in silicates -- IR spectra of minerals and reference samples data -- Borates, including sulfato-borates and arsenato-borates -- Carbides and carbonates -- Organic compounds and salts of organic acids -- Ammino-complexes, nitrates and sulfato-nitrates -- Oxides and hydroxides -- Fluorides -- Silicates -- Phosphates -- Sulfates, carbonato-sulfates, phosphato-sulfates and sulfides -- Chlorides -- Vanadates and vanadium oxides -- Chromates -- Arsenates, arsenites and sulfato-arsenates -- Selenites, molybdates, tellurites, tellurates, iodites, wolframates and wolfram oxides..

Note: Enthält eine englische Zusammenfassung

Note: 1 Kartenbeilage unter dem Titel: Northern Foothills and Inexpressible Island Area (Victoria Land, Antarctica) : Satellite Image Map = Northern Foothills E Area Di Inexpressible Island (Terra Vittoria, Antartide) / Flavio Borfecchia & Massimo Frezzotti 〈1 : 50.000〉 , 1 Kartenbeilage unter dem Titel: Satellite Image Mosaic of the Terra Nova Bay Area (Victoria Land, Antarctica) = Mosaico Di Immagini Da Satellite Dell'Area Di Baia Terra Nova (Terra Vittoria, Antartide) / Massimo Frezzotti, Maria Christina Salvatore & Luca Vittuari 〈1 : 250.000〉 , 1 Kartenbeilage unter dem Titel: Mount Melbourne Quadrangle (Victoria Land) = Foglio Mount Melbourne (Terra Vittoria) / Editor Carlo Baroni 〈1 : 250.000〉 aus der Antarctic Geomorphological and Glaciological 1:250.000 Map Series , 1 Kartenbeilage unter dem Titel: Mount Melbourne Quadrangle (Victoria Land) 2012 / P. C. Pertusati, G. Musumeci, R. Carosi, M. Meccheri 〈1 : 250.000〉 aus der Antarctic Geological 1:250.000 Map Series , This case with the aim to celebrate 30 years of Italian research in Antarctica, contains four geothematic maps of the Terra Nova bay area where the Italian Programma Nazionale di Ricerche in Antartide begun its activities in 1985 and the Italian coastal station Mario Zucchelli was constructed.

Note: Contents: Part I: Overview of the Changes in the Terrestrial Water Cycle ; Chapter 1: Macroscale Hydrological Modeling and Global Water Balance ; Chapter 2: Historical and Future Changes in Streamflow and Continental Runoff ; Chapter 3: Changes in the Global Terrestrial Water Cycle ; Part II: Human Alterations of the Terrestrial Water Cycle ; Chapter 4: Human-Induced Changes in the Global Water Cycle ; Chapter 5: Impacts of Groundwater Pumping on Regional and Global Water Resources ; Chapter 6: Land Use/Cover Change Impacts on Hydrology in Large River Basins ; Part III: Recent Advances in Hydrological Measurement and Observation ; Chapter 7: GRACE-Based Estimates of Global Groundwater Depletion ; Chapter 8: Regional-Scale Combined Land-Atmosphere Water Balance Based on Daily Observations in Illinois ; Part IV: Integrated Modeling of the Terrestrial Water Cycle ; Chapter 9: Drivers of Change in Managed Water Resources ; Chapter 10: Modeling the Role of Vegetation in Hydrological Responses to Climate Change ; Chapter 11: Estimating Virtual Water Contents Using a Global Hydrological Model ; Index

Note: Preface -- Introduction -- The basic intertemporal model -- Capital markets imperfections -- Intertemporal prices -- Non-tradable goods and relative prices -- The basic monetary model -- The monetary approach to the balance of payments -- Temporary policy -- Sticky prices -- Interest rate policy -- Optimal fiscal and monetary policy in the open economy -- Optimal exchange rate regimes -- Real anchors -- Stopping high inflation -- Capital inflows -- Dollarization -- Balance of payment crises -- Financial crises.

Note: Text englisch mit englischer und deutscher Zusammenfassung

Note: Contents: 1 Introduction: The Transitory Century ; 2 Urbanization in a global context ; 2.1 Current urbanization dynamics ; 2.2 Understanding the city ; 2.3 Cities and environmental change ; 2.4 The city as a habitat ; 2.5 Urban governance: actors, structures, processes ; 2.6 Global urbanization reports: problem descriptions, solution approaches and actors ; 2.7 Challenges and needs for action ; 3 The Normative Compass ; 3.1 The Great transformation and cities ; 3.2 An extended normative concept for the transformation towards sustainability ; 3.3 Sustaining the natural life-support systems ; 3.4 Inclusion ; 3.5 Eigenart ; 3.6 Dynamics between the three dimensions of the normative compass ; 4 Exemplary transformative action fields ; 4.1 Transformative action fields: concep ; 4.2 Internationally discussed fields ; 4.3 Transformative action field: ‘urban land use ; 4.4 Transformative action field: ‘materials and material flows' ; 4.5 Transformative action field: ‘urban health' ; 4.6 Transformative action fields: conclusions ; 5 Cities in the global transformation process ; 5.1 Introduction ; 5.2 Mumbai: transformation of a colonial metropolis into a globally networked megacity ; 5.3 Cairo: metropolis between an authoritarian state and weak governance ; 5.4 Copenhagen: a people-oriented pioneer of sustainable urban planning ; 5.5 Guangzhou: Open Door policy, globalization and migration-driven urbanization in the ‘world’s workshop’ ; 5.6 The Ruhr area: the post-industrial metropolis – polycentric and sustainable ; 5.7 Kigali: post-conflict city in Sub-Saharan Africa ; 5.8 São Paulo: the fragmented metropolis ; 5.9 Novi Beograd: 20th century socialist planned city district ; 5.10 Synopsis ; 6 Urban designers: actors of the urban transformation ; 6.1 Introduction. ; 6.2 Transformative urban networks ; 6.3 Inclusive urban planning ; 6.4 Social inclusion and cohesion ; 6.5 Participation in urban development ; 6.6 Small-scale green transformations as part of the Great Transformation ; 6.7 Preventive healthcare ; 6.8 Innovative investment instruments for the urban transformation ; 6.9 Science as a catalyst of urban development ; 6.10 Conclusions ; 7 Urban patterns ; 7.1 From phenomenology to designing cities: forces, forms, values ; 7.2 Newly planned cities and city districts ; 7.3 Informal settlements ; 7.4 Mature cities and city districts ; 7.5 Urbanization surge up to 2050 – six development risks of global change ; 8 Transformative urban governance: empowering cities ; 8.1 Challenges for transformative urban governance ; 8.2 Empowering local governments for the transformation ; 8.3 Strengthen civil society: involve residents, act collaboratively ; 8.4 Shape global governance structures in a way that meets present-day needs ; 8.5 Build a polycentric responsibility architecture ; 9 Recommendations for action ; 9.1 Challenges ; 9.2 Elements of a social contract for the urban transformation ; 9.3 Transformative action fields in cities ; 9.4 Governance ; 9.5 Financing ; 9.6 Synopsis ; 10 Research on sustainable urbanization ; 10.1 Cities and the Great Transformation: important lines of research ; 10.2 Programmes and institutions: where does urban sustainability research stand? ; 10.3 Towards a new urban research agenda ; References ; Glossary

Note: Contents: Foreword -- Acknowledgments -- Contents -- List of Figures -- List of Tables -- List of Abbreviations -- List of Symbols -- Scalars -- Functions -- Indices -- Vectors, Matrices, Etc. -- Symbols Related to Poverty and Inequality -- 1 Introduction -- 1.1 Objective and Research Question -- 1.2 Structure of Thesis -- References -- 2 The Normative Argument for an Unconditional Basic Income -- 2.1 Van Parijs' Concept of Freedom -- 2.1.1 Alternative Concepts of Freedom -- 2.1.2 The Concept of Real Freedom -- 2.2 From Real Freedom to Basic Income -- 2.2.1 The Resource Egalitarianism Approach -- 2.2.2 Ambition-Sensitivity and Endowment-Insensitivity -- 2.2.3 The Value of the Basic Income -- 2.3 The Concept of the Basic Income in Detail -- 2.4 Common Objections Against an Unconditional BasicIncome -- 2.4.1 Exploitation and Reciprocity -- 2.4.2 Measuring of Real Freedom -- 2.5 Concluding Remarks -- References -- 3 Implementation of a Basic Income by a Negative Income Tax -- 3.1 The Concept of a Negative Income Tax -- 3.1.1 Definition and Classification -- 3.1.2 Economic Aspects -- 3.1.3 Comparison of an Unconditional Basic Income with a Negative Income Tax -- 3.2 Different Types of Negative Income Tax Plans -- 3.2.1 Minimum Income Guarantee -- 3.2.2 Social-Dividend Type -- 3.2.3 Poverty-Gap Type -- 3.2.4 Comparison of NIT-Types -- 3.3 Empirical Studies on Negative Income Tax Plans -- References -- 4 A Negative Income Tax Proposal for Germany -- 4.1 The Subsistence Level as Lower Limit of Welfare Payments in Germany -- 4.2 The Negative Income Tax Proposal in Detail -- 4.2.1 General Concept -- 4.2.2 The Build-In Option in Detail -- 4.2.3 Child Support -- 4.3 Comparison with Germany's Status Quo of 2010 -- 4.4 Critical Remarks -- References -- 5 Modeling Political Reforms: The Discrete Approach to Labor Supply -- 5.1 Economic Simulations ; 5.1.1 General Overview -- 5.1.2 Micro Simulations in Detail -- 5.1.3 Construction of a New Tax-and-TransferMicro Simulation -- 5.2 The Discrete Approach to Labor Supply -- 5.2.1 The Discrete Framework -- 5.2.2 Additive Random Utility -- 5.2.3 Specification of the Utility Function -- 5.2.4 Behavioral Changes -- References -- 6 Implications on the Proposed Basic Income Reform -- 6.1 Data -- 6.1.1 General Information on the GSOEP -- 6.1.2 Imputation and Non-responses -- 6.1.3 The Household Concept of the GSOEP -- 6.1.4 Income and Working Hours Distributions -- 6.2 Sample Selection Estimations for Expected Wage Rates -- 6.3 Calibration of the Multinomial Logit Regression Model -- 6.3.1 Estimation Results -- 6.3.2 Modeling the Status Quo -- 6.4 Allocation Effects of the Basic Income Schemeand its Feasibility -- 6.4.1 Expected Changes in Household Labor Supply -- 6.4.2 Feasibility of the Proposed Tax-and-TransferScheme -- 6.5 Distributional Effects of the Basic Income Scheme -- 6.5.1 Estimated Changes in Poverty -- 6.5.2 Implications on Income Inequality -- 6.6 Critical Remarks -- References -- 7 Conclusion and Outlook -- A Efficient Wage Hypothesis -- References -- B Social Insurance Contributions in Germany -- C Calculations -- C.1 Multinomial Logit Estimation -- C.2 Translog Utility -- C.2.1 Married Couples -- C.2.2 One-Adult Households -- C.3 Constant Relative Inequality Aversion -- Reference -- D Descriptive Statistics -- E Social Security Parameters of 2010 (Germany) -- F GSOEP Questions

Note: Contents: 1. Introduction -- 1.1 Why Forecast? -- 1.2 The Informatics Challenge in Forecasting -- 1.3 The Model-Data Loop -- 1.4 Why Bayes? -- 1.5 Models as Scaffolds -- 1.6 Case Studies and Decision Support -- 1.7 Key Concepts -- 1.8 Hands-on Activities -- 2. From Models to Forecasts -- 2.1 The Traditional Modeler's Toolbox -- 2.2 Example: The Logistic Growth Model -- 2.3 Adding Sources of Uncertainty -- 2.4 Thinking Probabilistically -- 2.5 Predictability -- 2.6 Key Concepts -- 2.7 Hands-on Activities -- 3. Data, Large and Small -- 3.1 The Data Cycle and Best Practices -- 3.2 Data Standards and Metadata -- 3.3 Handling Big Data -- 3.4 Key Concepts -- 3.5 Hands-on Activities -- 4. Scientific Workflows and the Informatics of Model-Data Fusion -- 4.1 Transparency, Accountability, and Repeatability -- 4.2 Workflows and Automation -- 4.3 Best Practices for Scientific Computing -- 4.4 Key Concepts -- 4.5 Hands-on Activities -- 5. Introduction to Bayes -- 5.1 Confronting Models with Data -- 5.2 Probability 101 -- 5.3 The Likelihood -- 5.4 Bayes' Theorem -- 5.5 Prior Information -- 5.6 Numerical Methods for Bayes -- 5.7 Evaluating MCMC Output -- 5.8 Key Concepts -- 5.9 Hands-on Activities -- 6. Characterizing Uncertainty -- 6.1 Non-Gaussian Error -- 6.2 Heteroskedasticity -- 6.3 Observation Error -- 6.4 Missing Data and Inverse Modeling -- 6.5 Hierarchical Models and Process Error -- 6.6 Autocorrelation -- 6.7 Key Concepts -- 6.8 Hands-on Activities -- 7. Case Study: Biodiversity, Populations, and Endangered Species -- 7.1 Endangered Species -- 7.2 Biodiversity -- 7.3 Key Concepts -- 7.4 Hands-on Activities -- 8. Latent Variables and State-Space Models -- 8.1 Latent Variables -- 8.2 State Space -- 8.3 Hidden Markov Time-Series Model -- 8.4 Beyond Time -- 8.5 Key Concepts -- 8.6 Hands-on Activities -- 9. Fusing Data Sources -- 9.1 Meta-analysis -- 9.2 Combining Data: Practice, Pitfalls, and Opportunities -- 9.3 Combining Data and Models across Space and Time -- 9.4 Key Concepts -- 9.5 Hands-on Activities -- 10. Case Study: Natural Resources -- 10.1 Fisheries -- 10.2 Case Study: Baltic Salmon -- 10.3 Key Concepts -- 11. Propagating, Analyzing, and Reducing Uncertainty -- 11.1 Sensitivity Analysis -- 11.2 Uncertainty Propagation -- 11.3 Uncertainty Analysis -- 11.4 Tools for Model-Data Feedbacks -- 11.5 Key Concepts -- 11.6 Hands-on Activities -- Appendix A Properties of Means and Variances -- Appendix B Common Variance Approximations -- 12. Case Study: Carbon Cycle -- 12.1 Carbon Cycle Uncertainties -- 12.2 State of the Science -- 12.3 Case Study: Model-Data Feedbacks -- 12.4 Key Concepts -- 12.5 Hands-on Activities -- 13. Data Assimilation 1: Analytical Methods -- 13.1 The Forecast Cycle -- 13.2 Kalman Filter -- 13.3 Extended Kalman Filter -- 13.4 Key Concepts -- 13.5 Hands-on Activities -- 14. Data Assimilation 2: Monte Carlo Methods -- 14.1 Ensemble Filters -- 14.2 Particle Filter -- 14.3 Model Averaging and Reversible Jump MCMC -- 14.4 Generalizing the Forecast Cycle -- 14.5 Key Concepts -- 14.6 Hands-on Activities -- 15. Epidemiology -- 15.1 Theory -- 15.2 Ecological Forecasting -- 15.3 Examples of Epidemiological Forecasting -- 15.4 Case Study: Influenza -- 15.5 Key Concepts -- 16. Assessing Model Performance -- 16.1 Visualization -- 16.2 Basic Model Diagnostics -- 16.3 Model Benchmarks -- 16.4 Data Mining the Residuals -- 16.5 Comparing Model Performance to Simple Statistics -- 16.6 Key Concepts -- 16.7 Hands-on Activities -- 17. Projection and Decision Support -- 17.1 Projections, Predictions, and Forecasting -- 17.2 Decision Support -- 17.3 Key Concepts -- 17.4 Hands-on Activities -- 18. Final Thoughts -- 18.1 Lessons Learned -- 18.2 Future Directions -- References -- Index