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  • Articles  (16,572)
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  • 1960-1964  (13,932)
  • 1945-1949  (2,640)
  • Biology  (16,572)
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  • Articles  (16,572)
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  • 1
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 22 (1960), S. 323-349 
    ISSN: 1522-9602
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Mathematics
    Notes: Abstract Equations were derived showing the relationship between the membrane potential and the quantities which influence it under steady state conditions. Essentially, the membrane potential is caused by the valence and concentration of the non-permeating ions. The permeating ions can modify the membrane potential by altering the relative concentration of the non-permeating ions with respect to the concentration of the permeating ions. For muscle, the sodium cations act as the non-permeating ions in the extracellular environment by the maintenance of some type of active metabolic process and large anions act as the non-permeating ions in the intracellular environment. Both of these non-permeating ions contribute about equally to the maintenance of the resting membrane potential. When the active metabolic process for sodium extrusion breaks down or when acids are added, the membrane potential should decrease. Water should enter the cell when the sodium metabolic process is diminished; water should leave the cell when acids are added. When acid is added, it is expected that the cations potassium and sodium will leave the cell with little or no shift of the chloride ions.
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  • 2
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 22 (1960), S. 351-364 
    ISSN: 1522-9602
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    Notes: Abstract A purely information-theoretical approach to the problem of self-replication of elementary living units implies that pure chance is the determining factor in the formation of the first living unit. The probability of such a spontaneous formation can be calculated from the minimum amount of information which an organism must possess in order to replicate itself. An estimation of this amount of information is made here by two different methods. First by a “paper and pencil experiment” which indicates the minimum amount of information needed on a printed page in order that with given tools the page could be reproduced. Second—by an analytical consideration of some hypothetical molecular mechanisms. A general method for handling such problems is suggested. On the basis of estimated information contents it is shown that under most favorable conditions the probability of a spontaneous generation by pure chance during the lifetime of the earth is vanishingly small. It is concluded that dynamic factors, which may reduce tremendously the information content, must play a role in the genesis of life on earth.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 22 (1960), S. 365-370 
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    Notes: Abstract The binding energy of a very long molecular chain, composed of different classes of molecules, depends in general on the order of the molecules. It is shown that under very general conditions there exists for a givenbrutto chemical composition of a chain, a class of chains which is characterized by a total binding energy which is equal to the total binding energy of any other prescribed chain of different composition within the limits of unsharpness of the energy level. This establishes a criterion formapping of a class of configurations of long chain molecules on another class. To the extent that a mapping constitutes a generalized code those results contribute to the theory of molecular codes. Applying to our results the results of a previous paper (1959,Bull. Math. Biophysics,21, 309–326), we arrive at the conclusion that the self-replication of a living molecule may be the property not of a particular structure but of classes of structures.
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  • 4
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 22 (1960), S. 371-389 
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    Notes: Abstract Making some plausible assumptions about the over-all mechanism of food catching and consumption by fishes and evaluating in the light of those assumptions some available experimental data, it is possible to calculate from those data the variation of several important factors with the concentration of food. The factors considered are: total rate of metabolism, total diurnal energy expenditure in the process of feeding, average number of hours per day during which the fish feeds, average length of path traveled by a fish per day, and the so-called “energetic coefficient of growth.” A possible relation with the work of N. Rashevsky (Bull. Math. Biophysics,20, 299–308, 1959) is discussed.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 22 (1960), S. 425-425 
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  • 6
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 22 (1960), S. 417-424 
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    Notes: Abstract The theory of measurement of flow and volume by indicator dilution techniques is given in conditions of time-variable flow rates. It is shown that the usual Hamilton (1932,Am. J. Physiol.,99, 534–551) methods can be misleading if the flow changes at a rate of close to that of the transport function.
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  • 7
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 305-318 
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    Notes: Abstract Freese’s Hypothesis states that a single specific alteration in the sequence of nucleotides of an information-bearing DNA molecule results in a specific mutational effect. Within the framework of the DNA-protein coding problem developed elsewhere, and assuming the quasi-ergodicity of the general coding process, it is shown that Freese’s Hypothesis allows us to derive expressions for the length of the smallest mutable DNA molecule and to obtain a bound for the maximal number of allelic molecules of fixed length. To illustrate these ideas, calculations are carried out on appropriate data from bacternophage and man, and the results are shown to differ by a factor of 10 (modulo the rather crude approximations used). It is further shown that, if ρ(N) and ϱ(N) are respectively the number of information-bearing words of lengthN in a given code and the number of words of lengthN, then the number lim ρ(N)/ϱ(N) depends sensitively on the parameter ∈ which specifiesN→∞ the given code. The implications of this result for the spontaneous aggregation of a sufficient number of information-bearing words to characterize an organism are discussed.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 319-319 
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  • 9
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 321-335 
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    Notes: Abstract As a “base line” of memorization performance, the behavior of a “perfect learner” is considered. He is characterized by a perfect memory and by the ability to choose the best search procedure in problems where the correct response from a given repertoire is to be found to each of several stimuli under the condition of “right” and “wroing” promptings by the experimenter. Expected learning curves are derived for the case of disjoint response repertoires associated with the stimuli under cyclic and random presentation of the stimuli and for the case of a single response repertoire (a one-to-one matching problem) under cyclic presentation.
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  • 10
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    Notes: Abstract Detailed equations are given for the computation of aortic distensibility in the intact living human patient from measurements of systolic and diastolic arterial pressures, heart rate and cardiac output. From these equations, the aortic characteristics of a large series of normal men of different ages were computed. Comparing these results with measurements on excised aortas, a more pronounced trend toward increasing aortic stiffness with increasing age is evident in living than in dead aortas. Nor-epinephrine and exercise apparently cause the living aortas to constrict but to become more distensible. The same change occurs after 30 minutes of high spinal anesthesia. The ganglionic blocking agents hexamethonium, pentamethonium, and tetraethylammonium usually cause the living aorta to become stiffer, presumably due to dilatation. The aortas of patients with pulmonary disease usually react in different fashion to exercise or tetraethylammonium. The increased aortic distensibility that occurs with the hypertension induced by nor-epinephrine or exercise acts as a compensatory mechanism by decreasing systolic pressure.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 355-376 
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    Notes: Abstract Dimensional analysis is discussed from the viewpoint of its basic group properties and shown to be an algebraic Abelian group that is useful for analysis of physical measurements. The application of the method to various types of equations and the formulation of previously unclassified dimensions are discussed. Functional dimensional analysis is applied to the problems of cell size and biomass proliferation; future applications are also noted. A number of dimensionless terms have been formulated for cellular physiochemical phenomena. They apparently represent the first systematic study of biological dimensionless numbers recorded in the literature. A dimensionless proliferation law is suggested. A brief analysis of the physical dimensionality associated with information measures is carried out. Entropy and “information” are shown to be completely different in their dimensional meaning; other informational measures of possible interest in biology are proposed. The dimensional coding and computor analysis of biomathematical equations is suggested.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 377-391 
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    Notes: Abstract Expenditure of energy under several simultaneous forms (mechanical, chemical, etc.) is associated with all muscular activity. The energy is directly related to what is commonly called exertion or effort. This paper defines “muscular effort” quantitatively in terms of some of the elements of the dynamics of the human (and animal) body. It postulates that in all likelihood the individual will, consciously or otherwise, determine his motion (or his posture, if at rest) in such a manner as to reduce his total muscular effort to a minimum consistent with imposed conditions, or “constraints”. The principle, formulated in mathematical terms, is sufficient to ascribe to the moments at all body joints—a matter generally of free choice on the part of the individual—their most likely magnitudes. It therefore renders the equations of human (and animal) motion determinate within this context. The paper also describes briefly an iteration method for the solution of these equations, once they have been made determinate. A simple illustrative application of the principle is included.
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  • 13
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 393-403 
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    Notes: Abstract It is pointed out that two fundamentally different views of primary genetic processes occur in the literature which are frequently confused. The first is a true communication-theoretic view, which regards the genetic apparatus as containing a real information-source and a transducer which converts that information to useful form. The second view is generally expressed as a template scheme based on the Watson-Crick model; it is shown that in this model there is actually no such thing as genetic information in a communication-theoretic sense. Both views are then discussed on the basis of microphysical principles developed in previous work of the author (Bull. Math. Biophysics,22, 227–255, 1960) in an attempt to find which approach is in closer accord with the biological facts. It is shown that, if the communication-theoretic view is correct, then the information-bearing object must act as a “catalyst,” but it is pointed out that the type of catalysis involved must be of a fundamentally different nature than that occurring in familiar enzyme-catalyzed reactions. On the basis of general considerations of irreversible changes in microphysical measuring systems, it is shown that any type of template must suffer a gradual and irreversible denaturation, which seems to make it unlikely that a template could play a primary role in fundamental genetic processes.
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  • 14
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 405-411 
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    Notes: Abstract The theory developed in previous papers and based on distribution curves of definite form is generalized to any form of unimodel distributions. The time course of the change from one behavior to another is discussed and a general theorem about the time course is established.
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  • 15
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 417-417 
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 25 (1963), S. 471-471 
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 25 (1963), S. 421-469 
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    Notes: Résumé Nous appliquons le modèle de neurone introduit dans un article antérieur à l’étude d’une microstructure isotrope. La stabilité de cette microstructure implique l’existence d’une régulation d’activité que le principe de construction adéquate permet de définir entièrement. Nous aboutissons à une conception stratifiée du cerveau. Un réseau de neurones spécialisés exercerait, grâce à certains médiateurs chimiques, une action diffuse qui modulerait les propriétés du réseau localisé classique. Les lois de Pavlov peuvent être retrouvées à partir des propriétés de la microstructure et de celles de la régulation. La microstructure isotrope peut également fonctionner comme analyseur. Un certain nombre de temps caractéristiques apparaissent alors, qui semblent jouer un grand rôle en psychologie.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 1-7 
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    Notes: Abstract In the arteries, blood flow and blood pressure are pulsatile in nature (Roston, 1962a; Roston 1962b). The patterns of blood movement and mural distension in the arteries are important because they may be associated with life-threatening degenerative changes in the arterial walls. As the vascular channels narrow, the pulsation decreases. At the level of the capillaries, almost no pulsation exists (Best and Taylor, 1961). The tissues are affected by the direct flow in the capillaries and not by the pulsation in the arteries. Thus, such quantities as pulse pressure, systolic pressure, and diastolic pressure which characterize blood movement in the arteries are not important as far as the tissues are concerned. Rather, the average pressure and flow in the capillaries are the quantities significant for tissue blood flow. The present study analyzes the local blood circulation in a typical tissue. Logical extension of this analysis results in insights into the physiological behavior of the circulation which integrate a considerable body of experimental data.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 11 (1949), S. 59-82 
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    Notes: Abstract A theory of linkage of autopolyploids is developed under consideration ofm loci andr alleles. The simplifying assumption of chromosome segregation, which may be considered as an approximation to the more adequate theory of chromatid segregation, is made throughout. Random mating and distinct, non-overlapping generations are assumed. Under these assumptions the problem is determined by three basic probability distributions—the distributions of genotypes and of gametes, and the segregation distribution. The segregation distribution is assumed to be the same for males and for females. The aim of the paper is to establish recurrence formulas (which allow to find the distributions of gametes and of genotypes from generation to generation, if the distribution of genotypes for an initial generation is known) and to investigate the limit behavior of these distributions as the number of generations increases indefinitely. In the present paper (hereafter referred to as I) the problem is explained, and the three characteristic distributions are introduced for the general case of a 2s-ploid,m loci, andr alleles. Recurrence relations are established for tetraploids,s=2 andm=2 loci, while the recurrence relations for the general case as well as the limit theorems will be given in the second part of this paper (hereafter referred to as II).
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 11 (1949), S. 83-95 
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    Notes: Abstract Steady state kinetic relations previously developed forclosed, homogeneous systems are extended toopen systems consisting of geometrically confined regions of arbitrary shape. The generalized system of consecutive reactions is considered to occur within the cell, and the cell plus environment are treated as an open system. The diffusion condition is imposed upon the kinetic solution for various special cases and the method ofgeneral solution when all products, reactants and intermediates, may enter and leave the cell is indicated.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 11 (1949), S. 97-103 
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    Notes: Abstract When two polished metal spheres in contact with each other are immersed in a corrosive solution, their surfaces gradually corrode, leaving, however, a non-corroded zone around the point of contact. The size of this zone is a function of the size of the spheres, concentration of the corrosive, and of the time. The phenomenon has been first observed by F. C. Besic on human teeth immersed in hydrochloric acid, and studied on metal balls. In the present paper it is shown that such a phenomenon may be due to gradients of concentration of the corrosive in the neighborhood of the point of contact, caused by the chemical reaction which consumes the corrosive. Approximate expressions for the size of the uncorroded zones as a function of the size of the balls and as a function of time are derived and found to be in fair agreement with F. C. Besic's data.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 11 (1949), S. 105-113 
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    Notes: Abstract When an individual grows up in a society, he learns certain behavior patterns which are “accepted” by that society. He may in general have a tendency toward behavior patterns other than those which are “accepted” by the society. This tendency toward such unaccepted behavior may be due to a process of cerebration which results in doubt as to the “correctness” of the accepted behavior. Thus, on the one hand, the individual learns to follow the accepted rules almost automatically; on the other hand, he may tend to consciously break those rules. Using a neural circuit, suggested by H. D. Landahl in his theory of learning, a neurobiophysical interpretation of the above situation is outlined. Mathematical expressions are derived which describe the social behavior of an individual as a function of his age, social status, and some neurobiophysical parameters.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 11 (1949), S. 139-144 
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    Notes: Abstract Analysis is made to show that the mitotic index is simply proportional to the ratio of the duration of mitosis (T) to the intermitotic time only under special conditions. In the case of exponential growth of cell population the simple proportionality hold if the product ofT and the growth constant is small. For power law (t n ) growth of cell population the simple proportionality holds only when a steady state of growth has existed for at least ten intermitotic periods. The simple proportionality does not apply in conditions of transient growth.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 11 (1949), S. 115-138 
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    Notes: Abstract Food and metabolic waste products, insofar as they act upon the hereditary substrate of cells, are the most important factors governing tissue growth. Equations describing the growth of tissues are derived in consideration of this fact. A quantity is found in these equations which, if slightly changed, results in very great changes in the growth rate of the tissue, where such very great changes are interpretable as neoplastic growth. The relationship between our equations and similar equations which others have proposed is discussed.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 11 (1949), S. 145-147 
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 22 (1960), S. 391-415 
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    Notes: Abstract Some progress has been made on the problem of the interaction of respiratory gases with whole blood. A practical working model for oxygen absorption in and interaction with whole blood is developed by assuming that oxygen molecules compete with protons for binding sites on the hemoglobin molecule and by invoking the Wyman-Allen (Jour. of Polymer Science,5, 499–518, 1951) hypothesis that two oxygen molecules go on the hemoglobin at one time. Extensive tests of this model against saturation measurements on blood from humans, horses, oxen and sheep are made. Values for the equilibrium constants are calculated and compared. In addition a second working model has been developed in an attempt to explain why O2 saturation measurements when expressed as (100 percent — percent saturation) are an exponential function of oxygen partial pressure. Considerations which make plausible the following expression for saturation, [1−2e −γx/h1/2/(1+(1/20)(β′/h 1/2+h 1/2/β′))] are presented. Herex denotes oxygen tension,h denotes hydrogen ion concentration and β′ and γ are parameters.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 1-14 
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    Notes: Abstract Some progress has been made on the problem of the interaction of respiratory gases with whole blood. A working mathematical model for the O2−CO2 interaction phenomena has been developed from mathematical studies of the data. The Edsall-Wyman (1958) model for CO2 absorption is improved upon in this paper by consolidating it with the O2 absorption model developed in paper I of this set (Bernard, S. R.,Bull. Math. Biophysics,22, 391–415, 1960). This improved model assumed the effect of O2 on CO2 absorption is mediated through the electrical charge possessed by the hemoglobin molecule,i.e., O2 molecules bound to hemoglobin displace protons from the hemoglobin thereby increasing the negative charge on the hemoglobin and at the same time increasing the acidity of the solution. The model is tested against the data.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 15-18 
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    Notes: Abstract On the basis of previously proposed mathematical models of social behavior, the present note investigates the possibility of the control of behavior remaining permanently in the hands of one class, if this class possesses sufficient means for influencing mass behavior. The conclusion is reached that, with the assumptions made, if the behavior imposed by the controlling class leads to sufficiently strong dissatisfaction, the control will pass to another class, no matter how strong the controlling power of the first.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 19-29 
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    Notes: Abstract Traffic in one direction on a multilane highway is considered, and a general expression for the number of cars which pass a car travelling at a given velocity, as well as the number of cars which the given car passes, is derived for the case when the speeds of different cars are distributed in some arbitrary manner. Closed expressions are derived and discussed for a rectangular distribution. Each passing by another car or of another car is considered as a distracting stimulus which affects the reaction times of the driver. Using previously derived expressions for the safe speed as a function of reaction times, expressions for the safe average speed are derived, in terms of the volume of traffic and of the spread of the distribution of speeds.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 99-103 
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    Notes: Abstract Emphasis upon the importance of homeostatic feedback has drawn attention away from the complexity of biological processes. A study of glucose metabolism indicates the importance of open-cycle as well as closed-cycle mechanisms. Besides the glucose-dependent mechanism of insulin secretion, many open-cycle processes involving the liver, adrenal glands and kidneys, play important roles in the variation of blood glucose. In addition, glucose utilization by the tissues is essentially open-cycle in nature.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 105-106 
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 413-416 
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    Notes: Abstract In certain situations like the aftermath of a revolution when discontent rises amongst certain groups of the population, it is frequently observed that the discontented groups are firmly convinced that their point of view is shared by the majority of the population. Yet future events prove that this is far from being the case. This effect is partly attributable to “wishful thinking,” partly to a purely social mechanism. The wishful-thinking effect may be considered as a case of psycho-physical discrimination in which a bias is introduced proportional to the degree of satisfaction anticipated from a given situation. H. D. Landahl's well-known equations can be applied to this case. The social factor is based on the circumstance that an individual associates by preference with such other individuals as have similar opinions. This results in an actual error of estimation of the relative minority or majority because of different frequencies of contact with individuals of the two opposing groups. Both factors may be combined into one equation.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 421-422 
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 25 (1963), S. 367-385 
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    Notes: Abstract In Part II we prove some of the more complicated theorems stated and used in Part I. In particular, we derive the distribution functionsD 1,D 2, andD 3, and prove some of their properties under various limiting conditions.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 25 (1963), S. 387-392 
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    Notes: Abstract The graphical treatment utilized by Marmasse in order to test “Wurmser’s theory of agglutination” has been applied, taking into account all the data available. Contrary to Marmasse’s conclusion, the application of this graphical method is not a valid argument against the theory.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 25 (1963), S. 343-366 
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    Notes: Abstract This is the continuation of part I, which was published in the September, 1963, issue ofThe Bulletin. Section 5 treats the special case in which the left absorbing barrier recedes to −∞, leaving essentially only one barrier at a finite distance Λ (〉0) from the origin. The eigenfunctions are now parabolic cylinder functions. The limiting cases Λ→+∞ and Λ→0 are also considered. Though meaningless for practical applications to our problem, they are of interest, mathematically, because the Green’s function for the solution of the Fokker-Planck equation assumes a particularly simple form. In section 6 we study, by means of an example, how the “force of mortality” may vary with time before attaining its final asymptotic value. Section7, still dealing with only one absorbing barrier, shows that our results for “strong homeostasis” are identical with those derived by Chandrasekhar for the escape of particles through a potential barrier in the limiting case of quasi-static flow. Precise conditions are given for the validity of both the quasi-static and the Smoluchowski approximations to the Fokker-Planck equation. Finally, in section 8, a brief mention is made of Gevrey’s method for the solution of parabolic partial differential equations.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 25 (1963), S. 393-419 
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    Notes: Abstract The derivation of learning models relative to choice behavior in experimenter-subject controlled experiments with two outcomes (right or wrong) is considered from the point of view that any such model must satisfy a criterion of optimality. The criterion adopted for investigation, termed optimal asymptotic behavior, is that of the subject asymptotically learning which of the alternatives has the greater probability of being correct. A class of path-dependent linear models is posed as possible candidates. It is shown that no members of this class satisfy the criterion although two of them approach it by making a learning parameter small enough. The possible implications of this are discussed.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 25-29 
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    Notes: Abstract Error-detecting codes have been known to mathematicians and to electrical engineers for over ten years. In general, such codes utilize an additional orparity bit for purposes of detecting errors by the addition of all positive binary bits or “1’s” occurring in any code word. However, since the process of addition is required for such code detection, it is not surprising that these codes have not been applied to the nucleic acid molecule. In 1962, P. I. Hershberg (Trans. I.R.E., CS-10, 280–4, 1962) outlined a categorical constraint which permitted the realization of a class of error-detecting codes which did not require parity bits. This class of codes is applied to the nucleic acid molecule in the present paper.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 31-38 
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    Notes: Abstract Compartment systems are often used as models for tracer and drug kinetics. The structure of a compartment system is here analyzed by means of theory of graphs methods. In particular the precursor-successor relationship between any two compartments is classified according to the structure of the graph of the system and to the values of the elements of the matrix associated with it.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 39-43 
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    Notes: Abstract An application of a bifurcation theorem shows the existence of periodic solutions of a system of differential equation used to describe competition between two species. It is then shown that the results are more general than those previously established.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 9-24 
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    Notes: Abstract The 2o and 10o field color-matching functions are independent: one specification is not a linear transformation of the other, even after correcting for macular pigment effects. Therefore, the “true” color-matching functions which directly describe the linear responses of the eye must be different for the two field sizes. This means that a given stimulus will, in general, have a different chromaticity depending upon the field size, regardless of the choice of any one colorimetric co-ordinate system for all field sizes. However, in spite of these chromaticity differences, a large uniform field usually appears nearly uniform. Such color uniformity implies that even though chromatic differences occur as a function of retinal position or field size, these differences are small. If this is the case, then the underling “true” color-matching functions determining the observed color-matching functions must be nearly, but not quite, identical. These differences vanish as identity between the sets of color-matching functions is approached. This property suggests a method of calculating the “true” color-matching functions. The “true” color-matching functions must approximate those obtained by minimizing the chromaticity differences between two independent sets of data. This can be done by assuming that the coefficients of transformation should be adjusted so as to produce as nearly identical chromaticities for spectrum stimuli as possible. In this paper, it is also assumed that the “true” color-matching functions have no negative values, as if they were based on actual absorption spectra. This article describes the calculation of the “true” 2o and 10o field color-matching functions satisfying these two conditions. For both field sizes, the maxima of the three functions are near 435, 540, and 585 mμ, after correcting for the filtering effects of the ocular media and macular pigment.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 45-47 
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    Notes: Abstract In this note the principal convergence theorem (F. Rosenblatt,Principles of Neurodynamics, Spartan Books, Washington D.C., 1962, 111–116) is proved by a new method.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 49-55 
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    Notes: Abstract Considering only nearest neighbor interactions, an expression is obtained for the grand partition function for the adsorption of two kinds of monovalent positive ions at a long chain of one type of monovalent negative fixed sites in an electric field. Expressions are obtained for the fractions of sites which are occupied by each kind of ion as well as of those which are unoccupied as a function of the potential of the electric field.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 57-61 
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    Notes: Abstract In connection with a series of previous papers by this author (Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics,21, 299–308, 375–385;22, 257–262, 263–267;23, 19–29;24, 319–325) results obtained by A. Crawford (Economics 5, 417–428) on the effects of irrelevant lights on reaction times toward a given light stimulus are discussed. The conclusions from a previous paper of this author (Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics,23, 19–29) are elaborated.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 77-81 
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    Notes: Abstract A mathematical model has been constructed to describe experimental data recorded in a study of a simple avoidance situation. The theoretical description makes use of the concept of the effective number of shocks. The model explains the existence of oscillations encountered in previous experiments.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 63-75 
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    Notes: Abstract Response probabilities are interpreted from two points of view. One corresponds to fluctuations in physical parameters suggestive of a neurological basis, and the other corresponds to fluctuations in stimulus sample constitution. The two interpretations are shown to be equivalent under rather general conditions, giving the same type of relation between response and training states. This relation is different from that obtained via the response strength concept used in Part I. As a step toward evaluating the difference in predicted behavior for these different response-training relations, a general functional-difference equation is derived that describes the moments of the corresponding stochastic process in experimenter-subject controlled experiments. As an immediate application, it is used to obtain the continuity condition for the solution of the functional equation treated in Part I, and to justify the differentiability conditions assumed in establishing asymptotic properties of the solution as a function of the reinforcement parameter.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 83-89 
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    Notes: Abstract A simple avoidance situation is considered in terms of a neural net learning model. Data for the control situation can be represented by an expression having three parameters which determine the initial and the steady state activities together with the transient aspects. The introduction of a learning parameter then allows one to calculate satisfactorily the results obtained in the experimental situation in which shock is applied.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 101-101 
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 91-100 
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    Notes: Abstract An algebraic representation of operations of genetic recombinations is illustrated. It is shown that the recombinations between chromosomes in the two-strand model can be represented by groups, in the sense of the theory of groups. Recombinations between chromosomes with inversions and a translocation are considered as well as cases without them. It is found that the groups derived from such cases are Abelianp-groups (p=2) and that the types of the Abelian groups for the various pairs of chromosomes are different from each other. Differences among those recombination groups are illustrated by showing the sets of generators of the various groups, which generate the corresponding recombination groups by multiplication.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 103-111 
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    Notes: Abstract It is shown that a rather close relationship exists between the (ℳ,ℛ)-systems, defined previously as prototypes of abstract biological systems, and the sequential machines which have been studied by various authors. The theory of sequential machines is reformulated in a way suitable for its application to the study of the intertransformability of (ℳ,ℛ)-systems as a result of environmental alteration. The important concept of strong connectedness is most useful in this direction, and is used to derive a number of results on intertransformability. Some suggestions are made for further studies along these lines.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 113-120 
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    Notes: Abstract Blood flows into the aorta and its branches during left ventricular systole. Most of the arterial walls in the body stretch during systole in accordance with their elastic properties (Roston, 1962a, b). During diastole, the rebound of the distended walls supplies an additional propulsive force pushing the blood forward. Since the metabolic exchange between most of the tissues in the body and their blood vessels is ordinarily the same throughout the cardiac cycle, it makes little difference whether or not the blood flow occurs during systole or diastole. The circulation in the coronary arteries behaves in a quite different way. Because the muscle fibers of the heart contract during systole and relax during diastole, different conditions for blood flow and metabolic exchange exist during the phases of the cardiac cycle. As a result, specification of whether blood flows in the coronary arteries during systole or diastole may be important. Such specification complicates the study of the coronary artery circulation. For example, because of the arterial elasticity, some of the blood which enters the coronary arteries during diastole comes in contact with the muscle fibers during systole. The present work contains a theoretical study of the coronary artery circulation.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 139-146 
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    Notes: Abstract A study is made of the adsorption of one kind of monovalent positive ion at a long chain of alternating monovalent negative fixed charged (“lattice”) and uncharged (“interstitial”) sites both of one type in an electric field. Considering only nearest neighbor interactions an expression is obtained for the grand partition function. The fractions of sites of both types which are occupied and unoccupied are determined. It is shown that an equilibrium constant can be defined for the adsorption of ions at oppositely charged sites.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 121-138 
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    Notes: Abstract This paper proposes a model for color perception which accounts for variations in the dimension of the space of perceived colors. The model assumes that there is only one type of cone with only one shape of response curve, but that different cone's response curves differ by translation. It also assumes that the final discrimination system, learned from originally random connections, maximizes discrimination in the normal visual environment. Learning mechanisms are discussed, and the form which the final discrimination system ought to take is plausibly derived. An algorithm for the tristimulus curves is obtained from this model, and it is shown that a good fit of the empirical data can be obtained.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 187-191 
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    Notes: Abstract It has been suggested by Robert Rosen (Bull. Math. Biophysics,22, 227–255, 1960) that multiple alleles or pseudoalleles correspond to multiple cites of degenerate states of some quantum mechanical observable which acts as a source of primary genetic information. It is pointed out here that if the quantum mechanical states are determined by the different sequences of the purine and pyrimidine bases in the DNA molecule, the expected number of pseudoalleles would be much too large. The expected number is considerably reduced if we assume that a quantum mechanical state determines the coupling between a molecule of transfer RNA and the corresponding amino acid.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 147-166 
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    Notes: Abstract This paper describes a mathematical model developed to simulate the physical characteristics of the human thermal system in the transient state. Physiological parameters, such as local metabolic heat generation rates, local blood flow rates, and rates of sweating, must be specified as input data. Automatic computation of these parameters will be built into the model at a later date when it is used to study thermal regulation in the human. Finite-difference techniques have been used to solve the heat conduction equation on a Control Data Corporation 1604 computer. Since numerical techniques were used, it was possible to include many more factors in this model than in previous ones. The body was divided into 15 geometric regions, which were the head, the thorax, the abdomen, and the proximal, medial, and distal segments of the arms and legs. Axial gradients in a given segment were neglected. In each segment, the large arteries and veins were approximated by an arterial pool and a venous pool which were distributed radially throughout the segment. Accumulation of heat in the blood of the large arteries and veins, and heat transfer from the large arteries and veins to the surrounding tissue were taken into account. The venous streams were collected together at the heart before flowing into the capillaries of the lungs. Each of the segments was subdivided into 15 radial sections, thereby allowing considerable freedom in the assignment of physical properties such as thermal conductivity and rate of blood flow to the capillaries. The program has been carefully checked for errors, and it is now being used to analyze some problems of current interest.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 193-198 
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    Notes: Abstract A model is introduced in which the reabsorption of sodium is governed by an enzymatic process. This process is in turn assumed to be influenced by the extracellular volume which depends on the amount of sodium in the body at a given time. The model allows for damped oscillations when the sodium intake lies within range of values and thus can account for observed oscillations.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 167-185 
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    Notes: Abstract A neurobiophysical model is proposed for the explanation of some characteristics of schizophrenic behavior. The normal reactions to exogenous stimuli are mediated through a set of centers, while some endogenous stimuli result in abnormal reactions removed from reality, such as dreamlike states, paranoias, hallucinations, etc. The two sets of centers are cross-inhibited and the usual equations for such cross-inhibited systems are applied. In normal life exogenous stimuli as a rule result preponderantly in pleasant reactions, and the corresponding pathways are therefore reinforced. This results in an inhibition of the abnormal reactions. If the life history of an individual is such that a sufficiently large number of ordinarily experienced stimuli leads to unpleasant reactions and, therefore, the corresponding pathways are inhibited, the endogenously stimulated centers for abnormal reactions prevail and various schizophrenic symptoms occur. The same result may be achieved with a normal life history but through organic changes in the system, which differentially affect various thresholds and excitation parameters. The model thus leads to the conclusion that what appears now to be a large array of contradictory findings in the “organic” versus the “psychological” controversy is actually not a contradiction, but is a result of the dependence of normal and abnormal behaviors on a large number of neurobiophysical parameters. Some general comparisons between the conclusions drawn from the model and some known facts are made. The model also provides a first step toward a neurobiophysical interpretation of the mechanism of psychotherapy.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 31-42 
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    Notes: Abstract This report describes a method by which the concepts of the lead vector and the lead field may be extended to include equivalent cardiac singularities above the first order. The theoretical treatment results in generalization of the well-known lead vector principle into a lead tensor apparatus. The specific electrocardiographic contribution of annth order multipole is found to be the product of annth rank contravariant (“heart”) tensor by a covariant (“lead”) tensor of the same rank, and with identical indices. Methods are also described whereby lead tensor components may be cast into a form which relates them directly to the more usual, spherical harmonic notation of multipolar current generators. Some attention is devoted to the possibility of applying lead tensors to biomedical problems, particularly to the prospect of quantitatively evaluating the significant multipolar components of the human heart.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 43-53 
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    Notes: Abstract A simple model is presented for the formation of functional groups in a random neural net. They show the following characteristics: 1. They can maintain autonomous activity which might serve as temporary memory traces. 2. Early in the process of formation they become resistant to contraction. 3. Later they become resistant to expansion. 4. Nearby groups inhibit one another. 5. Two groups may contain some cells in common.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 55-68 
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    Notes: Abstract Quantum biology is the quantum mechanical study of electrons in molecules of biological interest. This requires the solution of problems involving many electrons. Approximation methods are therefore necessary and are discussed. The present study, concerned with the mobile electrons in riboflavin (FMN) and its radicals (FMN−, FMNH and FMNH2 +), is based on the approximation method, developed by B. Pullman and A. Pullman. The solution of the eigenvalue problems so obtained gives the energy levels of the mobile electron systems involved. The corresponding eigenvectors yield the mobile electronic charges of the atoms of riboflavin radicals which have contributed mobile electrons. Important differences of the net charge distributions of these radicals are emphasized. The longest wave length of light absorption is calculated from the obtained energy levels and agrees, within the accuracy of the method, with corresponding experimental results. From the appropriate calculated results, electronic assignments are obtained for the experimental transitions involved.
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    Notes: Abstract A postulated scheme for sequential enzyme synthesis coupled with linear chain reaction is proposed. Mathematical calculations are carried out for the transient-state formation of enzyme coupled with enzyme-substrate reactions. Examples are presented to demonstrate the relations between various operational parameters during enzyme synthesis as a function of time. Significance of the phenomenon of sequential synthesis is discussed in relation to abnormal growth and cellular injury.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 91-97 
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    Notes: Abstract By introducing a plausible model for the initiation of axonal impulses the output is obtained as a function of the input incoming impulses. If the temporal aspects of the excitatory process resulting from the afferent impulses are sufficiently rapid one obtains the discontinuous or microscopic model of McCulloch-Pitts. If these are sufficiently slow a continuous model, such as Rashevsky’s one or two factor theory, is a natural model. But the linear relation between the strength of excitation of one axon and excitatory factor of the next will not in general hold. However, under conditions which are not too restrictive the linear relation with threshold can be considered as satisfactory approximation over a fairly wide range of values.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 107-108 
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 217-221 
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 233-235 
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    Notes: Abstract With a view to future applications in relational biology, the notion of relations between sets is introduced and several theorems are demonstrated.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 223-232 
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    Notes: Abstract A mathematical theory is developed to explain the observed enhancement of O2 transport through solutions by hemoglobin. At high partial pressures of O2, ordinary diffusion through the solvent accounts for all transport of O2, but at low partial pressures the transport may be increased manyfold by the presence of hemoglobin. This phenomenon is explained and its possible role in living organisms is discussed. The theory also indicates a new method of determining dissociation curves from diffusion experiments.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 261-262 
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    Notes: Abstract A solution in quadratures is found for a special class of differential equations suggested by studies in the growth of competing populations.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 237-260 
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    Notes: Abstract The tremendous complexity of even the simplest living unit makes a correct theoretical guess as to its mechanism very difficult. It is therefore suggested that, following the example of the physical sciences, a number of purely abstract cases in molecular biology be studied mathematically at first. Subsequent comparison of the different conclusions of such an abstract theory with available data would enable us to decide which of the conceivable situations are likely to occur in reality. As a first step toward such a study the problem of the minimal size of a living unit is studied. Usually the minimal size is considered to be determined by information-theoretical requirements. It is shown that the minimal size may have a very different origin. It may be determined by the possibility that too small a system, even though performing all necessary biological functions, may not be viable unless it is a member of a large group of other similar systems. This approach is developed both from a metric and from a relational point of view. Some relational characteristics of systems of reactions which possess the elementary metabolic properties of organisms are studied.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 263-276 
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    Notes: Abstract In Yeh, Martinek and de Beaumont (Bull. Math. Biophysics,20, 203–16, 1958), a method is presented for determining successively better central multipole representations of the current generators in a homogeneous conducting sphere by measuring surface potentials at a successively increasing number of points. This paper generalizes the method such that the multipoles may be located at any chosen point in the conductor. The spherical harmonic expansion is advantageously used and the “interior sphere theorem” of Ludford, Martinek and Yeh (Proc. Cambridge Philos. Soc.,51, 389–93, 1955) makes possible disturbance potential expressions in closed forms. A method for approximate determination of the eccentricity is also presented. In the theory of electrocardiography, the eccentric multipoles can more accurately represent the heart as a current generator with fewer surface potential measurements than the central multipoles.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 297-303 
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    Notes: Abstract Given three primary events, occurrences or nonoccurrences of two response classes and nonoccurrence of both response classes, with their respective probabilities to be known, and assuming the first two events are disjoint, this paper deduces the error equation of the incorrect response and the latency equation of the correct response under the condition of correlated reward situation.
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    Notes: Abstract Schemes are presented for induced synthesis of the dissociable enzyme in which repeated use of the template is made. The role of the inducer is to release the repression. A mathematical analysis is carried out and expressions are obtained to describe the kinetics of enzyme formation. A practical case (penicillinase synthesis) is compared with theoretically derived equations by using an analogue computer to simulate an enzyme forming system. A good correlation between theoretical and experimental data is obtained.
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 23 (1961), S. 419-419 
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 199-199 
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 201-201 
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    Bulletin of mathematical biology 26 (1964), S. 203-203 
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 1-6 
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 64-72 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Vergleichende Untersuchungen an Diatomeen von verschiedenen Standorten der Gezeitenzone ergaben in allen Fällen eine beträchtliche osmotische Resistenz. Diese kann für die einzelnen Arten sehr unterschiedlich sein. Die festgestellten Resistenzspannen erreichen zum Teil diejenigen, die aus der Literatur für vielzellige Algen des Litorals bekannt sind, zum Teil liegt die Resistenz aber in engeren Grenzen. 2. Unter den Eigenschaften, mit denen sich die Diatomeen auch gegenüber starken Konzentrationsschwankungen behaupten können, tritt ihre Fähigkeit zur Erhöhung und Verminderung der Zellsaftkonzentration besonders hervor. Sie ist spezifisch verschieden stark ausgeprägt und wird durch Plasmolyse- und Turgorresistenz ergänzt. Möglicherweise werden die Zellen ferner durch ihre große Populationsdichte, Gallertausscheidungen und aktive Bewegungen vor der kritischen osmotischen Beanspruchung geschützt. 3. Für die Diatomeen des gleichen Standorts ist nicht ein bestimmter Resistenztyp charakteristisch; es können vielmehr Formen mit verschiedenem Verhalten am gleichen Ort vorkommen.
    Notes: Abstract Diatoms of littoral regions are often exposed to considerable salinity fluctuations. This fact suggests that these unicellular organisms exhibit osmotic resistances similar to those found in larger multicellular algae. The responses of typical representatives of the littoral diatom flora were studied after transfer into diluted or concentrated sea water. The technique applied made it possible to compare the results with corresponding data from literature obtained on green, brown and red algae of the tidal zone. The total amount of resistance of the diatoms studied may reach the values obtained on these multicellular algae or may be lower. The results imply the presence of mechanisms capable of flexible osmotic adjustments to salinity changes. In addition to their osmotic resistance sensu strictu, protection from the ill effects of extreme salinities may be of importance, for example, through the formation of jelly, variations in population density and perhaps the ability to migrate into more suitable conditions. All species tested have shown an ability for osmoregulation or for passively tolerating changes in internal osmoconcentration. Some may tolerate plasmolysis even for prolonged periods. Diatoms exhibiting quantitative and qualitative differences in osmotic resistance may occur in the same microhabitat.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 7-18 
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    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Summary 1. Oxygen consumption by a group of 25 lobsters was essentially constant over a range of ambient oxygen concentrations from 1.0 to 8.5 mg/l. Consumption by groups of 35 and 50 lobsters at 15° C decreased as the concentration decreased. 2. Oxygen consumption by individuals at 10° and 15° C increased as the oxygen concentration increased. 3. Oxygen consumption increased as activity increased with crowding. 4. Oxygen consumption almost doubled after feeding. 5. Oxygen consumption per unit weight decreased with increasing size. 6. The average rate of oxygen consumption by individuals doubled over the temperature range 12° to 25° C. 7. Oxygen consumption in air at 6° to 25° C was much less than in water.
    Notes: Kurzfassung Bei einer Gruppe von 25 Hummern wurde der Sauerstoffverbrauch in Dauerfluß-Respirometern gemessen. Bei 10° C erwies er sich als im wesentlichen konstant über einen Bereich der Sauerstoffkonzentration im umgebenden Wasser von 1,0 bis 8,5 mg/l. Bei Gruppen von 35 und 50 Hummern, welche bei 15° C getestet wurden, nahm der Sauerstoffverbrauch jedoch mit fallender Sauerstoffkonzentration etwas ab. Anstieg der Individuenzahl pro Raumeinheit (“crowding”) führte zu steigender Bewegungsaktivität und zu erhöhtem Sauerstoffverbrauch. Nahrungsaufnahme verursachte fast eine Verdoppelung des Sauerstoffverbrauchs. Kleine Individuen verbrauchen pro Gewichtseinheit mehr Sauerstoff als große. In manometrischen Respirometern stieg der Sauerstoffverbrauch bei hohen Sauerstoffkonzentrationen im umgebenden Wasser mit der Temperatur. Bei 6° bis 25° C war der Sauerstoffverbrauch in der Luft wesentlich geringer als im Wasser.
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary 1. The effect of exposure to air on the oxygen uptake, lactic acid production, and quantities of certain phosphoryleated intermediates ofC. depressus has been determined. 2. On transference to air, aerobic conditions with a reduced metabolic rate are first maintained; access of oxygen and water loss are controlled by the opercular micropyle. 3. Dehydration stresses then lead to occlusion of the mantle cavity and subsequent anaerobiosis. 4. Starvation results in a lower metabolic rate, aerobic or anaerobic, and a reduced demand for substrates now mobilized from reserves. 5. The reduced demand is also related to the amount of dehydration and the latter is so adjusted to allow viability over a long period. 6. Eventually toxic products kill the animal.
    Notes: Kurzfassung C. depressus vermag lange außerhalb des Wassers zu leben und stellt somit ein ideales Versuchstier dar für Studien über die Wirkungen von Trockenfallperioden. Es wird ein kurzer Abriß der bisherigen Ergebnisse über biochemische Veränderungen während der Luftexponierung gegeben. In Luft erfolgt eine Verringerung der Sauerstoffaufnahme, wobei der Unterschied zwischenC. depressus vom unteren und oberen Gezeitenbereich sehr ausgeprägt ist. In den ersten 7 Tagen steigt der Milchsäuregehalt geringfügig. Dieser Umstand deutet auf eine geringe anaerobe Stoffwechselintensität hin. Die quantitativen Veränderungen einiger phosphorilierter Intermediärprodukte werden untersucht. Die auffälligste Veränderung betrifft den ATP-Gehalt, welcher in den ersten 3 Tagen auf die Hälfte absinkt. Es tritt ferner eine deutliche Anreicherung von Glukose-6-Phosphat ein. Die Beziehungen zwischen dem Verhalten der Tiere, dem Wasserverlust und den biochemischen Veränderungen werden diskutiert.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 29-37 
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    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Summary 1. The rate of photosynthesis at varying amounts of natural sunlight has been measured for large pennate littoral diatoms which inhabit the sand flats of Barnstable Harbor, Massachusetts, and which exhibit vertical migration to the surface at low tide. 2. The algae require only 12 gm. cal./cm.2/hr. to reach their maximum photosynthetic capacity. 3. Full mid-day summer sunlight (75 gm. cal./cm.2/hr.) results in only a 10% inhibition of maximum photosynthesis. 4. Measurements of light penetration through the sand in which the diatoms are found indicated 10% of solar radiation reaches 1.5 mm. 5. At noon on a cloudless mid-summer day these species existing as deep as 3.0 mm. are probably above their compensation level, while those from 2.0 mm. to the surface are able to photosynthesize at 90% or better of their maximum rate. 6. The photosynthetic efficiency at low light levels enables these diatoms to fix considerable carbon even when the flats are exposed when the sun angle is low. 7. The migration pattern of these diatoms does not result in significant inhibition of photosynthesis but rather their photosynthetic apparatus is well adapted to such migratory activity.
    Notes: Kurzfassung Diatomeen der Sandflächen des Barnstable Harbor (Massachusetts, USA) wurden eingesammelt und ihre Photosyntheserate bei verschiedenen Quantitäten natürlichen Sonnenlichts mit Hilfe der C−14-Methode ermittelt. Es zeigte sich, da7sB die Diatomeen dem Lichtfaktor gegenüber eine sehr große Toleranz besitzen. Die Intensität der Photosynthese erreichte Maximalwerte bei etwa 14% des mittäglichen Mitte-Sommer-Sonnenlichts; aber selbst volles Sonnenlicht verursachte nur einen geringfügigen Leistungsabfall. Es wurden Messungen über das Durchdringungsvermögen der Sonnenstrahlung bis in die Sandschichten, in welchen die Diatomeen bei Niedrigwasser leben, durchgeführt. Diese Messungen zeigen, daß bei trockengefallenem Sand und an einem wolkenlosen Sonnentag gegen Nachmittag die Photosyntheserate die Atmungsintensität übertreffen kann, selbst wenn die Diatomeen 3,0 mm unter der Sandoberfläche leben. In 2,0 mm Sandtiefe bis zur Oberfläche kommt die Photosyntheserate unter den genannten Bedingungen bis auf 90% oder näher an die Maximalleistung heran. Der hohe photosynthetische Nutzeffekt bei geringen Lichtintensitäten ermöglicht den Diatomeen, beachtliche Kohlenstoffmengen zu fixieren, selbst bei niedrigem Sonnenstand. Der Photosynthese-Mechanismus ist gut an die Wanderbewegungen der Diatomeen angepaßt.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 73-90 
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    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Die negative Turgorregulation vonChaetomorpha linum nach Herabsetzung des Salzgehaltes im Außenmedium beruht in der Hauptsache auf einer Erniedrigung des osmotischen Potentials des Zellsaftes durch Abgabe von K. und Cl′. 2. Während der positiven Turgorregulation nach Erhöhung des Salzgehaltes im Außenmedium konnte umgekehrt eine starke Speicherung von K. und Cl′ beobachtet werden. 3. Das Natrium als wichtigstes Kation des Seewassers ist für beide Prozesse osmotisch kaum von Bedeutung. Die Änderung des Natriumgehaltes im Versuchsmaterial betrug in beiden Fällen nur etwa 10% der Änderung seines Chloridwertes und nur etwa 5% der Änderung seines osmotischen Gesamtpotentials. 4. Kalziummangel im Außenmedium führte zu einer starken Abgabe von KCl durch die Versuchspflanzen, welche dabei einen beträchtlichen Turgorverlust erlitten. 5. Die ebenfalls durch Kalziummangel bewirkte starke Verquellung der Zellwände wird im Zusammenhang mit der sprughaften Abnahme des Kalziumgehaltes der Versuchspflanzen auf einen Ionenaustauschvorgang zurückgeführt, bei dem das Zellwand-Kalzium durch Natrium ersetzt werden dürfte.
    Notes: Abstract Some algae of the intertidal zone are capable of regulating their turgor pressure. In 1896Drevs had already shown that this process is affected primarily by accumulation (positive turgor-regulation) or extrusion (negative turgor-regulation) of mineral salts and that transformation of stock material (e. g. starch) into osmotic active substances (e. g. sucrose) and vice versa plays no important role. His results are being confirmed by the present paper. InChaetomorpha linum (Müller)Kützing, lowering of salinity resulted in a significant release of potassium and chlorine (negative turgor-regulation). Changes in sodium content were only small. In algae exposed to a salinity of 30‰, the total sodium concentration was only about 10% that of the external medium. Salinity increase led to a marked accumulation (positive turgor-regulation) of potassium and chlorine. Even in this process sodium was engaged only to a small degree — despite its high concentration in the surrounding medium. In both cases internal changes in sodium content amounted only to about 5% of the total osmotic changes in the external medium. After transfer from 30‰ salinity into isosmotic artificial sea water without Ca··, a rapid loss of potassium and chlorine was observed. The abrupt decrease of the calcium content accompanied by a marked swelling of cell walls, leading to a significant reduction of cell space, is interpreted as ion exchange process changing the cell wall Ca.. against Na..
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 38-63 
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    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Es wird die Größenabhängigkeit des Sauerstoffverbrauchs vonArenicola bei Temperaturen zwischen 2° C und 30° C in Versuchsserien im Frühjahr und Herbst gemessen. 2. Da der Sauerstoffverbrauch je Gewichtseinheit bei den Würmern keine konstante Größe darstellt, werden die Parametera und b der allometrischen Gleichung: y=b·w a zur Auswertung der Versuchsergebnisse herangezogen. 3. Der Exponentα hat keine konstante Größe, sondern ändert sich mit der Temperatur. Sein Wert liegt fürArenicola im allgemeinen zwischen 0,7 und 0,8, was einer Zwischenstellung zwischen oberflächen- und gewichtsproportionaler Atmung entspricht. 4. Der Faktor b stellt die aus der Gesamtheit der Meßwerte — unter Berücksichtigung der Größenfunktion — berechnete Atmungsgröße eines Tieres von der Gewichtseinheit dar. b hat daher in der quantitativen Versuchsauswertung an die Stelle der einfachen Angabe O2-Verbrauch : Gewicht zu treten. 5. Die Temperaturabhängigkeit des Sauerstoffverbrauchs vonArenicola ist durch Unstetigkeiten charakterisiert, worunter Temperaturbereiche verstanden werden sollen, in denen der Sauerstoffverbrauch erheblich über oder unter den nach der RGT-Regel zu erwartenden Werten liegt. 6. Aus diesen Unstetigkeiten erklärt sich die geringe Temperaturabhängigkeit des Stoffwechsels vonArenicola in dem Bereich zwischen 10° C und 20° C. Eine zweite Unstetigkeit verhindert bei den Würmern im Frühjahr ein zu starkes Absinken des Stoffwechsels unterhalb von 5° C. In vielen Versuchen findet man hier bei abnehmender Temperatur einen erhöhten Sauerstoffverbrauch. 7. Die Lage und Ausdehnung der Unstetigkeiten verschiebt sich im Verlauf des Jahres im Sinn der Milieu-Temperaturen.
    Notes: Abstract A knowledge of the rate of oxygen consumption is very important for the evaluation of many physiological and ecological problems. Among the many factors affecting respiratory rate, water temperature and body size are particularly considered here. The modifying effects of body size may be expressed mathematically by the allometric formula: y=b · w a , where b represents the rate of O2 consumption of an individual whose weight is expressed in a chosen metrical weight unity (i. e. in grams, ounces, etc.), anda represents the decrease of metabolic rate during growth. InArenicola the exponent is not the same at all temperatures tested. In most cases it lies between 0.7 and 0.8, i. e., between a weight proportional respiratory rate and a surface proportional one. Minimum values fora were found in experiments conducted in summer at 20° C and in spring at 15° C. They characterize an optimum efficiency of metabolism at these temperatures. Determinations of b demonstrated that metabolic rate ofArenicola is significantly less affected in spring (10° to 20° C) and autumn (10° to 25° C) than is usually known from biological processes. However, the temperature coefficients above and below these temperature ranges are very high. Another break in the temperature-rate curve could be demonstrated below 5° C in spring.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 91-103 
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    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Junge Strandkrabben von 4–16 mm Carapaxbreite wurden bis zur Geschlechtsreife unter konstanten Umweltbedingungen aufgezogen. 2. Die Dauer ihrer Häutungsintervalle nimmt bei konstanter Temperatur mit der Körpergröße stetig zu. 3. Die Dauer der Häutungsintervalle hängt von der Temperatur und der Ernährung ab. Von der Tageslänge scheint sie weitgehend unabhängig zu sein. 4. Der relative Grösßenzuwachs bei jeder Häutung ist im gesamten untersuchten Größenbereich und bei den verschiedenen Temperaturen bei allen Häutungen gleich: Bei den Häutungen verdoppelt sich jeweils das Körpervolumen. 5. Augenstielamputationen und Verlust von Extremitäten wirken auf den Häutungsrhythmus in gleicher Weise: Die Schwankungsbreite in der Dauer der Häutungsintervalle ist vermindert. Die Häutungsintervalle sind in 20° C deutlich, in 10° C nur geringfügig verkürzt. 6. Durch die Anwesenheit größerer Artgenossen werden die Häutungen verzögert. Die optische Wahrnehmung spielt dabei keine Rolle. 7. Aus diesen Ergebnissen wird folgendes geschlossen: Der ausschlaggebende Faktor für die Auslösung von Häutungen ist ein bestimmter Größenzuwachs. Temperatur und Ernährung beeinflussen den Häutungsrhythmus dadurch, daß sie das Tempo des Wachstums bestimmen. Die winterliche Häutungsruhe in Freilandpopulationen wird nicht durch den Kurztag bedingt, sondern durch die Kälte. Diese hemmt lediglich das Wachstum, sie verhindert nicht die Häutungen über das häutungshemmende Hormon. Dieses vermindert vielmehr die Temperaturabhängigkeit des Häutungsrhythmus, indem es die Häutungen im Warmen stärker verzögert als im Kalten. Es gestattet die Anpassung des Häutungstermins an die individuelle Lage der Tiere. Es hemmt in Anwesenheit größerer Artgenossen die Häutung. Beim Verlust mehrerer Gliedmaßen wird seine Sekretion eingestellt, so daß die nächste Häutung vorzeitig erfolgt. Das häutungshemmende Hormon bedingt dementsprechend die große individuelle Variation in der Dauer der Häutungsintervalle.
    Notes: Abstract Young crabs (carapace width 4 to 16 mm) were raised under controlled conditions in the laboratory. The time intervals between subsequent moults increase at all test temperatures with increasing body size. The length of intermoult periods varies with temperature and feeding. It is not affected by day length. Moulting takes place as soon as a certain increase in size is attained. In comparable size groups, the amount of this increase is identical in all test temperatures. Moreover, the relation of increase to initial size is constant over the whole size range investigated. The body volume doubles at each moult. Eyestalk amputations and loss of extremities have similar effects: They shorten the intermoult periods at 20° C considerably, but at 10° C they do so only slightly; furthermore, the amplitude of fluctuations is narrowed. The presence of large specimens tends to retard moulting in smaller ones; this response is independent of visual stimuli. The following assumptions are made: Low temperatures retard the moulting rhythm directly by slowing down growth. They are not acting via the moult inhibiting hormone. Loss of several extremities causes a stop of hormone delivery resulting in shortened intermoult periods. Recognition by touch of a larger specimen causes increased hormone delivery and thus retardation of the subsequent moulting process.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 104-117 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Durch Untersuchungen an den natürlichen Standorten wurde versucht, den Nahrungserwerb und seine Beziehungen zu ökologischen Faktoren bei dem SchlangensternOphiocoma scolopendrina und dem FedersternHeterometra savignyi zu analysieren. 2. Die Aktivitätsphasen der ortsfesten, in der Gezeitenzone lebendenO. scolopendrina werden von den Tiden, den Wasserbewegungen und der Bodenstruktur am Wohnplatz bestimmt. Die wellenempfindlichen Tiere sind bei Hochwasser meist inaktiv. Der Nahrungserwerb findet in Gezeitentümpeln bei Niedrigwasser, an trocken fallenden Stellen nur solange das auf- oder ablaufende Wasser zu niedrig steht, als daß sich Wellen bilden können, statt. 3. Die Tiere sind zwar Allesfresser, doch überwiegt pflanzliche Nahrung. 4. Drei verschiedene Formen des Nahrungserwerbs sind zu unterscheiden: Absammeln oder -rupfen vom Boden (in unbewegtem Wasser), Filtrieren (in strömendem Wasser) und Abweiden des Staubfilms von der Wasseroberfläche (nur am Tage in auflaufendem Wasser). 5. Nahrungsaufnahme und -transport in den Magen erfolgen ausschließlich durch die Ambulacralfüßchen. Zum Filtrieren werden sie steif ausgestreckt und bilden unter jedem Arm zwei Filterkammreihen. Dieser Filterapparat ist sehr grob und nur in stärkeren Strömungen, die reichliches Geschwebe heranführen, wirkungsvoll. 6. BeiO. scolopendrina ist die Filtration nur für die auf trocken fallenden Habitaten wohnenden Individuen von größerer Bedeutung, bei den anderen überwiegt die Futteraufnahme vom Boden. 7. Aus den Untersuchungsergebnissen anO. scolopendrina muß geschlossen werden, daß die in größerer Tiefe am Meeresboden stellenweise massenhaft vorkommendenOphiothrix fragilis undOphiothrix quinquemaculata, die dort z. T. auf dem Rücken liegen und in der Regel ihre Arme erhoben halten, nicht, wie vielfach angenommen, herabsinkende Nahrung auffangen, sondern diese ausschließlich aus stärkeren und an organischem Material reichen Strömungen abfiltrieren. 8. Der Nahrungserwerb der 20armigen, nachtaktiven und in lagunenartigen Flachwassergebieten mit schwachen Strömungen lebendenH. savignyi geschieht ausschließlich durch Filtration feinen, vorwiegend lebenden Geschwebes. 9. Die Arme stellen sich, die aboralen Seiten gegen die Strömung gerichtet, nebeneinander und bilden zusammen einen einheitlichen flachen Filtrationsfächer, den bei einer Strömung von 2 cm/sec etwa 60 l/min passieren. Das feinmaschige Filternetz wird von den zwischen den Pinnulae steif ausgestreckten Tentakelreihen dargestellt. 10. Diese Befunde machen wahrscheinlich, daß auch die anderen Crinoiden, im Gegensatz zur bisherigen Anschauung, ihre Nahrung ausschließlich oder vorwiegend durch Filtration aus einer Strömung gewinnen, der nicht ein aus den oralen Armseiten gebildeter Fangtrichter, sondern die aboralen Armseiten als Filtrationsfächer entgegengestellt werden.
    Notes: Abstract At different seasons, long-term field observations, experiments and measurements were conducted onOphiocoma scolopendrina andHeterometra savignyi in order to investigate their food uptake mechanism and its relation to environmental factors.O. scolopendrina lives in the tidal zone. It obtains food in three different ways: in quiet waters it collects or plucks food from the substratum; in running waters it filters, and while the tide is coming in, it removes (during the day time) dry particles from the water surface. In the filtration process, the ambulacral feet line up and form filtrating combs. This filtering mechanism works effectively, however, only in currents having a significant speed and containing larger suspended particles. It is suggested thatOphiothrix quinquemaculata andO. fragilis also obtain their floating food exclusively by filtration from relatively fast currents rich in organic particles, rather than by collecting sinking particles as has often been assumed. Both species live in greater depths at the sea bottom, where they occassionally occur in great numbers. They lie on the floor, sometimes on their backs, and usually with their arms up.H. savignyi lives in shallow water areas having weak currents and feeds exclusively by filtration of fine, mostly living, suspended material. The animals arrange their 20 arms to form a shallow filtration fan and turn their aboral regions towards the current. The tentacles, stiffly stretched and between the pinnulae, form a fine filter net. Contrary to previously held opinions, these results suggest that the other crinoid species also obtain their food exclusively or predominantly by filtration from weak currents; it is not the catching funnel formed by the oral sides, but a shallow filter fan formed by the aboral arm surfaces that points toward the current.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 118-139 
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    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Abstract This review concerns itself with two aspects of reproductive biology: commencement of gametogenesis and spawning. The activation of gametogenesis followed by gonadal growth, with a subsequent release of gametes. The gamete formation-spawning cycle varies in duration from weekly to yearly periods depending upon the species and geographical origin. The importance of exogenous factors is discussed. Among those exogenous factors which can be demonstrated to affect the gamete formation-spawning cycle are food, salinity, light and temperature. Gonad growth constitutes a more significant fraction of the entire reproductive cycle than does spawning and gametogenesis. The time during which gametes are released occupies a small fraction of the entire reproductive cycle. Since spawning is such a dramatic act, it has been described in detail for many species. Numerous investigators have shown interest in the factors and relationships which work to insure synchronization of spawning. These studies are fully discussed. Some considerations of larval ecology in relation to parental reproductive patterns are given. Finally, the possible mechanism involved in coordination of reproduction is presented.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 153-154 
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    Notes: Abstract Anmerkung der Schriftleitung:Drebes Beitrag zumVierten Meeresbiologischen Symposion, Hamburg-Altona, 28.–31. Oktober 1963, wird hier nur als Kurzfassung wiedergegeben. Eine ausführliche Darstellung erfolgt zu einem späteren Zeitpunkt.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 140-152 
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    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Schlussfolgerung und Zusammenfassung Wir können also mit einiger Sicherheit sagen, daß diejenigen marinen Ceratien, die Mikroschwärmer (Nebenformen) bilden, diese als männliche Gameten verwenden, welche vom weiblichen Gameten, einer der vegetativen ähnlichen Zelle (nahezu?) vollständig resorbiert werden. Die Zygote dürfte beweglich und in der Form im ganzen ungeändert bleiben und in diesem Zustand die Meiosis durchführen. Ob Cytokinesen im diploiden Zustand eingeschaltet werden, bleibt zu erfahren. Im Gegensatz dazu ist bei Süßwasserarten die Zygote, oder ein ihr folgendes diploides Stadium, eine Cyste, deren einziger Keimlingsschwärmer die Meiosis durchführt; über die Gamie ist hier nichts bekannt. Die Annahme über den Zyklus der marinen Ceratien wird durch Beobachtungen an dem in Kultur reichlich Kopulations- und Meiosezustände liefernden phagotrophen marinen DinophytenOxyrrhis gestützt, welche wir kürzlich näher untersuchten (unpubl.). Bei dieser wird aus einer Isogamie recht kleiner, irreversibler Isogameten eine monadoide Zygote erhalten, die nach einer ausgiebigen Wachstumsphase im beweglichen Zustand in 2 Schritten die Meiosis durchführt und dabei 4 haploide Schwärmer hervorbringt. Auch hier lieferte übrigens eine cytologische Beobachtung den Schlüssel. Ein von anderer Seite (Dodge 1963) publiziertes und wiederum fälschlich der Mitose zugeordnetes Postzygotän der Meiosis, das dem „Knäuelstadium“ der Ceratien recht ähnelt, zeigte uns, daß auch beiOxyrrhis Sexualität vorkommt und veranlaßte die Nachuntersuchung. Die Schwierigkeit, die Zyklen solcher mariner Flagellaten zu erkennen, liegt also darin, daß der Kernphasenwechsel nicht wie bei limnischen Formen durch einen ihm parallelen Gestaltwechsel der Zelle akzentuiert und deutlich gemacht wird. Nochmals sei anerkannt, daß die vorgelegte Deutung nur durch die sorgfältige Arbeit der älteren Beobachter möglich war; nahezu alle für sie wichtigen Zustände wurden bereits in der Literatur bis 1930 geschildert.
    Notes: Abstract On the basis of older literature and our new observations, a hypothesis is presented to illustrate our present view on the sexual cycle of the Ceratia. In the fresh-waterC. cornutum it has been possible to demonstrate that the “Knäuelstadium” ofBorgert (1910) represents in fact the postzygotene of meiosis. Formerly the “Knäuelstadium” was considered to be a stage of mitosis but, contrary to this view, occurs only in the Praeceratia, i. e. the swarmers emerging in spring from the germinating cysts (Scoczylas 1958). The “Knäuelstadium” has also been observed in marine Ceratia, but in cells of normal shape (Borgert 1910,Schneider 1924), which therefore function as meiocytes. The microswarmers (truncata-, lineata- andlata-forms;Lohmann 1908,Apstein 1910, 1911, and others) are the male gametes which copulate with females similar to vegetative cells, and which in this process are completely (flagellums?) resorbed by the latter. Stages of copulation have been observed in preserved material byApstein (1911),Borgert (1910),Tschirn (1920) and by us, and in the living state inC. horridum also by us. The latter species is monoecious. The marine Ceratia therefore seem to be haplonts in which the zygotes cannot be distinguished from vegetative cells, neither by a resting stage nor by obvious differences in shape. The possibility of diplophasic mitosis, however, has not been excluded.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 187-201 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Summary 1. Methods are described for the sensitive determination of pristane and similar hydrocarbons in individual planktonic organisms and for the isolation of pristane from copepod oil. 2. Pristane (2, 6, 10, 14-tetramethylpentadecane) occurs in unusually high concentrations (1–3% of the body lipid) inCalanus finmarchicus, C. glacialis, andC. hyperboreus, and at lower concentrations in a wide range of planktonic animals from the Gulf of Maine and continental slope waters. 3. A predator,Paraeuchaeta norvegica, contains pristane at an intermediate level between that ofCalanus and the other herbivores, probably as a result of feeding onCalanus. 4. On the basis of relative abundance and structural similarity, phytol is suggested as the precursor of pristane in herbivorous zooplankton. 5. Pristane content is unaltered or increased during the metabolism of the major deposit lipids ofCalanus hyperboreus during starvation in the laboratory or in nature. Because of its low density, pristane may contribute to the bouyancy ofCalanus, especially when the other lipids are metabolized. 6. Pristane may prove useful as a biochemical integrator for the total assimilation of phytoplankton byCalanus. 7. Some planktonic organisms may be characterized by the presence of specific compounds, e. g. pristane inCalanus and several unknown compounds inRhincalanus. 8. Specific products of organisms of limited geographical occurence may prove useful as biochemical tags of water masses.
    Notes: Kurzfassung Pristan (2, 6, 10, 14-Tetramethylpentadecan) kommt in niedriger Konzentration in manchen planktonischen Tieren des Golfs von Maine, USA, und der Gewässer des kontinentalen Schelfes vor. Dieser Kohlenwasserstoff leitet sich vermutlich vom Phytol in der Nahrung der planktonischen Herbivoren ab. Seine Konzentration ist ungewöhnlich hoch inCalanus finmarchius, C. glacialis undC. hyperboreus, wo er möglicherweise als auftriebsregulierende Substanz in Hungerzeiten wichtig ist. Arten, wieParaeuchaeta norvegica, welcheCalanus verzehren, stellen sekundäre Pristanquellen innerhalb der marinen Nahrungskette dar. Die proCalanus-Individuum angetroffene Pristanmenge könnte als Indikator für die gesamte Nahrungsassimilation dienen. Pristan und andere artspezifische Stoffe können in das die Individuen umgebende Wasser gelangen und dann als biochemische Markierungs-Substanzen dienen.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 202-216 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Die Veränderungen der abiotischen Faktoren, die schon den frühen Untersuchern bekannt waren, werden besprochen. 2. Langfristige Änderungen des Salzgehaltes werden durch die Abflußmenge der Elbe bedingt. 3. Kurzfristige Änderungen der abiotischen Faktoren bringen die Gezeiten; ihr Ausmaß wird weitgehend von den Wetterbedingungen beeinflußt. Im Watt sind während der Ebbe je nach den Außenbedingungen starke Veränderungen im Chemismus festzustellen, deren Ursache z. T. auf die Photosynthese der Diatomeen zurückzuführen ist. Messungen selbst an nahe beieinander gelegenen Punkten bringen schon große Unterschiede der abiotischen Faktoren. 4. In einem durch Molen abgegrenzten Gebiet an der „Alten Liebe“ ist der Salzgehalt immer etwas höher als Folge seiner topographischen Besonderheit. 5. Die Wirkungen der Veränderungen abiotischer Faktoren auf das biologische Geschehen werden an einigen Beispielen erläutert, z. B. das Erscheinen und Verschwinden bestimmter Arten in einzelnen Jahren in Abhängigkeit von der Abflußmenge der Elbe und im Zusammenhang damit von der Höhe des Salzgehaltes.
    Notes: Abstract The changes of abiotic factors, especially salinity, water temperature, O2-content, pH and alcalinity in the Elbe river near Cuxhaven are documented. Long-term salinity fluctuations depend on the water outflow of the Elbe. Short-term salinity changes are caused by the tides. During the period from 1949 to 1953 and again in 1959, salinity was high (above 20% in summer). From 1954 to 1958, as well as in 1961, salinity was low, at times considerably below 15‰ At high tide with its increasing salinity, plankton samples contain more copepods and larvae of balanids and spionids since the maximum population density of these forms occurs in the polyhalinicum at the light-ship “Elbe 3”. If the conditions are favorable, the larvae can settle and start a new population. In a small locality near the “Alte Liebe” pier, marked off by two jetties, the salinity is always somewhat higher than it is in the river Elbe. In this higher salinity, populations ofCoryne sarsi as well as youngAsterias rubens were found in all years characterized by increased salinities (monthly average about 15 to 20%). In years with higher salinitiesTeredo navalis caused increased deterioration of timber work. Small water pools in the mud flat area showed profound changes in water temperature, salinity and pH. Their O2 content is very high due to the photosynthesis of diatoms, reaching saturation values of 320%. These extremes disappear quickly as the water returns at high tide.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 155-186 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Die Wasserbewegung erweist sich als ein Umweltfaktor von erstrangiger Bedeutung. Sie bestimmt weitgehend die Verteilung der Substrate, Anordnung und Gestalt der Organismen, besonders der Sedentarier im Felslitoral. Dennoch ist sie in letzterem noch nicht vermessen worden, denn auf Grund der Vielfalt ihrer Erscheinungen und mutmaßlichen Wirkungsweisen muß vorerst untersucht werden, welche Ursachen und Wirkungen überhaupt verknüpft erscheinen. 2. Die Vereinigung zweier Erfahrungsbereiche macht nun eine erste Zuordnung der hydrodynamischen Erscheinungen noch vor deren Vermessung im Biotop möglich: Ozeanographie, Geologie, Geomorphologie und Wasserbau bieten zusammen ein so großes, einschlägiges Material, daß schon eine Vielzahl von Bewegungserscheinungen im Litoral vergleichend erkannt werden kann. Die wissenschaftliche Taucherei im Litoral ließ durch die gewonnene Anschauung eine Fülle von Ursachen und Wirkungen verknüpfen. 3. Die bislang erkannten etwa 27 unterschiedlichen Verknüpfungsweisen werden nach 5 Gesichtspunkten analysiert und mit je einem Beispiel belegt. Der künftigen metrischen Bearbeitung sollen damit die Ansatzpunkte geliefert werden. 4. Grunderscheinungen: Die Staudruckwirkung läßt sich an Substrat- und Organismenfestigkeit, die der Durchflußmenge an Ernährung und Belüftung ablesen, jene der Wasserversetzung, z. B. an der Medusenverdriftung. Die Teilchengeschwindigkeit bildet die allgemeinste Meßeinheit. 5. Bewegungsweisen: Der streichende Wasserkörper trennt in seinen zwei Formen flächige und radiäre Wuchstypen, der schwingende verändert die Orientierung der flächigen Formen, der zerreißende führt zur Auslese von z. B. gepanzerten Schildformen. 6. Expositionsgefälle: Die Küstenexposition ist etwa nach den Halophyten-, Lithophyten-und Hydroidenzonen zu bemessen, das Gefälle bei zunehmender Tiefe nach der Orientierung der Hydroiden und Anthozoen in den kritischen Tiefen. Die Wirkung der Substratgestalt läßt sich der Hydroiden-Anordnung, die der Substratgliederung jener der Mikrofauna entnehmen. 7. Einfache Wirkungsweisen: Jeweils nach den Aspekten und den Ausschnitten (welche die Wirkungen bestimmen) getrennt dargestellt: a) Die Aspekte: Die Bedeutung der Substratfestigkeit wird durch die Aufwuchsverhältnisse in Blockfeldern, die der Störung durch die Hydroiden-Auswahl in Tangbeständen, die der Resistenz am Beispiel der Brandungs-Selektion erörtert; jene der Verschüttung, der Säuberung und des Scheuerns mit Vorgängen am Felslitoral-Rand, in Höhlen und Geschiebeböden belegt. Der Aspekt Ernährung wird an Hand des Wasserdurchzuges der höhlenbewohnenden Filtrierer, der der Lüftung am Beispiel der Abgabe von Fortpflanzungsprodukten geschildert. Befruchtung und Verbreitung hängen wiederum mit der Wasserversetzung zusammen. b) Die wirkenden Ausschnitte: Die Kennzeichen der Maxima werden aus dem Verhältnis Lithophyten- zu Halophytenzone, die der Mittelwerte aus dem der Hydroiden- und Sedimentzonen an den Felslitoralgrenzen abgeleitet, jene der Minima aus Mortalitätsverhältnissen unter künstlichen Bedingungen. 8. Komplexe Wirkungen: Expositionsbedingte Wuchsformen-Auswahl wird durch Reihen von Arten und Standortmodifikationen belegt, die Abwandlung der Filterformen an Hand der flächigen Hydroiden geschildert. Wuchsform und Bestandsdichte in ihrer korrelierten Abhängigkeit lassen die Hydroidenzonen der Höhlen erkennen. Die unterschiedliche Expositionsabhängigkeit der Ernährungstypen zeigt die Gegenüberstellung der aktiven und passiven Filtrierer.
    Notes: Abstract Water movement is shown to be a very important environmental factor. It largely determines the distribution of substrates and the position and shape of organisms, especially in sedentary inhabitants of rocky littoral areas. In spite of its great ecological significance, water movement has not yet been measured in these areas. However, earlier information obtained in the fields of oceanography, geology and geomorphology, as well as in connection with marine construction, offer sufficient background data to assess the major hydrodynamic phenomena in littoral habitats. Thus scientific diving made it possible in numerous cases to relate cause and effect. The relations observed are documented by one example in each case and analysed on the basis of 5 different aspects.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 231-245 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Sehr kalte und sehr eisreiche Winter sind selten von deutschen Hydrographen untersucht worden. Das Studium der Temperatur- und Salzgehaltsverhältnisse während des Eiswinters 1962/63 in der südlichen Nordsee ist daher von besonderem Interesse. Die Beobachtungsdaten stammen von 5 deutschen Nordseefeuerschiffen, den Helgoländer und den Hamburg-Hull-Route Terminstationen sowie von den „Uthörn“-Fahrten der Biologischen Anstalt Helgoland. 2. Bei den Feuerschiffen und bei Helgoland-Reede sind negative monatliche Temperatur-Abweichungen von 3° bis 4° C beobachtet worden. Die zugehörigen mittleren monatlichen Salzgehaltsabweichungen liegen dagegen weit über den Normalwerten. 3. Das Ende des Eiswinters wurde mit dem 5. März 1963 bestimmt. Eine Temperatur-und Salzgehaltsschichtung blieb auch während der kältesten Wintermonate erhalten. 4. Die vertikale Temperaturverteilung zwischen Helgoland und der Elbmündung zeigt, daß die Abkühlung des Meerwassers nicht nur von Ost nach West fortschreitet, sondern auch von der Oberfläche zum Boden. Sogar zur Zeit des Temperatur-minimums blieb eine bemerkenswerte Temperaturdifferenz zwischen der Oberfläche und dem Boden bestehen. 5. Die Anzeichen starker Vermischungsvorgänge entlang der Konvergenz der Deutschen Bucht werden dargestellt. 6. An Hand von Tabellen werden die wichtigsten Temperatur- und Salzgehaltsdaten zusammengestellt.
    Notes: Abstract Very cold winters with severe ice conditions have hardly been investigated by hydrographers of German institutions. In order to assess the hydrographical situation during the cold winter 1962/63, temperature and salinity information was used, provided by (a) five light vessels in the German Bight, (b) measurements obtained at several routine positions near Helgoland and along the route Hamburg-Hull, (c) data from the “Uthörn” cruises of the Biologische Anstalt Helgoland. Near the light vessels and at the Helgoland road, negative deviations of 3° to 4°C were observed (monthly means). The corresponding salinity values are far above the normal. The severe ice winter ended approximately on the fifth of March, 1963. Temperature and salinity stratifications could even be observed during the coldest winter months. Vertical T°C-distributions between Helgoland and the mouth of river Elbe demonstrate that the cooling of the sea water is not only advancing from east to west but also from the surface down to the bottom. Even at the time of the T°C-minimum, there is a remarkable T°C-difference between surface and bottom water. There are indications of strong mixing processes along the convergence of the German Bight.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 257-262 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. In der unteren Elbe zwischen Schnackenburg und der Störmündung wurden während des kalten Winters 1962/63 ungewöhnlich hohe Gesamtkeimzahlen gefunden, die besonders im Februar die bisher in über 7jähriger Untersuchungszeit gewonnenen Maximalwerte um ein Mehrfaches übertrafen. 2. Unter der Eisdecke fand im Fluß eine lebhafte bakterielle Nitratreduktion (Denitrifikation) statt, die einen sehr starken Rückgang des NO3- und eine kräftige Zunahme des NO2-Gehaltes im Elbwasser zur Folge hatte. 3. Die Ursache der extrem hohen Gesamtkeimzahlen dürfte vor allem in dem Zusammentreffen von geringer Wasserführung der Elbe und anhaltend niedriger Temperatur liegen. Die starke Denitrifikation ist in erster Linie auf den durch die Eisdecke bedingten Sauerstoffmangel im Flußwasser zurückzuführen.
    Notes: Abstract Counts of total bacteria showed an unusually high increase in the river Elbe during the cold winter of 1962/63. Especially in February the number of bacteria was repeatedly higher than the maximum values measured during the whole 7-year period of investigation. A significant reduction of nitrate (denitrification) occurred beneath the ice-cover of the river. This caused a high increase of the NO2-concentration of the water, as well as a great decrease of the NO3-concentration. The extremely high bacteria counts were caused by the coincidence of an unusually small water transport and low temperature. The intensive denitrification results from oxygen deficiency in the water beneath the river's ice cover.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 246-256 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Es wurde die Bakterienverteilung auf zwei Schnitten (Feuerschiff Elbe I — Helgoland und Feuerschiff P 8 — Helgoland) am 12. und 13. Februar untersucht. Die See war zu dieser Zeit mit Eisfeldern bedeckt. Es besteht eine eindeutige Beziehung zwischen Temperatur und Salzgehalt zur Bakterienzahl, d. h. bakterienreicheres Küstenwasser vermischte sich mit keimärmerem Seewasser. 2. Durch die Einschlüsse von Sedimenten in den Eisschollen findet eine beträchtliche Keimverfrachtung statt. 3. In der Erwärmungsphase 1963 findet eine starke Bakterienzunahme statt, die vermutlich vorwiegend auf Süßwassereinflüsse zurückzuführen ist. 4. Die vor Helgoland 1963 gefundenen sehr hohen Bakterienzahlen fallen mit zeitlich einige Wochen früher festgestellten sehr hohen Bakterienzahlen in der Elbe zusammen, während die Bakterienzahlen des entsprechenden Vorjahreszeitraumes in der Elbe und vor Helgoland bedeutend niedriger lagen.
    Notes: Abstract In order to count the total number of bacteria, the pour-plate method and a modified 2216 E medium (Zobell 1946) were used; temperature and salinity were recorded. Two cruises were conducted: one in the direction of the estuary of the river Elbe, the other in the direction of the open North Sea (light-ship P 8, located 25 nautical miles westwardly from Helgoland). The highest bacterial numbers were found at the stations closest to the mainland, and a close correlation between temperature, salinity and bacterial numbers was discovered. In other words, coastal water high in bacterial numbers and rich in organic substances was mixed with water of the open sea with a low bacterial content. To some extent transportation of bacteria via ice floes is responsible for the high bacterial numbers in the colder water. During the warm-up periods in early spring of 1963, a sharp increase in bacterial numbers was found in the samples taken in the waters at the permanent station between Helgoland and the nearby Dune. These numbers correspond with a decrease in salinity. The bacterial curves are to some extent in agreement with those found in the river Elbe in the winter and spring of 1963 byRheinheimer (1964). From all these facts it becomes apparent that the bacterial numbers recorded near Helgoland are strongly influenced by the water of the river Elbe, and therefore the effects of the cold winter 1962/63 upon bacteria of the coast of Helgoland are to an important part indirect ones.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 217-230 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Im Anschluß an frühere systematische Untersuchungen über die Wassermischvorgänge vor den Weser- und Elbästuaren wurden im Sommerhalbjahr 1963 im gleichen Raume sedimentologische Arbeiten durchgeführt, die zur Lösung von Fragen der offensichtlichen Beeinflussung der oberflächennahen Sedimente aus den beiden markanten Ästuarwasserkörpern beitragen können. Hierbei wurde gleichzeitig im Bereich des Eisenchemismus der Bodenoberfläche eine Beeinflussung aus Pleistozänhorizonten in den über 20 m tiefen Außenrinnen der Vorästuare evident. 2. Die Verteilung des anorganischen Phosphats (PO4-P in µg/kg Trockensediment) im Sediment nordwestlich des Feuerschiffes Elbe 1 und südöstlich des Feuerschiffes P 12 läßt in beiden Gebieten jeweils den Einfluß aus dem Elbe- und aus dem Weserästuar offenbar werden. Nach einem besonderen Verfahren wird hierbei das adsorbierte und vor allem das am Eisen in FePO4 z. T. irreversibel gebundene PO4 erfaßt. Der Phosphatgehalt beträgt im Zentrum der beiden Ästuarsedimentzungen (bei Elbe 1 und bei P 12) etwa 50 mg PO4-P/kg, während die entsprechenden Werte in den nicht aus den Ästuaren beeinflußten Zwischengebieten auf etwa die Hälfte herabsinken. Der Gehalt an PO4-P im Sediment liegt übrigens um etwa drei Zehnerpotenzen höher als in den überlagerten Wasserschichten. Es wird noch auf die besondere „Eutrophierung“ des Sedimentes westlich von Elbe 1 eingegangen, die ihre Ursache vor allem in der dortigen Verklappung von Abwasserschlamm der Großstadt Hamburg hat. 3. Die Korngrößenverteilung im Seegebiet vor den Nordergründen, also in den Vorästuaren von Elbe und Weser, spiegelt ebenfalls in etwa die Beeinflussung der oberflächennahen Sedimentschichten aus den übergelagerten beiden Wasserzungen wieder, aus denen feinkörnige Sinkstoffe von ca. ±50 µm Teilchendurchmesser zu Boden rieseln und zwischen denen (auf den nordwestlichen Nordergründen selbst und im Bereiche der Nordergründe-Tonne) die Sedimentkörnung zwei- bis viermal größer ist. Die durchschnittliche Körnung in den Ästuarsedimentzungen beträgt ca. ≦50 µm, in den Zwischenzonen etwa 100–200 µm. Die Sandkörner in diesen Zwischenzonen weisen oft einen hohen Grad an Rundheit (Rundschliff) auf, d. h. sie haben eine längere marine Vorgeschichte als die Körner in den Ästuarrinnen selbst. 4. Es folgt die Verteilung der gesamten organischen Substanz in den oberflächennahen, durchoxydierten (etwa 1–5 cm mächtige Oxydation) Schichten, wie sie auf dem Wege der „nassen Verbrennung“ mit K2Cr2O7 ermittelt wurde. Im Zentrum der Ästuarsedimentzungen und hier besonders im Kerngebiet der Elbezunge nordwestlich Elbe 1 steigen die Werte auf etwa 10% organische Substanz i. Tr. an, ein Maximum, das sich ohne weiteres aus dem Hamburger Abwasserschlamm erklärt. In den Zwischengebieten sinken die entsprechenden Werte dann oft auf Spuren herab. 5. Das sogenannte mobile Eisen, das ist das an die Sedimentpartikel adsorbierte oder zum geringen Teil auch im FePO4 gebundene Eisen (nicht etwa auch noch das in den Mineralen fest gebundene Eisen), das nach einem besonderen Verfahren mittels Ammonzitrat aus dem Sediment geholt wird, ist in den feinkörnigen Ästuarsedimenten wesentlich mehr angereichert als etwa in den sandigen Zwischenpartien. So belaufen sich z. B. die entsprechenden Werte in den Ästuarzungen auf 10–20‰ Fe/kg i. Tr. und in den Zwischenzonen nur auf ca. 1‰ und weniger. Die Feinstsedimente adsorbieren wesentlich größere Mengen dieses Eisens. Die sandigeren Sedimente auf den Nordergründen werden in ihrem geringen Eisengehalt weitgehend gesteuert von absolut betrachtet nur geringen pleistozänen Eisenvorkommen, die aber repräsentativ sind für eine ganz typische Verteilung eisenoolithisch umhüllter Sandkörner, welche in ihrer Existenz nicht nur hinweisen auf erodierte Pleistozänhorizonte, sondern darüber hinaus auch noch als Indikator für die Sedimentwanderung in der Nähe (10–20 km Umkreis) solcher Erosionsrinnen gelten. Die quantitative Erfassung dieser „rostigen“ Indikator-Sandkörner erfolgt durch Auszählung auf einer cm2-Zählplatte im Binokular bei 40facher Vergrößerung nach besonderer Vorbehandlung des betreffenden Sandes. Im Verlaufe der bisherigen Untersuchungen wurde bereits festgestellt, daß die sogenannten „Braunkornzahlen/cm2 Sandoberfläche“ im Bereich von 0 bis etwa 40 Einheiten darauf hinweisen, daß der ortsteinhaltige Erosionshorizont etwa 20 km und mehr vom Beobachtungspunkt entfernt ist. Bei Werten von über 50 und bis über 100 Einheiten befindet man sich in der Nähe solcher Eisenoolithe liefernden Horizonte. 6. In mehreren Darstellungen folgt abschließend die Verteilung der Sedimentkörnungen, des Gehaltes an mobilem Eisen und der aufschlußreichen Braunkornzahlen aus dem Gebiet der tiefen Alten Weser-Rinne nördlich des Roten-Sand-Leuchtturmes sowie ihres Vorfeldes am Westende der Nordergründe. Aus den Isolinienbildern geht eindeutig hervor, wie nicht nur die Korngröße selbst, sondern auch der Gehalt an mobilem Eisen aus der Pleistozänrinne heraus beeinflußt wird. Die Körnung steigt im Bereich der Rinne auf 600 und u. U. gar 1000 µm und mehr an, wobei gleichzeitig im Bodengreifer häufig „rostige“ Flintsteine und anderes Pleistozängeröll zutage tritt. In der Erosionsrinne beläuft sich ferner der Gehalt an mobilem Eisen auf ±1‰ Fe i. Tr., während die feinkörnigeren (aber nicht schlickigen) Sedimente in den Seitenräumen der Alten Weser nur noch Spuren an Eisen aufweisen. Und schließlich deutet der Verlauf der Braunkornisolinien mit über 100 Einheiten/cm2 in und vor der Rinne und in einem weiten Ausholen dieser Isolinie nach Nordwesten bis an die 20-m-Linie vor den Nordergründen auf die Beeinflussung der Sedimentoberfläche aus der Erosionsrinne hin.
    Notes: Abstract In the preestuaries of the rivers Weser and Elbe (i. e. in the area west of “Elbe 1” and southeast of “P 12” as well as in the northwestern part of the “Nordergründe” and in the “Alte Weser”), the effects of estuary river water on the underlying sediment surfaces have been studied. Another aspect investigated was the effect of eroded Pleistocene horizons on the iron chemistry of these sediments. These horizons are located in the area of the pre-estuaries of both rivers at a depth of more than 20 m below SKN. The oolitic iron-containing sand grains were quantitatively measured using a special counting method. They are spread out according to the hydrodynamics and bottom dynamics in the pre-estuary of the “Alte Weser” and in additional troughs formed by erosion in the Pleistocene of the estuaries. Thus they represent convenient and reliable indicators for the sediment migration in these troughs; moreover, they suggest the existence of such troughs, which are found only in the southeastern part of the North Sea. In general, it was possible to establish that the sediment areas located beneath the typical bodies of estuary water are especially eutrophic, containing 50 mg and more of PO4 phosphorus per kg dry sediment, 10 to 20% total organic substance and 10 to 20% colloidal iron. These data represent values equivalent to the third power of the respective concentrations in the sea water. — The variations in the chemistry of the interlaying sand zones in the “Nordergründe” concern primarily the iron factor and are mainly affected by the Pleistocene horizons.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 263-275 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Nach dem kalten Winter 1962/63 setzten die Erwärmung des Wassers und damit auch die Phytoplanktonentwicklung bei Helgoland früher als im Vorjahre ein. 2. Dies zeigen ebenfalls die Nährstoffuntersuchungen (N, P). 3. Gelöste organische Stoffe werden etwa zur Zeit des Temperaturminimums in großer Menge aus dem Boden abgegeben. Diese Absterbevorgänge dürften im kalten Winter erheblich größer gewesen sein als im Jahr davor. 4. Die komplizierten hydrographischen Verhältnisse erschweren das Erkennen und Deuten der biologischen Vorgänge.
    Notes: Abstract During the cold winter 1962/63 the water temperature near Helgoland was extremely low (Fig. 1), and the minimum value was reached earlier in this year than it was in 1962. Because the plankton bloom began with stabilization of the water column after the minimum temperature was reached (better light conditions), phytoplankton development started earlier in 1963 than it did in 1962 (Fig. 8). This earlier start is also indicated by the amounts of the nutrients nitrogen and phosphate found in the water (Figs. 2, 4, 5, 6, 7). It is assumed that the phytoplankton bloom is stopped by grazing zooplankton later in the year (Fig. 10). Soluble organic substances (Fig. 11) must come from the sea bottom during the coldest period. This decomposition was greater in the cold winter of 1963 than in the year before. However, the phytoplankton development in this region as a function of time is difficult to assess because of the complicated hydrographical situation, involving different bodies of water, different salinities, etc.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 283-300 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Summary 1. During the cold winter of 1962/63 fish mortalities were frequently reported over much of the North Sea to the south of the Dogger Bank. The sole populations certainly suffered the highest mortalities, but dead cod, plaice, whiting, dabs, turbot, brill and conger eel were also reported. 2. Fish began to die towards the end of February, and the numbers increased to a maximum in mid-March, after which they gradually decreased until reports ceased by mid-April. The development of mortalities was compared with the sea temperatures at the time. 3. The mortalities were on a large scale but not as great as previously reported for the cold winter of 1946/47; they may have been as heavy as those in 1928/29. Their distribution was more widespread than in either 1929 or 1947. 4. Analysis of fish blood serum showed abnormally high sodium levels in many fish caught in the colder waters. In some individuals the salt content appeared to approach lethal levels, but it was not known whether salt imbalance was the primary cause of death. 5. Flatfish were also attacked by a skin infection which certainly contributed to the deaths of many of these fish during the cold period.
    Notes: Kurzfassung Während des kalten Winters 1962/63 kam es zu Fischsterben in weiten Bereichen der südlichen Nordsee. Es wird über das Ausmaß dieses Sterbens, die betroffenen Areale und die geschädigten Arten berichtet und die gefundenen Daten zur Meerestemperatur in Beziehung gesetzt. Die Sterberate war geringer als während des harten Winters 1946/47, aber wohl ähnlich wie die im Winter 1928/29. Das betroffene Areal war 1963 größer als in den früheren Jahren. Viele Fische sind offenbar direkt durch die Kälte getötet worden. Dieser Umstand wird unter Berücksichtigung der Physiologie der betroffenen Arten diskutiert. Zweifellos wurden viele Fische auch durch bakterielle Hautinfektion getötet.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 276-282 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung 1. Am stärksten geschädigt wurden die zur Infauna zählenden Wirbellosen, wie die meisten Lamellibranchier, der GastropodeLunatia, die EchinodermenAmphiura filiformis, Echinocardium cordatum, Astropecten irregularis, die CrustaceenBathyporeia, Ampelisca undDiastylis, von den Polychaeten nur die fast sessileLanice und die festsitzenden epibiotischen Serpuliden. Weniger stark geschädigt wurden die auf dem Substrat lebenden vagilen Formen, wieBuccinum, Asterias, Nototropis. Kaum geschädigt wurden die mit einem kräftigen Grabfuß ausgestattete, im Schlick gut bewegungsfähigeNucula und vagile sowie hemisessile Polychaeten. 2. Am Leben geblieben waren alle gefangenen Vertreter der borealenMacoma baltica. 3. Kleine, beziehungsweise juvenile Makrobenthosformen sind ganz offenbar unempfindlicher als größere. Beispiele: jungeOphiura undLanice sowie kleine Polychaeten in extremen Biotopen im Watt. 4. Bei Einwirkung langanhaltender niedriger Temperaturen spielen für den Schädigungsgrad eine wesentliche Rolle: Wassertiefe, Bodenbeschaffenheit, tiergeographische Verbreitung und Körpergröße. Weiterhin scheint ein Zusammenhang zwischen Überlebensrate und Lokomotionsart zu bestehen.
    Notes: Abstract In the southern part of the North Sea, quantitative and qualitative samples of the macrobenthos fauna have been taken continuously since 1949. It was thus possible to assess the effects of the extremely low water temperatures during the cold winter 1962/63 (Fig. 1). Most benthonic species suffered considerable losses. Death rates were highest among the Lamellibranchiata, except forMacoma baltica andNucula nitida (in both species mortality rates were less severe), and Echinodermata, especiallyAmphiura filiformis. Death rates were lower in Crustacea and lowest in Polychaeta. In general, death rates of benthonic animals appear to depend on water depth, type of substrate, affiliation to different zoogeographical fauna groups, body size and, presumably, also motility.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 301-312 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Summary 1. Seawater temperatures at Helgoland were subnormal for six months during the winter of 1962/63 and fell to −1.3° C. Quantities of silt from the shores and estuaries of the mainland were released into the water when pack ice around the island melted in late February. 2. In a sample dredged from a ground near Helgoland in April, 1963, 40% of the lancelets consisted of isolated notochords. From comparison with a sample taken in November, 1962, it is estimated that at least 50% of the population died during the winter. The average number of animals per Van Veen grab fell from 6.9 before to 3.0 after the cold period. 3. None of the autumn settlement of newly metamorphosed animals survived, and there was a very high death rate estimated at 90% among the largest animals. 4. An analysis of activity in relation to temperature inBranchiostoma lanceolatum collected from Helgoland and Naples showed a temperature tolerance of 3° to 27° C in both populations with active swimming at temperatures of 10° to 20° C. There is no muscular movement below 3° C which is the lower limit of the normal winter temperature at Helgoland. It is suggested that the species is best adapted to Mediterranean conditions. 5. The pharyngeal mechanism cannot operate normally below 3° C and although it is considered unlikely that starvation was the primary cause of death, other effects of a reduced pharyngeal current may have proved lethal. 6. It is held that the depth to which lancelets of different sizes burrow into the substrate could account for differential mortality through cold.
    Notes: Kurzfassung Über die Hälfte der HelgoländerBranchiostoma lanceolatum-Population starb, als die Wassertemperatur während des strengen Winters 1962/63 unter 0° C herabsank. Dies geht aus der Analyse von Fängen hervor, welche mit Van Veen und Hensen Dredgen gemacht worden waren. In der jüngsten Altersgruppe der Population stieg die Sterberate auf 100% an. Die Empfindlichkeit von Individuen verschiedener Größe gegenüber niedriger Temperatur wird diskutiert hinsichtlich ihres Verhaltens sowohl im Laboratorium als auch im Grobsand ihres Habitats. Untersuchungen über das Aktivitätsmuster von Vertretern der Helgoland- und der Neapel-Populationen in Abhängigkeit von verschiedenen Temperaturen machen wahrscheinlich, daßB. lanceolatum eine mediterrane Art ist, welche sich nordwärts in den Englischen Kanal und die Nordsee ausgebreiter hat. Die Tiere sind nicht in der Lage, sich bei Temperaturen unter 3° C — wie sie bei Helgoland im Winter normalerweise vorkommen — fortzubewegen.
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    Helgoland marine research 10 (1964), S. 313-327 
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Summary 1. During the exceptionally cold winter of 1962/63 the south east coasts of Great Britain suffered the coldest conditions, but the coasts of Hampshire and Dorset, the Bristol Channel and parts of North Wales the greatest negative anomalies. 2. Northern forms were not generally seriously affected, but some Celtic and southern forms suffered very high mortality in the intertidal zone, particularly in embayed situations in the areas mentioned above. 3. Southern forms limited to exposed western promontories did not suffer much damage; marine algae were also little affected. 4. Death was caused, not only as a direct result of exposure of the tissues to extreme cold, but also from the general lowering of the animals' activity; for example, failure to remove silt by ciliary action, to cling to rock surface, and to burrow, led to many deaths. 5. Even where high mortality was experienced, a few, perhaps more resistant, individuals of the species generally survived in favourable habitats, so that distribution limits were little affected. Adaptive behaviour played an important part in the survival of many littoral forms.
    Notes: Kurzfassung Während des ungewöhnlich kalten Winters 1962/63 herrschten die niedrigsten Temperaturen an der Südostküste Großbritanniens. Die größten negativen Anomalien dagegen wurden an den Küsten von Hampshire und Dorset, im Bristol-Kanal und in Teilen von Nord-Wales festgestellt. Die nördlichen Formen wurden im allgemeinen nicht ernstlich beeinträchtigt, aber einige keltische und südliche Formen erlitten sehr hohe Verluste im Bereich der Gezeitenzone, insbesondere in mehr oder minder abgeschlossenen Buchten im Gebiet der oben erwähnten Lokalitäten. Bei den südlichen Formen der exponierten Küsten der westlichen Vorgebirge war die Sterblichkeit relativ gering; marine Algen wurden ebenfalls nur wenig geschädigt. Der Tod trat nicht nur als direkte Folge der Kälteeinwirkung auf die Gewebe ein, sondern wurde auch durch die zu weit gehende Herabsetzung der Aktivität (etwa unzureichende Zilienaktivität zur Entfernung sedimentierender Schlammpartikel, mangelnde Anhaftungsfähigkeit an die Felsoberfläche oder ungenügendes Eingrabungsvermögen) verursacht. Selbst in Situationen, in denen hohe Sterblichkeitsraten auftraten, überlebten im allgemeinen einige wenige (vielleicht resistentere) Individuen in günstigen Habitaten, so daß die Verbreitungsgrenzen nur geringfügig beeinflußt wurden. Bei vielen Litoralformen spielte zudem ein adaptives Verhalten eine wichtige Rolle für das erfolgreiche Überstehen der Kälteperiode.
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  • 100
    ISSN: 1438-3888
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology
    Description / Table of Contents: Summary 1. Exceptionally large catches of soles are made in the North Sea during very cold winters. It was considered that these catches were due to increased vulnerability of the fish to trawling at low sea temperatures, and to the concentration of fish into smaller areas, of high density, by the cold water masses. A third contributory factor was that the soles remained on the offshore trawling grounds for a longer time in cold winters. 2. Data from fishing reports, sole catches in different regions of the southern North Sea, and the positions of recapture of tagged soles in the winter of 1962/63 were used to illustrate the changes in the behaviour of this fish. 3. Although soles suffered high mortalities from low temperatures, predation, and from fishing during winter 1962/63, reducing the numbers of potential spawning fish, it was suggested that the failure of the coastal spawning fisheries was also partly due to a large part of the stock failing to migrate inshore in this year. 4. It was considered that since soles appear to be particularly sensitive to low temperatures there might be a direct relationship between the winter catches of soles and the sea temperatures. This relationship was investigated and seems to hold good, at least for the post-war years since 1948.
    Notes: Kurzfassung Während kalter Winter werden ungewöhnlich große Seezungenfänge eingebracht. Diese Tatsache hängt offenbar zusammen mit der durch das kalte Wasser verursachten Ansammlung großer Bestände in relativ kleinen Gebieten, mit der erhöhten Verwundbarkeit durch die Schleppnetzfischerei bei niedrigen Temperaturen sowie mit der längeren Anwesenheit der Seezungen in küstennahen Schleppnetzgründen.Solea vulgaris ist offenbar besonders empfindlich gegenüber niedrigen Temperaturen. Es konnte eine deutliche Beziehung zwischen Winterfangergebnissen und der Wassertemperatur nachgewiesen werden.
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