ALBERT

Notes: Abstract Contents of organic sulfur, sulfate and the inorganic cations K+, Ca2+, Mg2+, Mn2+ and Na+ were compared in needles of three conifer species differing in tolerance to chronic SO2 immissions. Sulfate and organic sulfur compounds were also measured in bark and wood. Field material was collected from Norway Spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.), Colorado Spruce (Picea pungens Engelm.) and Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) at sites where the SO2 concentration in air was high, and at another site where it was low. In general, sulfate contents were higher but cation contents lower at the sites where SO2 concentrations were high than where they were low. Up to 114mmol · (kg DW)−1 sulfate was measured in fouryear-old needles of Norway Spruce from the Erzgebirge (annual mean of SO2 in air 32 nl · 1−1). Sulfate accumulation in this SO2-sensitive conifer increased with SO2 concentration in ambient air and with needle age, indicating that the main part of the sulfate resulted from the oxidative detoxification of SO2. Loss of inorganic cations from ageing needles was reduced, or cation levels even increased, with increasing needle age, while sulfate accumulated. Apparently, cations served as counter-ions for sulfate, which is sequestered in the vacuoles. Individual trees differed in regard to the nature of cations which accumulated with sulfate. Calcium, potassium and magnesium were the dominating cations. Sodium levels were very low. Needles of the SO2-tolerant conifers Colorado Spruce and Scots Pine growing next to Norway Spruce in the Erzgebirge did not accumulate, or accumulated less, sulfate with increasing needle age as compared to needles of Norway Spruce. However, somewhat more sulfate was found in the bark of the SO2-tolerant species than in the bark of Norway Spruce. Scots Pine contained distinctly more sulfate in the wood than the other conifers. Since accumulation of organic sulfur compounds could not be observed with increasing needle age, or in bark and wood, reduction does not appear to play a major role in the detoxification of SO2 by the investigated species. Physiological mechanisms permitting Colorado Spruce and Scots Pine to avoid the sulfate accumulation in the needles and the accompanying sequestration of cations that are observed in neighbouring Norway Spruce are discussed on the basis of the obtained data.

Notes: Abstract The emission of reduced volatile sulfur compounds from twigs of Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) was measured in the field by cryosampling and gaschromatographic analysis. Trees were growing in the Erzgebirge (E-Germany) at Oberbärenburg and at the Kahleberg and at a third stand in NW-Bavaria (S-Germany). Emission rates were also measured for Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) and Blue spruce (Picea pungens Engelm.) at the Kahleberg. Twigs still attached to the trees were enclosed in a flow-through gas exchange cuvette. H2S was detected as the predominant reduced sulfur compound emitted from the twigs. The mean H2S emission rate from twigs of Norway spruce varied between 0.04 pmol kg-1 dw s-1 at Würzburg and 6.21 pmol kg-1 dw s-1 at the Kahleberg. Comparing different species at the Kahleberg, the mean H2S emission rate was almost the same from twigs of Norway spruce (6.2 pmol kg-1 dw s-1) and Blue Spruce trees (5.9 pmol kg-1 dw s-1) but it was approximately 18 times higher for Scotch pine (110 pmol kg-1 dw s-1). The percentage of SO2-exclusion via H2S-emission of the tree species investigated at the Kahleberg is calculated on the basis of data on SO2 fluxes. It is very small for Norway spruce and Blue spruce. However, for Scotch pine, H2S emission contributes about 10% to the detoxification of SO2.

Notes: Abstract Monthly uptake rates and the annual deposition of gaseous SO2 via the stomata of six Norway spruce canopies (Picea abies (L.) Karst.) in Germany (Königstein im Taunus, Witzenhausen, Grebenau, Frankenberg, Spessart, Fürth im Odenwald) were calculated (i) from statistical response functions of stomatal aperture depending on meteorological data, and (ii) from the synchronously measured SO2 immission at these stands. The stomatal response functions had been derived on the basis of thorough stomatal water conductance measurements in the field. Calculations of the SO2 conductance of spruce twigs and SO2 uptake rates via stomata need continuously measured complete data sets of the (i) light intensity, (ii) air temperature, (iii) air humidity and (iv) SO2 concentration in spruce forests from all the year. These data were recorded half hourly in different German spruce forests. The apparent needle water vapour pressure difference and transpiration rates were calculated from meteorological data. Additional use of canopy through flow data in dry years allowed the estimation of the mean stomatal conductance for H2O and SO2 of whole spruce canopies. The annual SO2 uptake of a mean unit needle surface in spruce forests was 32% of the SO2 uptake rate of exposed needles at the top of spruce crowns. There is significant SO2 uptake all the year. The mean SO2 dose at all sites and years received through the stomata was (0.25±0.07) μmol SO2 m-2 (total needle surface) (nPa Pa-1)-1 (annual mean of SO2 immission; 1 nPa (SO2) Pa-1 (air) = 1 ppb) day-1 (vegetation period per year). Comparison of calculated SO2 uptake rates into needles with measured SO4 2- accumulation rates in needles from the mentioned sites and additionally from Würzburg, Schneeberg (Fichtelgebirge) and from three sites in the eastern Erzgebirge (Höckendorf, Kahleberg, Oberbärenburg) revealed that oxidative SO2 detoxification (SO4 2- formation) dominates only at sites with high SO2 immission and short vegetation periods. Under these conditions 70 to 90% of the annual stomatal SO2 uptake is detoxified via SO4 2- accumulation in needles. Cations are needed for neutralization of accumulating SO4 2- which are inavailable to support growth. Thus, SO2 induces a dominant and competitive additional nutrient cation demand, cation deficiency symptoms and enhanced needle loss (“spruce decline symptoms”) mainly at sites, where the ratio R=(SO2 immission): (length of the vegetation period) is higher than R=0.07 nPa Pa-1 day-1. Correlation analysis of the relative needle loss versus the SO2-dependent SO4 2- formation rate revealed a significant increase of needle loss at the 98% level (Student). At sites with small SO2 immission and long vegetation periods (R〈0.07 nPa Pa-1 day-1) reductive SO2 detoxification via growth (and/or phloem export of SO4 2-) is not kinetically overburdened. Under these conditions only 30% of the annual SO2 uptake is detoxified via SO4 2- formation and spruce decline is small or absent. On the basis of the critical value R≈0.07 nPa Pa-1 day-1 recommended SO2 immission limits can be deduced on a mere ecophysiological basis. These deduced values are close to the proposed SO2 immission limits of the IUFRO, WHO and the UNECE.