ALBERT

Note: Contents: Preface by Adolf Hoel. - Natural History. - Position and Topography. - Climate. - Ice Conditions. - Geology. - Flora. - Fauna. - Discovery and Exploration. - Rønnbeck and Aidijärvi 1865. - Austro-Hungarian Polar Expedition 1872-74. - De Bruyne Expedition 1879. - Leigh Smith Expeditions in 1880 and 1881-82. - Jackson-Harmsworth Expedition 1894-97. - Nansen Expedition 1893-96. - Wellman Expedition 1898-99. - Duke of the Abruzzi Expedition 1899-1900. - Støkken Expedition 1901. - Yermak Expedition 1901. - Baldwin-Ziegler Expedition 1901-02. - Fiala-Ziegler Expedition 1903-05. - Sedov Expedition 1912-14. - Brussilov Expedition 1912-14. - Andromeda Expedition 1915. - lversen Expedition 1923. - Persej Expeditions 1923, 1924 and 1926. - Worsley-Algarsson Expedition 1925. - Samoilovich Expedition 1927. - Expeditions in Quest of the ltalia and Latham 1928. - Norwegian Expeditions (Hobby and Veslekan). - Russian Expeditions (Sedov and Krassin). - Expeditions to the Franz Josef Land Area in 1929. - Norwegian Expeditions (Hvalrossen, Thorsnes, Hisa etc.). - Swedish Expedition (Björnöy). - Italian Expedition (Heimen). - Russian Expedition (Sedov). - Hunting. - Political Status. - Table of Expeditions to Franz Josef Land. - Literature. - Maps.

Note: Contents Preface Ackowledgements 1 Introduction 1.1 Definition and extent 1.2 The role of the cryosphere in the climate system 1.3 The organization of cryospheric observations and research 1.4 Remote sensing of the cryosphere Part I The terrestrial cryosphere 2A Snowfall and snow cover 2.1 History 2.2 Snow formation 2.3 Snow cover 2.4 Snow cover modeling in land surface schemes of GCMs 2.5 Snow interception by the canopy 2.6 Sublimation 2.7 Snow metamorphism 2.8 In situ measurements of snow 2.9 Remote sensing of snowpack properties and snow-cover area 2.10 Snowmelt modeling 2.11 Recent observed snow cover changes 2B Avalanches 2.12 History 2.13 Avalanche characteristics 2.14 Avalanche models 2.15 Trends' in avalanchf:' conditions 3 Glaciers and ice caps 3.1 History 3.2 Definitions 3.3 Glacier characteristics 3.4 Mass balance 3.5 Remote sensing 3.6 Glacier flow and flowlines 3.7 Scaling 3.8 Glacier modeling 3.9 Ice caps 3.10 Glacier hydrology 3.11 Changes in glaciers and ice caps 4 Ice sheets 4.1 History of exploration 4.2 Mass balance 4.3 Remote sensing 4.4 Mechanisms of ice sheet changes 4.5 The Greenland Ice Sheet 4.6 Antarctica 4.7 Overall ice sheet changes 4.8 Ice sheet models 4.9 Ice sheet and ice shelf interaction 4.10 Ice sheet contributions to sea level change 5 Frozen ground and permafrost 5.1 History 5.2 Frozen ground definitions and extent 5.3 Thermal relationships 5.4 Vertical characteristics of permafrost 5.5 Remote sensing 5.6 Ground ice 5.7 Permafrost models 5.8 Geomorphological features associated with permafrost 5.9 Changes in permafrost and soil freezing 6 Freshwater ice 6.1 History 6.2 Lake ice 6.3 Changes in lake ice cover 6.4 River ice 6.5 Trends in river ice cover 6.6 Icings Part II The marine cryosphere 7 Sea ice 7.1 History 7.2 Sea ice characteristics 7.3 Ice drift and ocean circulation 7.4 Sea ice models 7.5 Leads, polynyas, and pressure ridges 7.6 Ice thickness 7.7 Trends in sea ice extent and thickness 8 Ice shelves and icebergs 8.1 History 8.2 Ice shelves 8.3 Ice streams 8.4 Conditions beneath ice shelves 8.5 Ice shelf buttressing 8.6 Icebergs 8.7 Ice islands Part Ill The cryosphere past and future 9 The cryosphere in the past 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Snowball Earth and ice-free Cretaceous 9.3 Phanerozoic glaciations 9.4 Late Cenozoic polar glaciations 9.5 The Quaternary 9.6 The Holocene 10 The future cryosphere: impacts of global warming 10.1 Introduction 10.2 General observations 10.3 Recent cryospheric changes 10.4 Climate projections 10.5 Projected changes to Northern Hemisphere snow cover 10.6 Projected changes in land ice 10.7 Projected permafrost changes 10.8 Projected changes in freshwater ice 10.9 Projected sea ice changes Part IV Applications 11 Applications of snow and ice research 11.1 Snowfall 11.2 Freezing precipitation 11.3 Avalanches 11.4 Ice avalanches 11.5 Winter sports industry 11.6 Water resources 11.7 Hydropower 11.8 Snow melt floods 11.9 Freshwater ice 11.10 Ice roads 11.11 Sea ice 11.12 Glaciers and ice sheets 11.13 Icebergs 11.14 Permafrost and ground ice I 1.15 Seasonal ground freezing Glossary References Index

Note: Contents: 1 Natural conditions. - 2 Flora of Yakutia: composition and ecological structure. - 3 Vegetation of Yakutia: Elements of ecology and plant sociology. - 4 Vegetation and human activity. - 5 Insect impact on vegetation. - 6 Structural and functional pecularities of the plants of Yakutia. - 7 Nature conservation status and its prospects.

Note: Contents Preface Prelude 1 The Earth-atmosphere system 1.1 Introduction 1.1.1 Descriptions of atmospheric behavior 1.1.2 Mechanisms influencing atmospheric behavior 1.2 Composition and structure 1.2.1 Description of air 1.2.2 Stratification of mass 1.2.3 Thermal and dynamical structure 1.2.4 Trace constituents 1.2.5 Cloud 1.3 Radiative equilibrium of the Earth 1.4 The global energy budget 1.4.1 Global-mean energy balance 1.4.2 Horizontal distribution of radiative transfer 1.5 The general circulation 1.6 Historical perspective: Global-mean temperature 1.6.1 The instrumental record 1.6.2 Proxy records Suggested references Problems 2 Thermodynamics of gases 2.1 Thermodynamic concepts 2.1.1 Thermodynamic properties 2.1.2 Expansion work 2.1.3 Heat transfer 2.1.4 State variables and thermodynamic processes 2.2 The First Law 2.2.1 Internal energy 2.2.2 Diabatic changes of state 2.3 Heat capacity 2.4 Adiabatic processes 2.4.1 Potential temperature 2.4.2 Thermodynamic behavior accompanying vertical motion 2.5 Diabatic processes 2.5.1 Polytropic processes Suggested references Problems 3 The Second Law and its implications 3.1 Natural and reversible processes 3.1.1 The Carnot cycle 3.2 Entropy and the Second Law 3.3 Restricted forms of the Second Law 3.4 The fundamental relations 3.4.1 The Maxwell Relations 3.4.2 Noncompensated heat transfer 3.5 Conditions for thermodynamic equilibrium 3.6 Relationship of entropy to potential temperature 3.6.1 Implications for vertical motion Suggested references Problems 4 Heterogeneous systems 4.1 Description of a heterogeneous system 4.2 Chemical equilibrium 4.3 Fundamental relations for a mufti-component system 4.4 Thermodynamic degrees of freedom 4.5 Thermodynamic characteristics of water 4.6 Equilibrium phase transformations 4.6.1 Latent heat 4.6.2 Clausius-Clapeyron Equation Suggested references Problems 5 Transformations of moist air 5.1 Description of moist air 5.1.1 Properties of the gas phase 5.1.2 Saturation properties 5.2 Implications for the distribution of water vapor 5.3 State variables of the two-component system 5.3.1 Unsaturated behavior 5.3.2 Saturated behavior 5.4 Thermodynamic behavior accompanying vertical motion 5.4.1 Condensation and the release of latent heat 5.4.2 The pseudo-adiabatic process 5.4.3 The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate 5.5 The pseudo-adiabatic chart Suggested references Problems 6 Hydrostatic equilibrium 6.1 Effective gravity 6.2 Geopotential coordinates 6.3 Hydrostatic balance 6.3.1 Hypsometric equation 6.3.2 Meteorological Analyses 6.4 Stratification 6.4.1 Idealized stratification 6.5 Lagrangian interpretation of stratification 6.5.1 Adiabatic stratification: A paradigm of the troposphere 6.5.2 Diabatic stratification: A paradigm of the stratosphere Suggested references Problems 7 Static stability 7.1 Reaction to vertical displacement 7.2 Stability categories 7.2.1 Stability in terms of temperature 7.2.2 Stability in terms of potential temperature 7.2.3 Moisture dependence 7.3 Implications for vertical motion 7.4 Finite displacements 7.4.1 Conditional instability 7.4.2 Entrainment 7.4.3 Potential instability 7.4.4 Modification of stability under unsaturated conditions 7.5 Stabilizing and destabilizing influences 7.6 Turbulent dispersion 7.6.1 Convective mixing 7.6.2 Inversions 7.6.3 Life cycle of the nocturnal inversion 7.7 Relationship to observed thermal structure Suggested references Problems 8 Radiative transfer 8.1 Shortwave and longwave radiation 8.1.1 Spectra of observed SW and LW radiation 8.2 Description of radiative transfer 8.2.1 Radiometric quantities 8.2.2 Absorption 8.2.3 Emission 8.2.4 Scattering 8.2.5 The Equation of Radiative Transfer 8.3 Absorption characteristics of gases 8.3.1 Interaction between radiation and molecules 8.3.2 Line broadening 8.4 Radiative transfer in a plane parallel atmosphere 8.4.1 Transmission function 8.4.2 Two-stream approximation 8.5 Thermal equilibrium 8.5.1 Radiative equilibrium in a gray atmosphere 8.5.2 Radiative-convective equilibrium 8.5.3 Radiative heating 8.6 Thermal relaxation 8.7 The greenhouse effect 8.7.1 Feedback in the climate system 8.7.2 Unchecked feedback 8.7.3 Simulation of climate Suggested references Problems 9 Aerosol and cloud 9.1 Morphology of atmospheric aerosol 9.1.1 Continental aerosol 9.1.2 Marine aerosol 9.1.3 Stratospheric aerosol 9.2 Microphysics of cloud 9.2.1 Droplet growth by condensation 9.2.2 Droplet growth by collision 9.2.3 Growth of ice particles 9.3 Macroscopic characteristics of cloud 9.3.1 Formation and classification of cloud 9.3.2 Microphysical properties of cloud 9.3.3 Cloud dissipation 9.3.4 Cumulus detrainment: Influence on the environment 9.4 Radiative transfer in aerosol and cloud 9.4.1 Scattering by molecules and particles 9.4.2 Radiative transfer in a cloudy atmosphere 9.5 Roles of cloud and aerosol in climate 9.5.1 Involvement in the global energy budget 9.5.2 Involvement in chemical processes Suggested references Problems 10 Atmospheric motion 10.1 Description of atmospheric motion 10.2 Kinematics of fluid motion 10.3 The material derivative 10.4 Reynolds'transport theorem 10.5 Conservation of mass 10.6 The momentum budget 10.6.1 Cauchy's Equations of Motion 10.6.2 Momentum equations in a rotating reference frame 1 0.7 The first law of thermodynamics Suggested references Problems 11 Atmospheric equations of motion 11.1 Curvilinear coordinates 11.2 Spherical coordinates 11.2.1 The traditional approximation 11.3 Special forms of motion 11.4 Prevailing balances 11.4.1 Motion-related stratification 11.4.2 Scale analysis 11.5 Thermodynamic coordinates 11.5.1 Isobaric coordinates 11.5.2 Log-pressure coordinates 11.5.3 Isentropic coordinates Suggested references Problems 12 Large-scale motion 12.1 Ceostrophic equilibrium 12.1.1 Motion on an f plane 1 2.2 Vertical shear of the geostrophic wind 12.2.1 Classes of stratification 12.2.2 Thermal wind balance 12.3 Frictional geostrophic motion 1 2.4 Curvilinear motion 12.4.1 Inertial motion 12.4.2 Cyclostrophic motion 12.4.3 Gradient motion 12.5 Weakly divergent motion 12.5.1 Barotropic nondivergent motion 12.5.2 Vorticity budget under baroclinic stratification 12.5.3 Quasi-geostrophic motion Suggested references Problems 13 The planetary boundary layer 13.1 Description of turbulence 13.1.1 Reynolds decomposition 13.1.2 Turbulent diffusion 13.2 Structure of the boundary layer 13.2.1 The Ekman Layer 13.2.2 The surface layer 1 3.3 Influence of stratification 1 3.4 Ekman pumping Suggested references Problems 14 Wave propagation 14.1 Description of wave propagation 14.1.1 Surface water waves 14.1.2 Fourier synthesis 14.1.3 Limiting behavior 14.1.4 Wave dispersion 14.2 Acoustic waves 14.3 Buoyancy waves 14.3.1 Shortwave limit 14.3.2 Propagation of gravity waves in an inhomogeneous medium 14.3.3 The WKB approximation 14.3.4 Method of geometric optics 1 4.4 The Lamb wave 14.5 Rossby waves 14.5.1 Barotropic nondivergent Rossby waves 14.5.2 Rossby wave propagation in three dimensions 14.5.3 Planetary wave propagation in sheared mean flow 14.5.4 Transmission of planetary wave activity 14.6 Wave absorption 14.7 Nonlinear considerations Suggested references Problems 15 The general circulation 15.1 Forms of atmospheric energy 15.1.1 Moist static energy 15.1.2 Total potential energy 15.1.3 Available potential energy 1 5.2 Heat transfer in a zonally symmetric circulation 1 5.3 Heat transfer in a laboratory analogue 1 5.4 Quasi-permanent features 15.4.1 Thermal properties of the Earth's surface 1 5.4.2 Surface pressure and wind systems 1 5.4.3 Tropical circulations 15.5 Fluctuations of the circulation 15.5.1 Interannual changes 15.5.2 Intraseasonal variations Suggested references Problems 16 Dynamic stability 16.1 Inertial instability 16.2 Shear instability 16.2.1 Necessary conditions for instability 16.2.2

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1. Overview of climate variability and climate science. - 1.1 Climate dynamics, climate change and climate prediction. - 1.2 The chemical and physical climate system. - 1.2.1 Chemical and physical aspects of the climate system. - 1.2.2 El Niño and global warming. - 1.3 Climate models: a brief overview. - 1.4 Global change in recent history. - 1.4.1 Trace gas concentrations. - 1.4.2 A word on the ozone hole. - 1.4.3 Some history of global warming studies. - 1.4.4 Global temperatures. - 1.5 El Niño: an example of natural climate variability. - 1.5.1 Some history of El Niño studies. - 1.5.2 Observations of El Niño: the 1997-98 event. - 1.5.3 The first El Niño forecast with a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. - 1.6 Paleoclimate variability. - Notes. - 2. Basics of global climate. - 2.1 Components and phenomena in the climate system. - 2.1.1 Time and space scales. - 2.1.2 Interactions among scales and the parameterization problem. - 2.2 Basics of radiative forcing. - 2.2.1 Blackbody radiation. - 2.2.2 Solar energy input. - 2.3 Globally averaged energy budget: first glance. - 2.4 Gradients of radiative forcing and energy transports. - 2.5 Atmospheric circulation. - 2.5.1 Vertical structure. - 2.5.2 Latitude structure of the circulation. - 2.5.3 Latitude-Iongitude dependence of atmospheric climate features. - 2.6 Ocean circulation. - 2.6.1 Latitude-longitude dependence of oceanic climate features. - 2.6.2 The ocean vertical structure. - 2.6.3 The ocean thermohaline circulation. - 2.7 Land surface proeesses. - 2.8 The carbon cycle. - Notes. - 3. Physical processes in the climate system. - 3.1 Conservation of momentum. - 3.1.1 Coriolis force. - 3.1.2 Pressure gradient force. - 3.1.3 Velocity equations. - 3.1.4 Application: geostrophic wind. - 3.1.5 Pressure-height relation: hydrostatic balance. - 3.1.6 Application: pressure coordinates. - 3.2 Equation of state. - 3.2.1 Equation of state for the atmosphere: ideal gas law. - 3.2.2 Equation of state for the ocean. - 3.2.3 Application: atmospheric height-pressure-temperature relation. - 3.2.4 Application: thermal circulations. - 3.2.5 Application: sea level rise due to oceanic thermal expansion. - 3.3 Temperature equation. - 3.3.1 Ocean temperature equation. - 3.3.2 Temperature equation for air. - 3.3.3 Application: the dry adiabatic lapse rate near the surface. - 3.3.4 Application: decay of a sea surface temperature anomaly. - 3.3.5 Time derivative following the parcel. - 3.4 Continuity equation. - 3.4.1 Oceanic continuity equation. - 3.4.2 Atmospheric continuity equation. - 3.4.3 Application: coastal upwelling. - 3.4.4 Application: equatorial upwelling. - 3.4.5 Application: conservation of warm water mass in an idealized layer above the thermocline. - 3.5 Conservation of mass applied to moisture. - 3.5.1 Moisture equation for the atmosphere and surface. - 3.5.2 Sources and sinks of moisture, and latent heat. - 3.5.3 Application: surface melting on an ice sheet. - 3.5.4 Salinity equation for the ocean. - 3.6 Moist processes. - 3.6.1 Saturation. - 3.6.2 Saturation in convection; lifting condensation level. - 3.6.3 The moist adiabat and lapse rate in convective regions. - 3.6.4 Moist convection. - 3.7 Wave processes in the atmosphere and ocean. - 3.7.1 Gravity waves. - 3.7.2 Kelvin waves. - 3.7.3 Rossby waves. - 3.8 Overview. - Notes. - 4. El Niño and year-to-year climate prediction. - 4.1 Recap of El Niño basics. - 4.1.1 The Bjerknes hypothesis. - 4.2 Tropical Pacific climatology. - 4.3 ENSO mechanisms I: extreme phases. - 4.4 Pressure gradients in an idealized upper layer. - 4.4.1 Subsurface temperature anomalies in an idealized upper layer. - 4.5 Transition into the 1997-98 El Niño. - 4.5.1 Subsurface temperature measurements. - 4.5.2 Subsurface temperature anomalies during the onset of El Niño. - 4.5.3 Subsurface temperature anomalies during the transition to La Niña. - 4.6 El Niño mechanisms II: dynamics of transition phases. - 4.6.1 Equatorial jets and the Kelvin wave. - 4.6.2 The Kelvin wave speed. - 4.6.3 What sets the width of the Kelvin wave and equatorial jet?. - 4.6.4 Response of the ocean to a wind anomaly. - 4.6.5 The delayed oscillator model and the recharge oscillator model. - 4.6.6 ENSO transition mechanism in brief. - 4.7 El Niño prediction. - 4.7.1 Limits to skill in ENSO forecasts. - 4.8 El Niño remote impacts: teleconnections. - 4.9 Other interannual climate phenomena. - 4.9.1 Hurricane season forecasts. - 4.9.2 Sahel drought. - 4.9.3 North Atlantic oscillation and annular modes. - Notes. - 5. Climate models. - 5.1 Constructing a climate model. - 5.1.1 An atmospheric model. - 5.1.2 Treatment of sub-grid-scale processes. - 5.1.3 Resolution and computational cost. - 5.1.4 An ocean model and ocean-atmosphere coupling. - 5.1.5 Land surface, snow, ice and vegetation. - 5.1.6 Summary of principal climate model equations. - 5.1.7 Climate system modeling. - 5.2 Numerical representation of atmospheric and oceanic equations. - 5.2.1 Finite-difference versus spectral models. - 5.2.2 Time-stepping and numerical stability. - 5.2.3 Staggered grids and other grids. - 5.2.4 Parallel computer architecture. - 5.3 Parameterization of small-scale processes. - 5.3.1 Mixing and surface fluxes. - 5.3.2 Dry convection. - 5.3.3 Moist convection. - 5.3.4 Land surface processes and soil moisture. - 5.3.5 Sea ice and snow. - 5.4 The hierarchy of climate models. - 5.5 Climate simulations and climate drift. - 5.6 Evaluation of climate model simulations for present-day climate. - 5.6.1 Atmospheric model climatology from specified SST. - 5.6.2 Climate model simulation of climatology. - 5.6.3 Simulation of ENSO response. - Notes. - 6. The greenhouse effect and climate feedbacks. - 6.1 The greenhouse effect in Earth's current climate. - 6.1.1 Global energy balance. - 6.1.2 A global-average energy balance model with a one-layer atmosphere. - 6.1.3 Infrared emissions from a layer. - 6.1.4 The greenhouse effect: example with a completely IR-absorbing atmosphere. - 6.1.5 The greenhouse effect in a one-layer atmosphere, global-average model. - 6.1.6 Temperatures from the one-layer energy balance model. - 6.2 Global warming I: example in the global-average energy balance model. - 6.2.1 Increases in the basic greenhouse effect. - 6.2.2 Climate feedback parameter in the one-layer global-average model. - 6.3 Climate feedbacks. - 6.3.1 Climate feedback parameter. - 6.3.2 Contributions of climate feedbacks to global-average temperature response. - 6.3.3 Climate sensitivity. - 6.4 The water vapor feedback. - 6.5 Snow/ice feedback. - 6.6 Cloud feedbacks. - 6.7 Other feedbacks in the physical climate system. - 6.7.1 Stratospheric cooling. - 6.7.2 Lapse rate feedback. - 6.8 Climate response time in transient climate change. - 6.8.1 Transient climate change versus equilibrium response experiments. - 6.8.2 A doubled-CO2 equilibrium response experiment. - 6.8.3 The role of the oceans in slowing warming. - 6.8.4 Climate sensitivity in transient climate change. - Notes. - 7. Climate model scenarios for global warming. - 7.1 Greenhouse gases, aerosols and other climate forcings. - 7.1.1 Scenarios, forcings and feedbacks. - 7.1.2 Forcing by sulfate aerosols. - 7.1.3 Commonly used scenarios. - 7.2 Global-average response to greenhouse warming scenarios. - 7.3 Spatial patterns of warming for time-dependent scenarios. - 7.3.1 Comparing projections of different climate models. - 7.3.2 Multi-model ensemble averages. - 7.3.3 Polar amplification of warming. - 7.3.4 Summary of spatial patterns of the response. - 7.4 Ice, sea level, extreme events. - 7.4.1 Sea ice and snow. - 7.4.2 Land ice. - 7.4.3 Extreme events. - 7.5 Summary: the best-estimate prognosis. - 7.6 Climate change observed to date. - 7.6.1 Temperature trends and natural variability: scale dependence. - 7.6.2 Is the observed trend consistent with natural variability or anthropogenic forcing?. - 7.6.3 Sea ice, land ice, ocean heat storage and sea level rise. - 7.7 Emissions

Note: Inhaltsverzeichnis: Vorwort. - Zusammenfassung. - Abstract. - 1. Einleitung. - 1.1. Äußerer und innerer Bau der Torfmoose. - 1.2. Reproduktionsbiologie der Torfmoose. - 1.3. Forschungsgeschichte. - 1.4. Stammesgeschichte. - 1.5. Bestimmungshinweise. - 2. Schlüssel und Kurzbeschreibung der Sektionen. - 2.1. Schlüssel zu den Sektionen. - 2.2. Kurzbeschreibung der Sektionen. - 3. Schlüssel und Regionalfloren. - 3.1. Bestimmungsschlüssel. - 3.1.1. Europa. - 3.1.2. Asien. - 3.1.3. Afrika. - 3.1.4. Nord- und Mittelamerika. - 3.1.5. Südamerika. - 3.1.6. Australien, Neuseeland und Pazifik. - 3.2. Regionalfloren. - 3.2.1. Europa. - 3.2.2. Nordasien. - 3.2.3. Ostasien. - 3.2.4. Südasien. - 3.2.5. Südostasien. - 3.2.6. Westasien. - 3.2.7. Nordafrika. - 3.2.8. Zentralafrika. - 3.2.9. Südafrika. - 3.2.10. Madagaskar. - 3.2.11. Nordamerika. - 3.2.12. Mittelamerika Festland. - 3.2.13. Mittelamerika Antillen. - 3.2.14. Nordwestliches Südamerika. - 3.2.15. Östliches Südamerika. - 3.2.16. Gemäßigtes Südamerika. - 3.2.17. Australien. - 3.2.18. Neuseeland. - 3.2.19. Pazifik. - 4. Artbeschreibungen. - 4.1. Sphagnum sect. Sericea. - 4.2. Sphagnum sect. Lapazensis. - 4.3. Sphagnum sect. Sphagnum. - 4.4. Sphagnum sect. Rigida. - 4.5. Sphagnum sect. lnsulosa. - 4.6. Sphagnum sect. Acutifolia. - 4.7. Sphagnum sect. Squarrosa. - 4.8. Sphagnum sect. Polyclada. - 4.9. Sphagnum sect. Subsecunda. - 4.10. Sphagnum sect. Isocladus. - 4.11. Sphagnum sect. Hemitheca. - 4.12. Sphagnum sect. Cuspidata. - 4.13. Sphagnum sect. Mollusca. - 4.14. Ambuchanania. - 5. Verzeichnis der verwendeten Fachausdrücke. - 6. Literatur. - 7. Verzeichnis der Zeitschriften und Schriftenreihen. - 8. Abbildungsnachweis. - 9. Register. , Zusammenfassung in englischer Sprache

Note: Contents:PART I THE IMPORTANCE OF IMAGE REGISTRATION FOR REMOTE SENSING. - 1 Introduction. - 2 Influence of image registration on validation efforts. - 3 Survey of image registration methods. - PART II SIMILARITY METRICS FOR IMAGE REGISTRATION. - 4 Fast correlation and phase correlation. - 5 Matched filtering techniques. - 6 Image registration using mutual information. - PART III FEATURE MATCHING AND STRATEGIES FOR IMAGE REGISTRATION. - 7 Registration of multiview images. - 8 New approaches to robust, point-based image registration. - 9 Condition theory for image registration and post-registration error estimation. - 10 Feature-based image to image registration. - 11 On the use of wavelets for image registration. - 12 Gradient descent approaches to image registration. - 13 Bounding the performance of image registration. - PART IV APPLICATIONS AND OPERATIONAL SYSTEMS. - 14 Multitemporal and multisensor image registration. - 15 Georegistration of meteorological images. - 16 Challenges, solutions, and applications of accurate multiangle image registration: lessons learned from MISR. - 17 Automated AVHRR image navigation. - 18 Landsat image geocorrection and registration. - 19 Automatic and precise orthorectification of SPOT images. - 20 Geometry of the VEGETATION sensor. - 21 Accurate MODIS global geolocation through automated ground control image matching. - 22 Sea WiFS operational geolocation assessment system. - PART V CONCLUSION. - 23 Concluding remarks.

Note: Contents Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition 1. Images, Arrays, and Matrices 1.1 Multispectral Satellite Images 1.2 Algebra of Vectors and Matrices 1.2.1 Elementary Properties 1.2.2 Square Matrices 1.2.3 Singular Matrices 1.2.4 Symmetric, Positive Definite Matrices 1.2.5 Linear Dependence and Vector Spaces 1.3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors 1.4 Singular Value Decomposition 1.5 Vector Derivatives 1.6 Finding Minima and Maxima 1.7 Exercises 2. Image Statistics 2.1 Random Variables 2.1.1 Discrete Random Variables 2.1.2 Continuous Random Variables 2.1.3 Normal Distribution 2.2 Random Vectors 2.3 Parameter Estimation 2.3.1 Sampling a Distribution 2.3.2 Interval Estimation 2.3.3 Provisional Means 2.4 Hypothesis Testing and Sample Distribution Functions 2.4.1 Chi-Square Distribution 2.4.2 Student-t Distribution 2.4.3 F-Distribution 2.5 Conditional Probabilities, Bayes' Theorem, and Classification 2.6 Ordinary Linear Regression 2.6.1 One Independent Variable 2.6.2 More Than One Independent Variable 2.6.3 Regularization, Duality, and the Gram Matrix 2.7 Entropy and Information 2.7.1 Kullback-Leibler Divergence 2.7.2 Mutual Information 2.8 Exercises 3. Transformations 3.1 Discrete Fourier Transform 3.2 Discrete Wavelet Transform 3.2.1 Haar Wavelets 3.2.2 Image Compression 3.2.3 Multiresolution Analysis 3.2.3.1 Dilation Equation and Refinement Coefficients 3.2.3.2 Cascade Algorithm 3.2.3.3 Mother Wavelet 3.2.3.4 Daubechies D4 Scaling Function 3.3 Principal Components 3.3.1 Primal Solution 3.3.2 Dual Solution 3.4 Minimum Noise Fraction 3.4.1 Additive Noise 3.4.2 Minimum Noise Fraction Transformation in ENVI 3.5 Spatial Correlation 3.5.1 Maximum Autocorrelation Factor 3.5.2 Noise Estimation 3.6 Exercises 4. Filters, Kernels, and Fields 4.1 Convolution Theorem 4.2 Linear Filters 4.3 Wavelets and Filter Banks 4.3.1 One-Dimensional Arrays 4.3.2 Two-Dimensional Arrays 4.4 Kernel Methods 4.4.1 Valid Kernels 4.4.2 Kernel PCA 4.5 Gibbs-Markov Random Fields 4.6 Exercises 5. Image Enhancement and Correction 5.1 Lookup Tables and Histogram Functions 5.2 Filtering and Feature Extraction 5.2.1 Edge Detection 5.2.2 Invariant Moments 5.3 Panchromatic Sharpening 5.3.1 HSV Fusion 5.3.2 Brovey Fusion 5.3.3 PCA Fusion 5.3.4 DWT Fusion 5.3.5 A Trous Fusion 5.3.6 Quality Index 5.4 Topographic Correction 5.4.1 Rotation, Scaling, and Translation 5.4.2 Imaging Transformations 5.4.3 Camera Models and RFM Approximations 5.4.4 Stereo Imaging and Digital Elevation Models 5.4.5 Slope and Aspect 5.4.6 Illumination Correction 5.5 Image-Image Registration 5.5.1 Frequency-Domain Registration 5.5.2 Feature Matching 5.5.2.1 High-Pass Filtering 5.5.2.2 Closed Contours 5.5.2.3 Chain Codes and Moments 5.5.2.4 Contour Matching 5.5.2.5 Consistency Check 5.5.2.6 Implementation in IDL 5.5.3 Resampling and Warping 5.6 Exercises 6. Supervised Classification: Part 1 6.1 Maximum a Posteriori Probability 6.2 Training Data and Separability 6.3 Maximum Likelihood Classification 6.3.1 ENVI's Maximum Likelihood Classifier 6.3.2 Modified Maximum Likelihood Classifier 6.4 Gaussian Kernel Classification 6.5 Neural Networks 6.5.1 Neural Network Classifier 6.5.2 Cost Functions 6.5.3 Backpropagation 6.5.4 Overfitting and Generalization 6.6 Support Vector Machines 6.6.1 Linearly Separable Classes 6.6.1.1 Primal Formulation 6.6.1.2 Dual Formulation 6.6.1.3 Quadratic Programming and Support Vectors 6.6.2 Overlapping Classes 6.6.3 Solution with Sequential Minimal Optimization 6.6.4 Multiclass SVMs 6.6.5 Kernel Substitution 6.6.6 Modified SVM Classifier 6.7 Exercises 7. Supervised Classification: Part 2 7.1 Postprocessing 7.1.1 Majority Filtering 7.1.2 Probabilistic Label Relaxation 7.2 Evaluation and Comparison of Classification Accuracy 7.2.1 Accuracy Assessment 7.2.2 Model Comparison 7.3 Adaptive Boosting 7.4 Hyperspectral Analysis 7.4.1 Spectral Mixture Modeling 7.4.2 Unconstrained Linear Unmixing 7.4.3 Intrinsic End-Members and Pixel Purity 7.5 Exercises 8. Unsupervised Classification 8.1 Simple Cost Functions 8.2 Algorithms That Minimize the Simple Cost Functions 8.2.1 K-Means Clustering 8.2.2 Kernel K-Means Clustering 8.2.3 Extended K-Means Clustering 8.2.4 Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering 8.2.5 Fuzzy K-Means Clustering 8.3 Gaussian Mixture Clustering 8.3.1 Expectation Maximization 8.3.2 Simulated Annealing 8.3.3 Partition Density 8.3.4 Implementation Notes 8.4 Including Spatial Information 8.4.1 Multiresolution Clustering 8.4.2 Spatial Clustering 8.5 Benchmark 8.6 Kohonen Self-Organizing Map 8.7 Image Segmentation 8.7.1 Segmenting a Classified Image 8.7.2 Object-Based Classification 8.7.3 Mean Shift 8.8 Exercises 9. Change Detection 9.1 Algebraic Methods 9.2 Postclassification Comparison 9.3 Principal Components Analysis 9.3.1 Iterated PCA 9.3.2 Kernel PCA 9.4 Multivariate Alteration Detection 9.4.1 Canonical Correlation Analysis 9.4.2 Orthogonality Properties 9.4.3 Scale Invariance 9.4.4 Iteratively Reweighted MAD 9.4.5 Correlation with the Original Observations 9.4.6 Regularization 9.4.7 Postprocessing 9.5 Decision Thresholds and Unsupervised Classification of Changes 9.6 Radiometrie Normalization 9.7 Exercises Appendix A: Mathematical Tools A.l Cholesky Decomposition A.2 Vector and Inner Product Spaces A.3 Least Squares Procedures A.3.1 Recursive Linear Regression A.3.2 Orthogonal Linear Regression Appendix B: Efficient Neural Network Training Algorithms B.1 Hessian Matrix B.1.1 R-Operator B.1.1.1 Determination of Rv{n} B.1.1.2 Determination of Rv{δo} B.1.1.3 Determination of Rv{δh} B.1.2 Calculating the Hessian B.2 Scaled Conjugate Gradient Training B.2.1 Conjugate Directions B.2.2 Minimizing a Quadratic Function B.2.3 Algorithm B.3 Kaiman Filter Training B.3.1 Linearization B.3.2 Algorithm B.4 A Neural Network Classifier with Hybrid Training Appendix C: ENVI Extensions in IDL C.1 Installation C.2 Extensions C.2.1 Kernel Principal Components Analysis C.2.2 Discrete Wavelet Transform Fusion C.2.3 A Trous Wavelet Transform Fusion C.2.4 Quality Index C.2.5 Calculating Heights of Man-Made Structures in High-Resolution Imagery C.2.6 Illumination Correction C.2.7 Image Registration C.2.8 Maximum Likelihood Classification C.2.9 Gaussian Kernel Classification C.2.10 Neural Network Classification C.2.11 Support Vector Machine Classification C.2.12 Probabilistic Label Relaxation C.2.13 Classifier Evaluation and Comparison C.2.14 Adaptive Boosting a Neural Network Classifier C.2.15 Kernel K-Means Clustering C.2.16 Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering C.2.17 Fuzzy K-Means Clustering C.2.18 Gaussian Mixture Clustering C.2.19 Kohonen Self-Organizing Map C.2.20 Classified Image Segmentation C.2.21 Mean Shift Segmentation C.2.22 Multivariate Alteration Detection C.2.23 Viewing Changes C.2.24 Radiometric Normalization Appendix D: Mathematical Notation References Index

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1 Cosmic rays. - 1.1 Origin and nature of cosmic rays. - 1.2 Interaction with magnetic fields. - 1.3 Interactions with the Earth's atmosphere. - 1.4 Interactions with the Earth's surface. - 1.5 Production of cosmogenic nuclides. - 1.6 Detection of cosmic rays. - 2 Cosmogenic nuclides. - 2.1 'Useful' cosmogenic nuclides. - 2.2 Stable cosmogenic nuclides. - 2.3 Cosmogenic radionuclides. - 2.4 Sample preparation. - 2.5 Analytical methods. - 3 Production rates and scaling factors. - 3.1 Deriving production rates. - 3.2 Scaling factors. - 3.3 Building scaling factors. - 4 Application of cosmogenic nuclldes to Earth surface sciences. - 4.1 Exposure dating. - 4.2 Burial dating. - 4.3 Erosion/denudation rates. - 4.4 Uplift rates. - 4.5 Soil dynamics. - 4.6 Dealing with uncertainty. - Appendix A: Sampling checklist. - Appendix B: Reporting of cosrnogenic-nudide data for exposure age and erosion rate determinations. - References. - Index.

Note: Contents: Preface. - 1. Introduction. - 1.1 The environment of the polar regions. - 1.2 The role of the polar regions in the global climate system. - 1.3 Possible implications of high latitude climate change. - 2. Polar climate data and models. - 2.1 Introduction. - 2.2 Instrumental observations. - 2.3 Meteorological analysis fields. - 2.4 Remotely sensed data. - 2.5 Proxy climate data. - 2.6 Models. - 3. The high latitude climates and mechanisms of change. - 3.1 Introduction. - 3.2 Factors influencing the broadscale climated of the polar regions. - 3.3 Processes of the high latitude climates. - 3.4 The mechanisms of high latitude climate change. - 3.5 Atmospheric circulation. - 3.6 Temperature. - 3.7 Cloud and precipitation. - 3.8 Sea ice. - 3.9 The ocean circulation. - 3.10 Concluding remarks. - 4. The last million years. - 4.1 Introduction. - 4.2 The Arctic. - 4.3 The Antarctic. - 4.4 Linking high latitude climate change in the two hemispheres. - 5. The Holocene. - 5.1 Introduction. - 5.2 Forcing of the climate system during the Holocene. - 5.3 Atmospheric circulation. - 5.4 Temperature. - 5.5 The ocean circulation. - 5.6 Sea ice and sea surface temperatures. - 5.7 Atmospheric gases and aerosols. - 5.8 The cryosphere, precipitation and sea level. - 5.9 Concluding remarks. - 6. The instrumental period. - 6.1 Introduction. - 6.2 The main meteorological elements. - 6.3 Changes in the atmospheric circulation. - 6.4 The ocean environment. - 6.5 Sea ice. - 6.6. Snow cover. - 6.7 Permafrost. - 6.8 Atmospheric gases and aerosols. - 6.9 Terrestrial ice and sea level. - 6.10 Attribution of recent changes. - 6.11 Concluding remarks. - 7. Predictions for the next 100 years. - 7.1 Introduction. - 7.2 Possible future greenhouse gas emission scenarios and the IPCC models. - 7.3 Changes in the atmospheric circulation and the modes of climate variability. - 7.4 The main meteorological elements. - 7.5 The ocean circulation and water masses. - 7.6 Sea ice. - 7.7 Seasonal snow cover and the terrestrial environment. - 7.8 Permafrost. - 7.9 Atmospheric gases and aerosols. - 7.10 Terrestrial ice, the ice shelves and sea level. - 7.11 Concluding remarks. - 8. Summary and future research needs. - 8.1 Introduction. - 8.2 Gaining improved understanding of past climate change. - 8.3 Modelling the high latitude climate system. - 8.4 Data required. - 8.5 Concluding remarks. - References. - Index.

Note: Contents: List of Contributors. - Preface. - Part I. Introduction: 1. Applications and uses of diatoms: prologue ; 2. The diatoms: a primer ; 3. Numerical methods for the analysis of diatom assemblage data ; Part II. Diatoms as indicators of environmental change in flowing waters and lakes: 4. Assessing environmental conditions in rivers and streams with diatoms ; 5. Diatoms as indicators of long-term environmental change in rivers, fluvial lakes and impoundments ; 6. Diatoms as indicators of surface-water acidity ; 7. Diatoms as indicators of lake eutrophication ; 8. Diatoms as indicators of environmental change in shallow lakes ; 9. Diatoms as indicators of water-level change in freshwater lakes ; 10. Diatoms as indicators of hydrologic and climatic change in saline lakes ; 11. Diatoms in ancient lakes ; Part III. Diatoms as Indicators in Arctic, Antarctic and alpine lacustrine environments: 12. Diatoms as indicators of environmental change in subarctic and alpine regions ; 13. Freshwater diatoms as indicators of environmental change in the High Arctic ; 14. Diatoms as indicators of environmental change in Antarctic and subantarctic freshwaters ; Part IV. Diatoms as indicators in marine and estuarine environments: 15. Diatoms and environmental change in large brackish-water ecosystems ; 16. Applied diatom studies in estuaries and shallow coastal environments ; 17. Estuarine paleoenvironmental reconstructions using diatoms ; 18. Diatoms on coral reefs and in tropical marine lakes ; 19. Diatoms as indicators of former sea levels, earthquakes, tsunamis and hurricanes ; 20. Marine diatoms as indicators of modern changes in oceanographic conditions ; 21. Holocene marine diatom records of environmental change ; 22. Diatoms as indicators of paleoceanographic events ; 23. Reconsidering the meaning of biogenic silica accumulation rates in the glacial Southern Ocean ; Part V. Other applications: 24. Diatoms of aerial habitats ; 25. Diatoms as indicators of environmental change in wetlands and peatlands ; 26. Tracking fish, seabirds, and wildlife population dynamics with diatoms and other limnological indicators ; 27. Diatoms and archaeology ; 28. Diatoms in oil and gas exploration ; 29. Forensic science and diatoms ; 30. Toxic marine diatoms ; 31. Diatoms as markers of atmospheric transport ; 32. Diatoms as nonnative species ; 33. Diatomite ; 34. Stable isotopes from diatom silica ; 35. Diatoms and nanotechnology: early history and imagined future as seen through patents ; Part IV. Conclusions: 36. Epilogue: a view to the future ; Glossary, acronyms, and abbreviations ; Index.

Note: Contents Preface 1 Introduction 1.1 The necessity for measurements 1.2 Definition of a measurement 1.3 Historical aspects 2 Measurement basics 2.1 Overview of methods 2.1.1 Direct and indirect methods 2.1.2 In-situ and remote sensing methods 2.1.3 Instantaneous and integrating methods 2.1.4 On-line and off-line methods, post-processing 2.1.5 Flux measurements 2.2 Main measurement principles 2.3 Measurements by inversion 2.3.1 Inversion with one variable 2.3.2 Inversion with more than one variable 2.3.3 Well-posed and ill-posed problems 2.4 Measurement instruments 2.4.1 Active and passive instruments 2.4.2 Analogue and digital instruments 2.5 Measurement platforms 2.6 Measurement variables 2.7 General characteristics of measured data 2.8 Data logging 2.9 Quality assurance/quality control 3 In-situ measurements of state variables 3.1 Thermometers 3.1.1 Liquid-in-glass thermometers 3.1.2 Bimetal thermometers 3.1.3 Resistance thermometers, thermistors 3.1.4 Thermocouples, thermopiles 3.1.5 Sonic thermometry 3.1.6 Measurement of infrared radiation 3.1.7 Soil thermometer 3.1.8 Recommendations for temperature measurements 3.2 Measuring moisture 3.2.1 Hygrometer 3.2.2 Psychrometers 3.2.3 Dewpoint determination 3.2.4 Capacitive methods 3.2.5 Recommendations for humidity measurements 3.3 Pressure sensors 3.3.1 Barometers 3.3.2 Hypsometers 3.3.3 Electronic barometers 3.3.4 Microbarometer 3.3.5 Pressure balance 3.3.6 Recommendations for pressure measurements 3.4 Wind measurements 3.4.1 Estimation from visual observations 3.4.2 Wind direction 3.4.3 Cup anemometer 3.4.4 Pressure tube 3.4.5 Hot wire anemometer 3.4.6 Ultrasonic anemometer 3.4.7 Propeller anemometer 3.4.8 Recommendations for wind measurements 4 In-situ methods for observing liquid water and ice 4.1 Precipitation 4.1.1 Rain sensors (Present Weather Sensors) 4.1.2 Rain gauges (totalisators) 4.1.3 Pluviographs 4.1.4 Disdrometer 4.1.5 Special instruments for snow 4.1.6 Recommendations for precipitation measurements 4.2 Soil moisture 4.2.1 Gravimetric methods 4.2.2 Neutron probes 4.2.3 Time domain reflectrometry (TDR) 4.2.4 Tensiometers 4.2.5 Resistance block tensiometer 4.2.6 Recommendations for soil moisture measurements 5 In-situ measurement of trace substances 5.1 Measurement of trace gases 5.1.1 Physical methods 5.1.2 Chemical methods 5.1.3 Recommendations for the measurement of trace gases 5.2 Particle measurements 5.2.1 Determination of the particle mass 5.2.2 Measuring particle size distributions 5.2.3 Measurement of the chemical composition of particles 5.2.4 Measuring the particle structure 5.2.5 Saltiphon 5.2.6 Recommendations for particle measurements 5.3 Olfactometry 5.4 Radioactivity 5.4.1 Counter tubes 5.4.2 Scintillation counters 5.4.3 Recommendations for radioactivity monitoring 6 In-situ flux measurements 6.1 Measuring radiation 6.1.1 Measuring direct solar radiation 6.1.2 Measuring shortwave irradiance 6.1.3 Measuring longwave irradiance 6.1.4 Measuring the total irradiance 6.1.5 Measuring chill 6.1.6 Sunshine recorder 6.1.7 Recommendations for radiation measurements 6.2 Visual range 6.3 Micrometeorological flux measurements 6.3.1 Cuvettes 6.3.2 Surface chambers 6.3.3 Mass balance method 6.3.4 Inferential method 6.3.5 Gradient method 6.3.6 Bowen-ratio method 6.3.7 Flux variance method 6.3.8 Dissipation method 6.3.9 Eddy covariance method 6.3.10 Eddy accumulation methods 6.3.11 Disjunct eddy covariance method 6.3.12 Recommendations for the measurement of turbulent fluxes 6.4 Evaporation Atmometers 6.4.2 Lysimeters 6.4.3 Evaporation pans and tanks 6.4.4 Recommendations for evaporation measurements 6.5 Soil heat flux 6.6 Inverse emission flux modelling 7 Remote sensing methods 7.1 Basics of remote sensing 7.2 Active sounding methods 7.2.1 RADAR 7.2.2 Windprofilers 7.2.3 SODAR 7.2.4 RASS 7.2.5 LIDAR 7.2.6 Further LIDAR techniques 7.3 Active path-averaging methods 7.3.1 Scintillometers 7.3.2 FTIR 7.3.3 DOAS 7.3.4 Quantum cascade laser 7.4 Passive methods 7.4.1 Radiometers 7.4.2 Photometers 7.4.3 Infrared-Interferometer 7.5 Tomography 7.5.1 Simultaneous Iterative Reconstruction Technique 7.5.2 Algebraic Reconstruction Technique (ART) 7.5.3 Smooth Basis Function Minimization (SBFM) 8 Remote sensing of atmospheric state variables 8.1 Temperature 8.1.1 Near-surface temperatures 8.1.2 Temperature profiles 8.2 Gaseous humidity 8.2.1 Integral water vapour content 8.2.2 Vertical profiles 8.2.3 Large-scale humidity distribution 8.3 Wind and turbulence 8.3.1 Small-scale near-surface turbulence 8.3.2 Horizontal wind fields 8.3.3 Vertical wind profiles 8.3.4 Turbulence profiles 8.3.5 Cloud winds 8.3.6 Ionospheric winds 8.4 Mixing-layer heights 8.4.1 LIDAR 8.4.2 SODAR 8.5 Turbulent fluxes 8.6 Ionospheric electron densities 8.7 Recommendations for remote sensing of state variables 9 Remote sensing of water and ice 9.1 Precipitation 9.1.1 RADAR 9.1.2 Precipitation measurements from satellites 9.2 Clouds 9.2.1 Cloud base 9.2.2 Cloud cover 9.2.3 Cloud movement 9.2.4 Water content 9.3 Recommendations for remote sensing of liquid water and ice 10 Remote sensing of trace substances 10.1 Trace gases 10.1.1 Horizontal path-averaging methods 10.1.2 Vertical column densities 10.1.3 Sounding methods 10.2 Aerosols 10.2.1 Aerosol optical depths (AOD) 10.2.2 Sounding methods 10.3 Recommendations for remote sensing of trace substances 11 Remote sensing of surface properties 11.1 Properties of the solid surface 11.1.1 Surface roughness 11.1.2 Land surface temperature 11.1.3 Soil moisture 11.1.4 Vegetation 11.1.5 Snow and ice 11.1.6 Fires 11.2 Properties of the ocean surface 11.2.1 Altitudes of the sea surface 11.2.2 Wave heights 11.2.3 Sea surface temperature 11.2.4 Salinity 11.2.5 Ocean currents 11.2.6 Ice cover, size of ice floes 11.2.7 Algae and suspended sediment concentrations 12 Remote sensing of electrical phenomena 12.1 Spherics 12.1.1 Directional analyses 12.1.2 Distance analyses 12.2 Optical lightning detection 13 Outlook on new developments Literature Subject index Appendix: Technical guidelines and standards Index to the Appendix

Note: PART I: BIOSPHERE - 1. Forest disturbance assessment using satellite data of moderate and low resolution / M. A. Korets, V. A. Ryzhkova, A. I. Sukhinin, S. A. Bartalev and I. V. Danilova 2. Fire / climate interactions in Siberia / Heiko Balzter, Kevin Tansey, Jorg Kaduk, Charles George, France Gerard, Maria Cuevas Gonzalez, Anatoly Sukhinin and Evgeni Ponomarev 3. Long-term dynamics of mixed fir-aspen forests in West Sayan (Altai-Sayan Ecoregion) / D. M. Ismailova and D. I. Nazimova 4. Evidence of evergreen conifers invasion into larch dominated forests during recent decades / V. I. Kharuk, K. J. Ranson and M. L. Dvinskaya 5. Potential climate-induced vegetation change in Siberia in the 21st century / N. M. Tchebakova , E. I. Parfenova, and A. J. Soja 6. Wildfire dynamics in mid-Siberian larch dominated forests / V. I. Kharuk, K. J. Ranson and M. L. Dvinskaya 7. Dendroclimatological evidence of climate changes across Siberia / Vladimir V. Shishov, Eugene A. Vaganov 8. Siberian pine and larch response to climate warming in the southern Siberian mountain forest: tundra ecotone / V. I. Kharuk, K. J. Ranson, M. L. Dvinskaya and S. T. Im PART II: HYDROSPHERE 9. Remote sensing of spring snowmelt in Siberia / A. Bartsch, W. Wagner and R. Kidd 10. Response of river runoff in the cryolithic zone of Eastern Siberia (Lena River Basin) to future climate warming / A. G. Georgiadi, I. P. Milyukova and E. A. Kashutina PART III: ATMOSPHERE 11. Investigating regional scale processes using remotely sensed atmospheric CO2 column concentrations from SCIAMACHY / M. P. Barkley, A. J. Hewitt and P. S. Monks 12. Climatic and geographic patterns of spatial distribution of precipitation in Siberia / A. Onuchin and T. Burenina PART IV: INFORMATION SYSTEMS 13. Interoperability, data discovery and access: the e-Infrastructures for Earth Sciences resources / Stefano Nativi, Christiana Schmullius, Lorenzo Bigagli and Roman Gerlach 14. Development of a web based information-computational infrastructure for the Siberia Integrated Regional Study / E. P. Gordov, A. Z. Fazliev, V. N. Lykosov, I. G. Okladnikov and A. G. Titov 15. Conclusions / Heiko Balzter. - Appendix. - Index.

Note: CONTENTS PREFACE PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS PART ONE GLACIERS 1 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Glacier systems 1.1.1 Mass balance 1.1.2 Meltwater 1.1.3 Glacier motion 1.1.4 Glaciers and sea-level change 1.1.5 Erosion and debris transport 1.1.6 Glacial sediments, landforms and landscapes 1.2 Glacier morphology 1.2.1 Ice sheets and ice caps 1.2.2 Glaciers constrained by topography 1.2.3 Ice shelves 1.3 Present distribution of glaciers 1.3.1 Influence of latitude and altitude 1.3.2 Influence of aspect, relief and distance from a moisture source 1.4 Past distribution of glaciers 1.4.1 'Icehouse' and 'greenhouse' worlds 1.4.2 Cenozoic glaciation 2 SNOW, ICE AND CLIMATE 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Surface energy balance 2.2.1 Changes of state and temperature 2.2.2 Shortwave radiation 2.2.3 Longwave radiation 2.2.4 Sensible and latent heat: turbulent fluxes 2.2.5 Energy supplied by rain 2.2.6 Why is glacier ice blue? 2.3 Ice temperature 2.3.1 The melting point of ice 2.3.2 Controls on ice temperature 2.3.3 Thermal structure of glaciers and ice sheets 2.4 Processes of accumulation and ablation 2.4.1 Snow and ice accumulation 2.4.2 Transformation of snow to ice 2.4.3 Melting of snow and ice 2.4.4 Sublimation and evaporation 2.4.5 The influence of debris cover 2.5 Mass balance 2.5.1 Definitions 2.5.2 Measurement of mass balance 2.5.3 Annual mass balance cycles 2.5.4 Mass balance gradients 2.5.5 The equilibrium line 2.5.6 Glaciation levels or glaciation thresholds 2.5.7 Glacier sensitivity to climate change 2.6 Glacier-climate interactions 2.6.1 Effects of glaciers and ice sheets on the atmosphere 2.7 Ice cores 2.7.1 Ice coring programmes 2.7.2 Stable isotopes 2.7.3 Ancient atmospheres: the gas content of glacier ice 2.7.4 Solutes and particulates 3 GLACIER HYDROLOGY 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Basic concepts 3.2.1 Water sources and routing 3.2.2 Hydraulic potential 3.2.3 Resistance to flow 3.2.4 Channel wall processes: melting, freezing and ice deformation 3.3 Supraglacial and englacial drainage 3.3.1 Supraglacial water storage and drainage 3.3.2 Englacial drainage 3.4 Subglacial drainage 3.4.1 Subglacial channels 3.4.2 Water films 3.4.3 Linked cavity systems 3.4.4 Groundwater flow 3.4.5 Water at the ice-sediment interface 3.5 Glacial hydrological systems 3.5.1 Temperate glaciers 3.5.2 Polythermal glaciers 3.5.3 Modelling glacial hydrological systems 3.6 Proglacial runoff 3.6.1 Seasonal and shorter-term cycles 3.6.2 Runoff and climate change 3.7 Glacial lakes and outburst floods 3.7.1 Introduction 3.7.2 Moraine-dammed lakes 3.7.3 Ice-dammed lakes 3.7.4 Icelandic subglacial lakes 3.7.5 Estimating GLOF magnitudes 3.8 Life in glaciers 3.8.1 Supraglacial ecosystems 3.8.2 Subglacial ecosystems 3.9 Glacier hydrochemistry 3.9.1 Overview 3.9.2 Snow chemistry 3.9.3 Chemical weathering processes 3.9.4 Subglacial chemical weathering 3.9.5 Proglacial environments 3.9.6 Rates of chemical erosion 4 PROCESSES OF GLACIER MOTION 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Stress and strain 4.2.1 Stress 4.2.2 Strain 4.2.3 Rheology: stress-strain relationships 4.2.4 Force balance in glaciers 4.3 Deformation of ice 4.3.1 Glen's Flow Law 4.3.2 Crystal fabric, impurities and water content 4.3.3 Ice creep velocities 4.4 Sliding 4.4.1 Frozen beds 4.4.2 Sliding of wet-based ice 4.4.3 Glacier-bed friction 4.4.4 The role of water 4.5 Deformable beds 4.5.1 The Boulton-Hindmarsh model 4.5.2 Laboratory testing of subglacial tills 4.5.3 Direct observations of deformable glacier beds 4.5.4 Rheology of subglacial till 4.6 Rates of basal motion 4.6.1 'Sliding laws' 4.6.2 Local and non-local controls on ice velocity 4.7 Crevasses and other structures: strain made visible 4.7.1 Crevasses 4.7.2 Crevasse patterns 4.7.3 Layering, foliation and related structures 5 GLACIER DYNAMICS 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Understanding glacier dynamics 5.2.1 Balance velocities 5.2.2 Deviations from the balance velocity 5.2.3 Changes in ice thickness: continuity 5.2.4 Thermodynamics 5.3 Glacier models 5.3.1 Overview 5.3.2 Equilibrium glacier profiles 5.3.3 Time-evolving glacier models 5.4 Dynamics of valley glaciers 5.4.1 Intra-annual velocity variations 5.4.2 Multi-annual variations 5.5 Calving glaciers 5.5.1 Flow of calving glaciers 5.5.2 Calving processes 5.5.3 'Calving laws' 5.5.4 Advance and retreat of calving glaciers 5.6 Ice shelves 5.6.1 Mass balance of k e shelves 5.6.2 Flow of ice shelves 5.6.3 Ice shelf break-up 5.7 Glacier surges 5.7.1 Overview 5.7.2 Distribution of surging glaciers 5.7.3 Temperate glacier surges 5.7.4 Polythermal surging glaciers 5.7.5 Surge mechanisms 6 THE GREENLAND AND ANTARCTIC ICE SHEETS 6.1 Introduction 6.2 The Greenland Ice Sheet 6.2.1 Overview 6.2.2 Climate and surface mass balance 6.2.3 Ice sheet flow 6.2.4 Ice streams and outlet glaciers 6.3 The Antarctic Ice Sheet 6.3.1 Overview 6.3.2 Climate and mass balance 6.3.3 Flow of inland ice 6.3.4 Ice streams 6.3.5 Hydrology and subglacial lakes 6.3.6 Ice stream stagnation and reactivation 6.3.7 Stability of the West Antarctic Ice Sheet 7 GLACIERS AND SEA LEVEL CHANGE 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Causes of sea-level change 7.2.1 Overview 7.2.2 Glacio-eustasy and global ice volume 7.2.3 Glacio-isostasy and ice sheet loading 7.3 Sea-level change over glacial-interglacial cycles 7.3.1 Ice sheet fluctuations and eustatic sea-level change 7.3.2 Sea-level histories in glaciated regions 7.4 Glaciers and recent sea-level change 7.4.1 Recorded sea-level change 7.4.2 Global glacier mass balance 7.5 Future sea-level change 7.5.1 IPCC climate and sea-level projections 7.5.2 Predicting the glacial contribution to sea-level change PART TWO GLACIATION 8 EROSIONAL PROCESSES, FORMS AND LANDSCAPES 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Subglacial erosion 8.2.1 Rock fracture: general principles 8.2.2 Abrasion 8.2,3 Quarrying 8.2.4 Erosion beneath cold ice 8.2.5 Erosion of soft beds 8.3 Small-scale erosional forms 8.3.1 Striae and polished surfaces 8.3.2 Rat tails 8.3.3 Chattermarks, gouges and fractures 8.3.4 P-forms 8.4 Intermediate-scale erosional forms 8.4.1 Roches moutonnees 8.4.2 Whalebacks and rock drumlins 8.4.3 Crag and tails 8.4.4 Channels 8.5 Large-scale erosional landforms 8.5.1 Rock basins and overdeepenings 8.5.2 Basins and overdeepenings in soft sediments 8.5.3 Troughs and fjords 8.5.4 Cirques 8.5.5 Strandflats 8.6 Landscapes of glacial erosion 8.6.1 Areal scouring 8.6.2 Selective linear erosion 8.6.3 Landscapes of little or no glacial erosion 8.6.4 Alpine landscapes 8.6.5 Cirque landscapes 8.6.6 Continent-scale patterns of erosion 9 DEBRIS ENTRAPMENT AND TRANSPORT 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Approaches to the study of glacial sediments 9.2.1 The glacial debris cascade 9.2.2 Spatial hierarchies of sediments and landforms 9.3 Glacial debris entrainment 9.3.1 Supraglacial debris entrainment 9.3.2 Incorporation of debris into basal ice 9.4 Debris transport and release 9.4.1 Subglacial transport 9.4.2 High-level debris transport 9.4.3 Glacifluvial transport 9.5 Effects of transport on debris 9.5.1 Granulometry 9.5.2 Clast morphology 9.5.3 Particle micromorphology 10 GLACIGENIC SEDIMENTS AND DEPOSITIONAL PROCESSES 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Sediment description and classification 10.2.1 Sediment description 10.2.2 Deformation structures 10.2.3 Primary and secondary deposits 10.3 Primary glacigenic deposits (till) 10.3.1 Overview 10.3.2 Processes of subglacial till formation 10.3.3 Glacitectonite 10.3.4 Subglacial traction till 10.4 Glacifluvial deposits 10.4.1 Terminology and classification of glacifluvial sediments 10.4.2 Plane bed deposits 10.4.3 Ripple cross-laminated facies 10.4.4 Dunes 10.4.5 Antidunes 10.4.6 Scour and minor channel fills 10.4.7 Gravel sheets 10.4.8 Silt and mud drapes 10.4.9 Hyperconcentrated flow deposits 10.5 Gravitational mass movement deposits and syn-sedimentary deformation structures 10.5.1 Overview 10.5.2 Fall deposits 10.5.3 Slide and slump deposits 10.5.4 Debris (sediment-gravity) flow deposits 10.5.5

Note: Inhalt Vorwort Einleitung / Sonja Germer, Matthias Naumann, Oliver Bens Zur gegenwärtigen Situation der Fokusregion Berlin-Brandenburg / Sonja Germer, Matthias Naumann, Oliver Bens I. Umweltwandel und die Folgen für den Landschaftswasserhaushalt Einleitung / Sonja Germer, Barbara Köstner, Herbert Sukopp, Jost Heintzenberg Temperaturaufzeichnungen in Berlin für die letzten 310 Jahre / Ulrich Cubasch, Christopher Kadow Simulation des gegenwärtigen und zukünftigen Regionalklimas von Brandenburg / Eberhard Schaller Simulation von Wasserhaushaltskomponenten unter dem Wandel des regionalen Klimas / Barbara Köstner, Matthias Kuhnert Reaktionen von Seeökosystemen auf Umweltveränderungen / Michael Hupfer, Brigitte Nixdorf, Klement Tockner Anthropogene Einflussfaktoren des Landschaftswasserhaushalts / Gunnar Lischeid Wasserhaushaltliche und wasserwirtschaftliche Bilanzen / Uwe Grünewald Kernaussagen / Barbara Köstner, Sonja Germer, Jost Heintzenberg II. Wandel von Landnutzungen und deren Konsequenzen für Wasserressourcen Einleitung / Inge Broer, Alfred Pühler, Mihaiela Rus Regionale Landwirtschaft im globalen Wandel / Konrad Hagedorn Den Rahmen setzen für die Entwicklung der Kulturlandschaften von morgen. Regionale Antworten auf globale Herausforderungen finden / Werner Konold Strategien zum Integrierten Land- und Wasserressourcenmanagement im märkischen Feuchtgebietsgürtel Oderbruch-Havelland / Joachim Quast Wassermanagement in der Landwirtschaft / Katrin Drastig, Annette Prochnow, Reiner Brunsch Waldbewirtschaftung unter den Bedingungen des Klimawandels in Brandenburg / Ralf Kätzel, Klaus Höppner Erzeugung und Verbrauch von landwirtschaftlichen Produkten aus Brandenburg in Berlin / Hans Kögl Neue Entwicklungen in der Pflanzenzüchtung und Systembetrachtungen der Pflanze-Umwelt-Interaktion / Inge Broer, Reiner Brunsch Kernaussagen / Inge Broer, Alfred Pühler, Mihaiela Rus III. Infrastrukturen neu denken: gesellschaftliche Funktionen und Weiterentwicklung / Eva Barlösius, Karl-Dieter Keim, Georg Meran, Timothy Moss, Claudia Neu Gegenwärtige Situation der Infrastrukturen Ausgangspunkt: LandInnovation Leistungen der Infrastrukturen in der Vergangenheit Wasser- und Bildungsinfrastrukturen: Gemeinsamkeiten und Unterschiede Kernaussagen über Infrastrukturen IV. Handeln unter Bedingungen des globalen Wandels / Sonja Germer, Karl-Dieter Keim, Matthias Naumann, Oliver Bens, Rolf Emmermann, Reinhard F. Hüttl Übergeordnete Herausforderungen des globalen Wandels Brückenprinzipien als Handlungsorientierung für den Umgang mit dem globalen Wandel Stärkung der interdisziplinären Forschung und des Transfers Abbildungsverzeichnis Tabellenverzeichnis Verzeichnis der Autorinnen und Autoren Verzeichnis der Mitglieder der interdisziplinären Arbeitsgruppe Globaler Wandel – Regionale Entwicklung Verzeichnis der Diskussionspapiere der interdisziplinären Arbeitsgruppe Globaler Wandel – Regionale Entwicklung

Note: СОДЕРЖАНИЕ Введение / (Л.Б. Назарова, Д.К. Нургалиев) Глава 1. Личинки хирономид (Diptera: Chironomidae) как индикаторы палеоклиматических изменений / (Л.Б. Назарова) Глава 2. Ветвистоусые ракообразные ( Cladocera Latreille, 1829, Branchiopoda, Crustacea) в палеоэкологических исследованиях / (Л.А. Фролова) Глава 3. Пресноводные остракоды и их применение в палеоэкологических исследованиях / (С . Веттерих, К. Зиrерт) Глава 4. Губки (Porifera, Spongia) в палеолимнолоrических исследованиях / (Е . Вейнберr) Глава 5. Водные беспозвоночные в палеолимнолоrии / (Л.Б . Назарова, О.Н. Туманов, Р.М. Сабиров) Глава 6. Палинологический анализ / (Н.А. Рудая) Глава 7. Использование метода диатомового анализа в палеолимнологических исследованиях / (О.В. Палагушкина, Л.А. Пестрякова) Глава 8. Диагностика и реконструкция палеоэкологических условий педогумусовым методом / (М.И. Дергачева) Заключение (Л.Б. Назарова, Д.К. Нургалиев) Литература Summary , In kyrillischer Schrift

Note: Contents: PART I INTRODUCTION, NUMERICAL OVERVIEW, AND DATA-SETS. - 1 The march towards the quantitative analysis of palaeolimnological data. - 2 Overview of numerical metods in Palaeolimnology. - 3 Data-Sets. - PART II NUMERICAL METHODS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF MODERN AND STRATIGRAPHICAL PALAEOLIMNOLOGICAL DATA. - 4 Introduction and overview Part II. - 5 Exploratory data analysis and data display. - Assessment of uncertainities associated with Palaeolimnological laboratory methods and microfossil analysis. - 7 Clustering and partitioning. - 8 From Classical to canonical ordination. - 9 Statistical learning in Palaeolimnology. - PART III NUMERICAL METHODS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF STRATIGRAPHICAL PALAEOLIMNOLOGICAL DATA. - 10 Introduction and overview of Part III. - 11 Analysis of stratigraphical data. - 12 Estimation of age-depth relationships. - 13 Core correlation. - 14 Quantitative environmental reconstructions from biological data. - 15 Analogue methods in Palaeolimnology. - 16 Autocorrelogram and Periodogram analysis of palaeolimnological temporal-series from lakes in Central and Western North America to assess shifts in drought conditions. - PART IV CASE STUDIES AND FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN QUANTITATIVE PALAEOLIMNOLOGY. - 17 Introduction and overview of Part IV. - 18 Limnological responses to environmental changes at Inter-annual to decadal time-scales. - 19 Human impacts: applications of numerical methods to evaluate surface-water acidification and eutrophication. - 20 Tracking Holocene climatic change with aquatic biota from lake sediments: case studies of commonly used numerical techniques. - 21 Conclusions and future challenges. - Glossary. - Index.

Note: Contents: Introduction. - Apiaceae. - Asteraceae. - Betulaceae. - Boraginaceae. - Brassicaceae. - Campanulaceae. - Caryophyllaceae. - Crassulaceae. - Cyperaceae. - Diapensiaceae. - Ericaceae. - Fabaceae. - Gentianaceae. - Hippuriadaceae. - Juncaceae. - Lentibulariaceae. - Liliaceae. - Onagraceae. - Papaveraceae. - Parnassiaceae. - Pinaceae. - Plumbaginaceae. - Poaceae. - Polemoniaceae. - Polygonaceae. - Portulacaceae. - Primulaceae. - Pyrolaceae. - Ranunculaceae. - Rosaceae. - Salicaceae. - Saxifragaceae. - Scrophulariaceae. - Valerianaceae. - Index of plants by family. - Alphabetical index of plants. , In englischer und russischer Sprache. , Teilw. in kyrillischer Schrift

Note: Contents: 1 Introduction / John E. Hobbie. - 2 Climate and Hydrometeorology of the Toolik Lake Region and the Kuparuk River Basin: Past, Present, and Future / Jessica E. Cherry, Stephen J. Déry, Yiwei Cheng, Marc Stieglitz, Amy S. Jacobs, and Feifei Pan. - 3 Glacial History and Long-Term Ecology in the Toolik Lake Region / Donald A. Walker, Thomas D. Hamilton, Hilmar A. Maier, Corinne A. Munger, and Martha K. Raynolds. - 4 Late-Quaternary Environmental and Ecological History of the Arctic Foothills, Northern Alaska / W. Wyatt Oswald, Linda B. Brubaker, Feng Sheng Hu, and George W. Kling. - 5 Terrestrial Ecosystems at Toolik Lake, Alaska / Gaius R. Shaver, James A. Laundre, M. Syndonia Bret-Harte, F. Stuart Chapin, III, Joel A. Mercado-Dfaz, Anne E. Giblin, Laura Gough, William A. Gould, Sarah E. Hobbie, George W. Kling, Michelle C. Mack, John C. Moore, Knute J. Nadelhoffer, Edward B. Rastetter, and Joshua P. Schimel. - 6 Land-Water Interactions / George W. Kling, Heather E. Adams, Neil D. Bettez, William B. Bowden, Byron C. Crump, Anne E. Giblin, Kristin E. Judd, Katy Keller, George W. Kipphut, Edward R. Rastetter, Gaius R. Shaver, and Marc Stieglitz. - 7 Ecology of Streams of the Toolik Region / William B. Bowden, Bruce J. Peterson, Linda A. Deegan, Alex D. Huryn, Jonathan P. Benstead, Heidi Golden, Michael Kendrick, Stephanie M. Parker, Elissa Schuett, Joseph J. Vallino, and John E. Hobbie. - 8 The Response of Lakes Near the Arctic LTER to Environmental Change / Chris Luecke, Anne E. Giblin, Neil D. Bettez, Greta A. Burkart, Byron C. Crump, Mary Anne Evans, Gretchen Gettel, Sally Maclntyre, W. John O'Brien, Parke A. Rublee, and George W. Kling. - 9 Mercury in the Alaskan Arctic / William F. Fitzgerald, Chad R. Hammerschmidt, Daniel R. Engstrom, Prentiss H. Balcom, Carl H. Lamborg, and Chun-Mao Tseng. - 10 Ecological Consequences of Present and Future Changes in Arctic Alaska / John E. Hobbie, and George W. Kling.

Note: Contents: Preface. - List of abbreviations. - 1. Sea-level changes: the emergence of a Quaternary perspective. - 1.1 Introduction. - 1.2 The Quaternary Period. - 1.3 Sea-Jevel changes: historical development of ideas. - 1.4 Observations from classical antiquity until the nineteenth century. - 1.4.1 Early Mediterranean studies. - 1.4.2 Eighteenth-century writings on universal changes to the Earth. - 1.4.3 Diluvial Theory - the universal flood. - 1.4.4 The Temple of Serapis: a compelling case for relative sea-level change. - 1.4.5 Lavoisier and the concepts of transgression and regression. - 1.5 Glacial action and recognition of the Ice Ages. - 1.5.1 Louis Agassiz and the Glacial Theory. - 1.5.2 The Croll-Milankovitch Hypothesis. - 1.6 Vertical changes in land and sea Ievel related to Quaternary climate. - 1.6.1 Charles Darwin and James Dana. - 1.6.2 Insights from around the world. - 1. 7 Evolution of ideas in the twentieth century. - 1. 7.1 Developments in Europe. - 1.7.2 Advances in geochemistry and geochronology. - 1.7.3 Oxygen-isotope records from marine sediments and ice cores. - 1.7.4 Geophysical models of sea-level changes. - 1.7.5 Sequence stratigraphy. - 1.7.6 International concern and a focus on current and future sea-level trends. - 1.8 Theoretical concepts relevant to the study of Quaternary sea-level changes. - 1.9 Synthesis and way forward. - 1.9.1 Revisiting old ideas. - 1.9.2 Quaternary sea-level changes: the status quo. - 2. The causes of Quaternary sea-level changes. - 2.1 Introduction. - 2.2 Sea Ievel and sea-level changes: some definitions. - 2.2.1 Sea Ievel and base Ievel. - 2.2.2 Relative sea-level changes. - 2.3 Processes responsible for relative sea-level changes in the Quaternary. - 2.3.1 Glacio-eustasy. - 2.3.2 lsostasy. - 2.3.3 Glacial isostasy and relative sea-Ievel changes. - 2.3.4 Hydro-isostasy and relative sea-level changes. - 2.3.5 The geoid and changes to its configuration. - 2.3.6 Global variation in geophysical response and equatorial ocean siphoning. - 2.4 Tectonism, volcanism, and other processes resulting in relative sea-level changes. - 2.4.1 Teetonic movements. - 2.4.2 Volcanism and its link to sea-level changes. - 2.4.3 Lithospheric flexure. - 2.4.4 Changes in tidal range. - 2.4.5 Steric changes, meteorological changes, and the role of ENSO events. - 2.5 Geophysical models and the sea-!evel equation. - 2.6 Synthesis and conclusions. - 3. Palaeo-sea-level indicators. - 3.1 Introduction. - 3.1.1 Fixed and relational sea-level indicators. - 3.1.2 Relative sea-level changes, sea-level index points, and indicative meaning. - 3.1.3 Sources of uncertainty in palaeo-sea-Ievel estimation. - 3.1.4 Palaeo-sea-level curve or envelope?. - 3.1.5 Facies architecture, allostratigraphy, and sea-level changes. - 3.2 Pleistocene and Holocene palaeo-sea-level indicators compared. - 3.3 Corals and coral reefs. - 3.3.1 Reefs and Pleistocene sea Ievels. - 3.3.2 Reefs and Holocene sea Ievels. - 3.3.3 Conglomerates and recognition of in-situ corals. - 3.3.4 Microatolls. - 3.4 Other biological sea-level indicators. - 3.4.1 Fixed biological indicators. - 3.4.2 Mangroves. - 3.4.3 Salt-marsh sediments and microfossil analysis. - 3.4.4 Seagrass. - 3.4.5 Marine molluscs. - 3.4.6 Submerged forests. - 3.5 Geomorphological and geological sea-level indicators. - 3.5.1 Marine terraces and shore platforms. - 3.5.2 Shoreline notches and visors. - 3.5.3 Isolation basins. - 3.5.4 Beach ridges. - 3.5.5 Cheniers. - 3.5.6 Aeolianites. - 3.5.7 Calcretes. - 3.5.8 Beachrock. - 3.6 Geoarchaeology and sea-level changes. - 3.7 Synthesis and conclusions. - 4. Methods of dating Quaternary sea-level changes. - 4.1 Introduction. - 4.1.1 Terminology. - 4.1.2 Historical approaches used for evaluating geological age of coastal deposits. - 4.2 Radiocarbon dating. - 4.2.1 Underlying principles of the radiocarbon method. - 4.2.2 Age range. - 4.2.3 Measurement techniques. - 4.2.4 Isotopic fractionation. - 4.2.5 Marine reservoir and hard-water effects. - 4.2.6 Secular 14C/ 12C variation and the calibration of radiocarbon ages to sidereal years. - 4.2.7 Cantamination and sample pre-treatment strategies. - 4.2.8 Statistical considerations: comparisons of radiocarbon age and pooling of results. - 4.3 Uranium-series disequilibrium dating. - 4.3.1 Underlying principles of U-series disequilibrium dating. - 4.3.2 U-series dating of marine carbonates. - 4.3.3 U-series dating of other materials. - 4.4 Oxygen-isotope stratigraphy. - 4.5 Luminescence dating methods. - 4.5.1 Quantifying the cumulative effects of environmental radiation dose. - 4.5.2 Age range of luminescence methods. - 4.5.3 Anomalaus fading and partial bleaching. - 4.6 Electron spin resonance dating. - 4.7 Amino acid racemisation dating. - 4.7.1 The amino acid racemisation reaction. - 4.7.2 Environmental factors that influence racemisation. - 4.7.3 Sources of uncertainty in AAR dating. - 4.7.4 Application of AAR to dating coastal successions. - 4.8 Cosmogenic dating. - 4.9 Other dating techniques. - 4.9.1 Event markers. - 4.9.2 Palaeomagnetism. - 4.10 Synthesis and conclusions. - 5 Vertical displacement of shorelines. - 5.5.1 Introduction. - 5.2 Plate tectonics and implications for coastlines globally. - 5.2.1 Lithospheric plate domains. - 5.2.2 Plate margins. - 5.2.3 Plate tectonics and coastal classification. - 5.2.4 Ocean plate dynamics and island types. - 5.3 Styles of tectonic deformation and rates of uplift or subsidence. - 5.3.1 Coseismic uplift. - 5.3.2 Epeirogenic uplift. - 5.3.3 Folding and warping. - 5.3.4 Isostasy. - 5.3.5 Lithospheric flexure. - 5.3.6 Mantle plumes. - 5.3.7 Subsidence and submerged shorelines. - 5.4 The last interglacial shoreline: a reference for quantifying vertical displacement. - 5.4.1 Terrace age and elevation. - 5.4.2 Constraints on using the last interglacial shoreline as a benchmark. - 5.5 Coastlines in tectonically 'stable' cratonic regions. - 5.5.1 Australia. - 5.5.2 Southern Africa. - 5.6 Coastlines of emergence. - 5.6.1 Huon Peninsula. - 5.6.2 Barbados. - 5.6.3 Convergent continental margins: Chile. - 5.7 Vertical crustal movements associated with glacio-isostasy: Scandinavia. - 5.8 The Mediterranean Basin . - 5.8.1 Italy. - 5.8.2 Greece. - 5.9 The Caribbean region. - 5.9.1 Southern Florida and the Bahamas. - 5.9.2 Other Caribbean sites and more tectonically active islands. - 5.10 Divergent spreading-related coastlines: Red Sea. - 5.11 Pacific Plate. - 5.11.1 Pacific islands. - 5.11.2 Hawaii. - 5.11.3 Japan. - 5.11.4 New Zealand. - 5.12 Synthesis and conclusions. - 6. Pleistocene sea-level changes. - 6.1 Introduction. - 6.2 Prelude to the Pleistocene. - 6.3 Pleistocene icesheets. - 6.4 Early Pleistocene sea Ievels. - 6.4.1 Roe Calcarenite, Roe Plains, southern Australia. - 6.4.2 The Crag Group, southeastern England. - 6.S The middle Pleistocene Transition. - 6.6 Middle Pleistocene sea-level changes. - 6.7 Sea-level highstands of the middle Pleistocene. - 6.7.1 Marine Isotope Stage 11. - 6.7.2 Marine Isotope Stage 9 - the pre-penultimate interglacial. - 6.7.3 Marine Isotope Stage 7 - the penultimate interglacial. - 6.8 Middle Pleistocene sea-level lowstands. - 6.9 Late Pleistocene sea-level changes. - 6.9.1 The last interglacial maximum (MIS 5e). - 6.9.2 Timing and duration of the last interglacial maximum. - 6.9.3 Global estimates of last interglacial sea Ievels - the sanctity of the 6 m APSL datum?. - 6.10 Interstadial sea Ievels of the last glacial cycle (MIS 5c and 5a). - 6.11 Interstadial sea Ievels during MIS 3. - 6.12 Late Pleistocene interstadial sea Ievels: Dansgaard-Oeschgerand Heinrich Events. - 6.13 Eustatic sea Ievels during the Last Glacial Maximum (MIS 2). - 6.14 Long records of Pleistocene sea-level highstands. - 6.14.1 Coorong Coastal Plain and Murray Basin, southern Australia. - 6.14.2 Wanganui Basin, New Zealand. - 6.14.3 Sumba Island, Indonesia. - 6.15 Synthesis and conclusions. - 7. Sea-level changes since the Last Glacial Maximum. - 7.1 Introduction. -