ALBERT

Description: We make use of observations on orogenic strain accumulation and deformation partitioning in the Central Andes to explore the backarc strength evolution at the lithospheric scale. In plan view, the Altiplano-Puna plateaux experienced rapid initial increase of surface area undergoing active deformation during the Cenozoic. Beyond the maximum lateral extent reached around 10–15 Ma (40–50% of entire proto-Andes undergoing deformation) at 10–20% total strain, rapid localization initiated at the eastern flank of the Altiplano (Inter- and Subandean thrust belt) but not at the Puna latitude. Localization was associated with a significant increase in bulk shortening rate. Average fault slip rates equally increased by an order of magnitude following a protracted period of stable average rates. Estimates of strength evolution based on force balance calculations and critical wedge analysis suggest significant backarc weakening driving this change after the Middle Miocene. Strain accumulation led to localization and weakening with development of a detachment propagating through crust and upper mantle. We find that lithosphere-scale failure resulting from strain weakening beyond a critical strain threshold (c. 20%) and fault coalescence with formation of a weak detachment in shales (effective coefficient of friction 〈 0.1) plays a key role in the evolution of the Andes. Strain-related lithosphere weakening appears to dominate over the impact of external forcing mechanisms, such as variations of plate convergence, mantle-assisted processes, or erosion. Comparison of these orogen-scale observations with experimental rock rheology indicates substantial similarity of deformation behavior with similar weakening thresholds across a wide range of scales.

Description: Three-dimensional thermomechanical laboratory experiments of arc-continent collision investigate the deformation of the fore arc at the transition between collision and subduction. The deformation of the plates in the collision area propagates into the subduction-collision transition zone via along-strike coupling of the neighboring segments of the plate boundary. In our experiments, the largest along-strike gradient of trench-perpendicular compression does not produce sufficiently localized shear strain in the transition zone to form a strike-slip system because of the fast propagation of arc lithosphere failure. Deformation is continuous along-strike, but the deformation mechanism is three-dimensional. Progressive along-strike structural variations arise because coupling between neighboring segments induces either advanced or delayed failure of the arc lithosphere and passive margin. The modeling results suggest that orogenic belts should experience deeper subduction of continental crust and hence higher-pressure metamorphism where the two plates first collided than elsewhere along the plate boundary where collision subsequently propagated. Furthermore, during the initial stage of collision the accretionary wedge is partially subducted, which leads to lubrication of the interplate zone and a reduction of shear traction. Therefore, a large convergence obliquity angle does not produce a migrating fore-arc sliver. Rather, the pressure force generated by subduction of the buoyant continental crust causes fore-arc motion. It follows that convergence obliquity during collision does not yield trench-parallel deformation of the fore arc and its influence on the collision process is limited. However, convergence obliquity may control the geometry of the active margin during the oceanic subduction stage prior to collision, and inherited structures may influence the propagation mechanism.

Description: In 2007 a M7.7 earthquake occurred near the town of Tocopilla within the northern Chile seismic gap. Main shock slip, derived from coseismic surface deformation, was confined to the depth range between 30 and 55 km. We relocated ∼1100 events during six months before and one week after the main shock. Aftershock seismicity is first congruent to the main shock slip and then it spreads offshore west and northwest of Mejillones Peninsula (MP). Waveform modeling for 38 aftershocks reveals source mechanisms that are in the majority similar to the main shock. However, a few events appear to occur in the upper plate, some with extensional mechanisms. Juxtaposing the Tocopilla aftershocks with those following the neighboring 1995 Antofagasta earthquake produces a striking symmetry across an EW axis in the center of MP. Events seem to skirt around MP, probably due to a shallower Moho there. We suggest that the seismogenic coupling zone in northern Chile changes its frictional behavior in the downdip direction from unstable to mostly conditionally stable. For both earthquake sequences, aftershocks agglomerate in the conditionally stable region, whereas maximum inter-seismic slip deficit and co-seismic slip occurs in the unstable region. The boundary between the unstable and conditionally stable zones parallels the coastline. We identify a similar segmentation for other earthquakes in Chile and Peru, where the offshore segments break in great M 〉 8 earthquakes, and the onshore segments in smaller M 〈 8 earthquakes. Using critical taper analysis, we demonstrate a causal relationship between varying slip behavior on the interface and forearc wedge anatomy that can be attributed to spatial variations in the rate-dependency of friction.

Description: The Mejillones Peninsula in northern Chile has been recognized as the surface expression of a segment boundary for large subduction zone earthquakes. The sharp contact between the rupture planes of two instrumentally recorded earthquakes, the Mw = 8.0 Antofagasta (1995) and the Mw = 7.7 Tocopilla (2007) events, is located beneath the central part of Mejillones Peninsula. We present new chronostratigraphic and structural data that allow reconstructing the evolution of the Peninsula at the surface and correlation of the latter with seismic cycle deformation on the plate interface. Uplift commenced after 3.4 Myr, as recorded in the western highland. The central graben area on the Peninsula started uplifting above sea level as an anticlinal hinge zone prior to 400 kyr ago, most probably 790 kyr ago. The resulting E-W trending hinge exactly overlies the limit between the rupture planes of the Antofagasta and Tocopilla earthquakes. By correlating the uplift data with the slip distribution of the above earthquakes, we demonstrate that deformation and uplift is focused during the postseismic and interseismic periods of the megathrust seismic cycle with coseismic deformation opposed to the long-term motion. Additionally, the slip deficit beneath the Peninsula accumulating between events is probably largely recovered by creep. Hence we suggest that Mejillones Peninsula owes its existence to the lateral variation of the propensity for unstable slip at the interface. Since the latter is a material property, the long-term spatial stability of the Peninsula as a barrier to rupture propagation since at least the middle Pleistocene is a necessary consequence.

Description: Although evidence for weak detachments underlying foreland thrust belts exists, very little is known about the lateral variations in effective strength, as well as the geological nature of such variations. Using critical taper analysis, we show that a detailed and systematic measurement of surface slope of the Central European Alps reveals variations in strength parameter F along the detachment, based on the argument that the Alps are close to the critical state. We show that the basal detachment is very weak near the deformation front but strengthens towards the hinterland. Very low F (effective coefficient of friction plus normalized cohesion) values of 〈 0.1 and even 0.05 occur within evaporites and within shales in Triassic (west) or Upper Cretaceous/Lower Tertiary sequences (east) used by the Alpine sole detachment. These very low values in shales - comparably low values are reported from other orogens – are caused partly by slightly elevated pore pressures (λ 〉 0.54) but may also require additional mechanisms of dynamic weakening.

Description: The magnitude-8.8 Maule (Chile) earthquake of 27 February 2010 ruptured a segment of the Andean subduction zone megathrust that has been suspected to be of high seismic potential. It is the largest earthquake to rupture a mature seismic gap in a subduction zone that has been monitored with a dense space-geodetic network before the event. This provides an image of the pre-seismically locked state of the plate interface of unprecedentedly high resolution, allowing for an assessment of the spatial correlation of interseismic locking with coseismic slip. Pre-seismic locking might be used to anticipate future ruptures in many seismic gaps, given the fundamental assumption that locking and slip are similar. This hypothesis, however, could not be tested without the occurrence of the first gap-filling earthquake. Here we show evidence that the 2010 Maule earthquake slip distribution correlates closely with the patchwork of interseismic locking distribution as derived by inversion of global positioning system (GPS) observations during the previous decade. The earthquake nucleated in a region of high locking gradient and released most of the stresses accumulated in the area since the last major event in 1835. Two regions of high seismic slip (asperities) appeared to be nearly fully locked before the earthquake. Between these asperities, the rupture bridged a zone that was creeping interseismically with consistently low coseismic slip. The rupture stopped in areas that were highly locked before the earthquake but where pre-stress had been significantly reduced by overlapping twentieth-century earthquakes. Our work suggests that coseismic slip heterogeneity at the scale of single asperities should indicate the seismic potential of future great earthquakes, which thus might be anticipated by geodetic observations.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Notes: 〈/span〉Moreno, Marcos -- Rosenau, Matthias -- Oncken, Onno -- England -- Nature. 2010 Sep 9;467(7312):198-202. doi: 10.1038/nature09349.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Author address: 〈/span〉Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, GFZ German Research Centre for Geosciences, Telegrafenberg, Potsdam 14473, Germany.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Record origin:〈/span〉 〈a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20829792" target="_blank"〉PubMed〈/a〉

Description: On 1 April 2014, Northern Chile was struck by a magnitude 8.1 earthquake following a protracted series of foreshocks. The Integrated Plate Boundary Observatory Chile monitored the entire sequence of events, providing unprecedented resolution of the build-up to the main event and its rupture evolution. Here we show that the Iquique earthquake broke a central fraction of the so-called northern Chile seismic gap, the last major segment of the South American plate boundary that had not ruptured in the past century. Since July 2013 three seismic clusters, each lasting a few weeks, hit this part of the plate boundary with earthquakes of increasing peak magnitudes. Starting with the second cluster, geodetic observations show surface displacements that can be associated with slip on the plate interface. These seismic clusters and their slip transients occupied a part of the plate interface that was transitional between a fully locked and a creeping portion. Leading up to this earthquake, the b value of the foreshocks gradually decreased during the years before the earthquake, reversing its trend a few days before the Iquique earthquake. The mainshock finally nucleated at the northern end of the foreshock area, which skirted a locked patch, and ruptured mainly downdip towards higher locking. Peak slip was attained immediately downdip of the foreshock region and at the margin of the locked patch. We conclude that gradual weakening of the central part of the seismic gap accentuated by the foreshock activity in a zone of intermediate seismic coupling was instrumental in causing final failure, distinguishing the Iquique earthquake from most great earthquakes. Finally, only one-third of the gap was broken and the remaining locked segments now pose a significant, increased seismic hazard with the potential to host an earthquake with a magnitude of 〉8.5.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Notes: 〈/span〉Schurr, Bernd -- Asch, Gunter -- Hainzl, Sebastian -- Bedford, Jonathan -- Hoechner, Andreas -- Palo, Mauro -- Wang, Rongjiang -- Moreno, Marcos -- Bartsch, Mitja -- Zhang, Yong -- Oncken, Onno -- Tilmann, Frederik -- Dahm, Torsten -- Victor, Pia -- Barrientos, Sergio -- Vilotte, Jean-Pierre -- England -- Nature. 2014 Aug 21;512(7514):299-302. doi: 10.1038/nature13681. Epub 2014 Aug 13.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Author address: 〈/span〉GFZ Helmholtz Centre Potsdam, German Research Centre for Geosciences, Telegrafenberg, 14473 Potsdam, Germany. ; School of Earth and Space Sciences, Peking University, Beijing 100871, China. ; Centro Sismologico National, Universidad de Chile, Facultad de Ciencias Fisicas y Matematicas, Blanco Encalada 2002, Santiago, Chile. ; Institut de Physique du Globe de Paris, 1, rue Jussieu, 75238 Paris cedex 05, France.〈br /〉〈span class="detail_caption"〉Record origin:〈/span〉 〈a href="http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/25119049" target="_blank"〉PubMed〈/a〉

Description: The evolution of the Central Alpine deformation front (Subalpine Molasse) and its undeformed foreland is recently debated because of their role for deciphering the late orogenic evolution of the Alps. Its latest exhumation history is poorly understood due to the lack of late Miocene to Pliocene sediments. We constrain the late Miocene to Pliocene history of this transitional zone with apatite fission track and (U-Th)/He data. We used laser ablation inductively coupled mass spectrometry for apatite fission track dating and compare this method with previously published and unpublished external detector method fission track data. Two investigated sections across tectonic slices show that the Subalpine Molasse was tectonically active after the onset of folding of the Jura Mountains. This is much younger than hitherto assumed. Thrusting occurred at 10, 8, 6–5 Ma and potentially thereafter. This is contemporaneous with reported exhumation of the External Crystalline Massifs in the central Alps. The Jura Mountains and the Subalpine Molasse used the same detachments as the External Crystalline Massifs and are therefore kinematically coupled. Estimates on the amount of shortening and thrust displacement corroborate this idea. We argue that the tectonic signal is related to active shortening during the late stage of orogenesis.

Description: In this study we utilize regional and teleseismic earthquake moment tensor solutions in order to infer the contemporary crustal stress in the Greek region. We focus on crustal earthquakes and select only solutions with good waveform fits and well-resolved nodal planes. A dataset of 1614 focal mechanisms is used as input to a regional-scale damped stress inversion algorithm over a grid whose node spacing is 0.35 degrees. Several resolution and sensitivity tests are performed in order to ascertain the robustness of our results. Our findings show that for most of the Greek region the largest principal stress σ 1 is vertically oriented and that the minimum principal stress axis σ 3 are sub-horizontal with a predominant N-S orientation. In the SW Peloponnese the orientation of σ 3 axes rotates clockwise and in SE Aegean anticlockwise. These results are in agreement with the generally accepted model that slab rollback combined with gravitational spreading of the Aegean lithosphere are the main causes of the extension. Transitions between different faulting types in NW Greece or in the Aegean occur within narrow zones in the order of tens of kilometers. A visual comparison of the principal horizontal stress axes and the principal strain axes derived from GPS observations shows good agreement, suggesting that the crust in the Greek region behaves largely in an elastic manner.

Description: Abstract We used data from 〉100 permanent and temporary seismic stations to investigate seismicity patterns related to the 1 April 2014 M8.1 Iquique earthquake in northern Chile. Applying a multistage automatic event location procedure to the seismic data, we detected and located ~19,000 foreshocks, aftershocks and background seismicity for one month preceding and nine month following the mainshock. Foreshocks skirt around the updip limit of the mainshock asperity; aftershocks occur mainly in two belts updip and downdip of it. The updip seismicity primarily locates in a zone of transitional friction on the megathrust and can be explained by preseismic stress loading due to slow‐slip processes and afterslip driven by increased Coulomb failure stress (CFS) due to the mainshock and its largest aftershock. Afterslip further south also triggered aftershocks and repeating earthquakes in several EW striking streaks. We interpret the streaks as markers of surrounding creep that could indicate a change in fault mechanics and may have structural origin, caused by fluid‐induced failure along presumed megathrust corrugations. Megathrust aftershocks terminate updip below the seaward frontal prism in the outer continental wedge that probably behaves aseismically under velocity‐strengthening conditions. The inner wedge locates further landward overlying the megathrust's seismogenic zone. Further downdip, aftershocks anticorrelate with the two major afterslip patches resolved geodetically and partially correlate with increased CFS, overall indicating heterogeneous frictional behavior. A region of sparse seismicity at ~40‐50 km depth is followed by the deepest plate interface aftershocks at ~55‐65 km depth, which occur in two clusters of significantly different dip.