ALBERT

Description: Controlled feeding experiments demonstrate that the 14C content of the carbonate fraction of fossil avian eggshell should reliably reflect the 14C activity of feed and contemporary atmospheric CO2 regardless of amounts of 14C depleted scratch injested. Consideration of biochemical pathways and exchange rates across lung membranes leads to the possibility that the carbonate fraction may, in some instances, be slightly 14C depleted. 14C dates on eggshell carbonate should require little or no correction. As with marine shell carbonate, normal soil-forming processes may alter the surficial carbon isotopes in eggshell carbonate. 14C dates on the protein fraction should be even more reliable than those on the carbonate fraction, but only if special precautions or separation techniques exclude non-indigenous carbon from the sample. Original protein contents are likely to be too low for conventional 14C dating techniques.

Description: Routine radiocarbon analyses were last reported for the Laboratory of Isotope Geochemistry at the University of Arizona in 1971 (Haynes, Grey, and Long, 1971), and a special date list on packrat middens appeared in 1978 (Mead, Thompson, and Long, 1978). This list presents results obtained from our gas proportional counting facility before its major renovation and before the addition of a liquid scintillation counting system. The characteristics of these new systems will be described in the next date list.

Description: When used with 14C records, an accurate reconstruction of the 13C/12C changes of atmospheric CO2 may be a key constraint to determining the historic activity of the biosphere as CO2 source or sink. We recently detailed the derivation of an atmospheric δ13C record for 1930–1979 from Arizona juniper tree rings (Leavitt and Long, 1983). Each tree was close to a weather station, allowing us to account for the effects of climate on the tree-ring δ13C records. The resulting atmospheric δ13C trend shows an overall decrease of ca 1.3‰, but instead of decreasing exponentially over the whole 50-year period, the best-fit curve decreases exponentially to ca 1960 and then flattens out. The drop from 1956 to 1978 was ca 0.55‰, still very similar to the measured atmospheric drop over that period of 0.65 ± 0.13‰ (Keeling, Mook, and Tans, 1979).

Description: This paper describes a laboratory experiment designed to compare measurements with published theoretical ideas of the mixed-layer growth of a two-layer system in which the turbulence is induced by an oscillating grid. Experimental results show excellent agreement with an earlier theory by one of us (Long), in which the mixed-layer depth D* measured from a virtual origin is given by $D_{*}sim V_0^{-frac{7}{11}}K^{frac{9}{11}}t^{frac{2}{11}}$, where K is action, t is time and V0 is a characteristic velocity of the problem. The experiments also verify Long's theoretical entrainment relation E = α2Ri−7/4, where E is the entrainment coefficient and $Ri = D^3_{*}Delta b/K^2$, and Δb is the buoyancy difference between the two layers. The interfacial-layer thickness was observed to be proportional to the depth of the mixed layer, as also predicted by Long. After a certain depth, the entrainment law tends to deviate from Long's theory. The deviation may be due to wall effects.

Description: Experiments were performed to investigate some aspects of turbulence in rotating and non-rotating fluid systems where the turbulence was induced by a horizontal grid oscillating vertically. An earlier theory by the second author made use of a planar source of energy, which appeared to be similar to the energy source of the grid, in determining the characteristics of the turbulence at points some distance away. The simplicity of the theory was in the parameterization of the grid ‘action’ by a single quantity K, with dimensions and characteristics of eddy viscosity. The experimental results provide additional confirmation of the theory in the non-rotating case, and indicate the usefulness of the idealized energy source in the rotating case. In the latter, we measured the propagation of the front separating disturbed and undisturbed fluid, moving along the axis of rotation. The thickness d(t) of the disturbed region increases at first as (Kt)1/2 as in a non-rotating fluid, until the Rossby number K/Ωd2k becomes of order unity. Beyond this the disturbances are wavelike and rotationally dominated, and the thickness now increases linearly with time, yielding a speed of propagation for the front proportional to the wave speed (KΩ)1/2. Finally, the disturbances reach the bottom and the vessel is in statistical steady state. Then a region of thickness dk independent of time is found, and it contains motion that resembles ordinary, three-dimensional turbulence. dk ~ (K/Ω)1/2 is analogous to the depth of the turbulent Ekman layer H ~ (K/Ω)1/2, where K is taken as an eddy viscosity. McEwan constructed a similar rotating experiment, although with a different energy source, and observed vortices parallel to the axis of rotation, provided that the Rossby number was less than a critical value. Our observations and theory indicate that the disappearance of the vortices corresponds to h 〈 dk, where h is the total depth of the fluid. At that point, the whole tank is filled with three-dimensional turbulence. © 1983, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Description: A useful parametrical model for the vertical structure of the pressure field induced by wind blowing over a field of surface gravity waves is proposed. The model is a linear expansion in a set of empirical orthogonal functions, derived from a set of 110 complex pressure profiles computed according to the theory of Miles (1957), and provides a compact, quantitative description of those profiles. The model has been used as an element in the analysis of a body of experimental data on wave-induced atmospheric pressure fluctuations obtained by Snyder et al. (1980). © 1980, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Description: A joint experiment to study microscale fluctuations of atmospheric pressure above surface gravity waves was conducted in the Bight of Abaco, Bahamas, during November and December 1974. Field hardware included a three-dimensional array of six wave sensors and seven air-pressure sensors, one of which was mounted on a wave follower. The primary objectives of the study were to resolve differences in previous field measurements by Dobson (1971), Elliott (1972b) and Snyder (1974), and to estimate the vertical profile of wave-induced pressure and the corresponding input of energy and momentum to the wave field. Analysis of a pre-experiment intercalibration of instruments and of 30 h of field data partially removes the discrepancy between the previous measurements of the wave-induced component of the pressure and gives a consistent picture of the profile of this pressure over a limited range of dimensionless height and wind speed. Over this range the pressure decays approximately exponentially without change of phase; the decay is slightly less steep than predicted by potential theory. The corresponding momentum transfer is positive for wind speeds exceeding the phase speed. Extrapolation of present results to higher frequencies suggests that the total transfer is a significant fraction of the wind stress (0.1 to 1.0, depending on dimensionless fetch). Analysis of the turbulent component of the atmospheric pressure shows that the ‘intrinsic’ downwind coherence scale is typically an order-of-magnitude greater than the crosswind scale, consistent with a ‘frozen’ turbulence hypothesis. These and earlier data of Priestley (1965) and Elliott (1972c) suggest a horizontally isotropic ‘intrinsic ’turbulent pressure spectrum which decays as k-v where k is the (horizontal) wave-number and v is typically —2 to — 3; estimates of this spectrum are computed for the present data. The implications of these findings for Phillips’ (1957) theory of wave growth are examined. © 1981, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Description: Based on theoretical analysis and laboratory data, we proposed a unified two-parameter wave spectral model as [Formula omitted] with β and m as functions of the internal parameter, the significant slope η of the wave field which is defined as [Formula omitted] is the mean squared surface elevation, and λ0, n0 are the wavelength and frequency of the waves at the spectral peak. This spectral model is independent of local wind. Because the spectral model depends only on internal parameters, it contains information about fluid-dynamical processes. For example, it maintains a variable bandwidth as a function of the significant slope which measures the nonlinearity of the wave field. And it also contains the exact total energy of the true spectrum. Comparisons of this spectral model with the JONSWAP model and field data show excellent agreements. Thus we established an alternative approach for spectral models. Future research efforts should concentrate on relating the internal parameters to the external environmental variables. © 1981, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.

Description: The paper is a study of experimental data in the light of new theories of turbulence recently developed by the first author for a number of problems including flow in a pipe, boundary layer at zero incidence, atmospheric boundary layer, turbulent convection and distribution of energy in wavenumber space in decaying, isotropic turbulence. In each of these, a basic element is a ‘mesolayer’ or ‘mesoregion’ in physical space or wavenumber space which is absent in earlier theories and which intrudes between the inner and outer regions preventing the overlap assumed in the derivation of the classical results, e.g. the logarithmic profile in shear flow. The new and old theories differ both in principle and in the final results: the new ideas replace rather than modify or extend the older ones. The main purpose of this paper is to bring together accumulated evidence concerning the mesolayer theories. We believe that this evidence provides overwhelming support for the existence of the mesolayer and for its pervasive importance in problems of turbulence. © 1981, Cambridge University Press. All rights reserved.