ALBERT

Description / Table of Contents: CONTENTS: Preface. - 1 The Atmosphere. - 1.1 History and Evolution of the Earth's Atmosphere. - 1.2 Climate. - 1.3 The Layers of the Atmosphere. - 1.4 Variation of Pressure with Height in the Atmosphere. - 1.5 Large-Scale Motion of the Atmosphere. - 1.5.1 The General Circulation. - 1.5.2 Troposphere-Stratosphere Transport. - 1.6 Temperature and Water Vapor. - 1.7 Expressing the Amount of a Substance in the Atmosphere. - 1.8 Composition of the Atmosphere. - 1.9 Radiation. - 1.9.1 Solar and Terrestrial Radiation. - 1.9.2 Absorption of Radiation by Gases. - 1.10 Energy Balance for Earth and Atmosphere. - 1.10.1 Solar Variability. - 1.10.2 Earth's Energy Balance. - 1.11 Spatial and Temporal Scales of Atmospheric Processes. - Appendix 1 Derivation of the Geostrophic Wind Speed. - References. - Problems. - 2 Atmospheric Composition, Global Cycles, and Lifetimes. - 2.1 Atmospheric Residence Times. - 2.1.1 Residence Time. - 2.2 Sulfur-Containing Compounds. - 2.2.1 Dimethyl Sulfide (CH3SCH3). - 2.2.2 Carbonyl Sulfide (OCS). - 2.2.3 Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). - 2.2.4 The Atmospheric Sulfur Cycle. - 2.3 Nitrogen-Containing Compounds. - 2.3.1 Nitrous Oxide (N20). - 2.3.2 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx = NO + NO2). - 2.3.3 Reactive Odd Nitrogen (NOy). - 2.3.4 Ammonia (NH3). - 2.4 Carbon-Containing Compounds. - 2.4.1 Classification of Hydrocarbons. - 2.4.2 Methane. - 2.4.3 Volatile Organic Compounds. - 2.4.4 Biogenic Hydrocarbons. - 2.4.5 Carbon Monoxide. - 2.4.6 Carbon Dioxide. - 2.5 Halogen-Containing Compounds 2.6 Atmospheric Ozone. - 2.6.1 Stratospheric Ozone. - 2.6.2 Ozone Flux from the Stratosphere to the Troposphere. - 2.6.3 Tropospheric Ozone. - 2.7 Particulate Matter (Aerosols). - 2.7.1 Stratospheric Aerosol. - 2.7.2 Chemical Components of Tropospheric Aerosol. - 2.7.3 Cloud Condensation Nuclei (CCN). - 2.7.4 Sizes of Atmospheric Particles. - 2.7.5 Sources of Atmospheric Particulate Matter. - 2.7.6 Carbonaceous particles. - 2.8 Emmissions inventories. - 2.9 Biomass burning. - 2.10 Air pollution legislation. - 2.11 Hazardous air pollutants (Air Toxics). - Appendix 2 Compartmental Models of Global Biogeochemical Cycles. - 2.A.1 Relation Between Atmospheric Mass and Volume Mixing Ratio. - 2.A.2 Application of the Compartment Model to Methyl Chloroform (CH3CCI3). - References. - Problems. - 3 Atmospheric Photochemistry and Chemical Kinetics. - 3.1 Radiative Flux in the Atmosphere. - 3.1.1 Solar Radiation Received on Earth. - 3.1.2 Earth Geometry for Solar Radiation. - 3.2 Absorption Coefficient and Absorption Cross Section. - 3.3 Actinic Flux. - 3.4 Atmospheric Photochemistry. - 3.5 Chemical Kinetics. - 3.5.1 The Pseudo-Steady-State Approximation. - 3.5.2 Pressure Dependence of Reactions. - References. - Problems. - 4 Chemistry of the Stratosphere. - 4.1 Chapman Mechanism. - 4.2 HOx Cycles. - 4.3 NOx Cycles. - 4.3.1 N2O Stratospheric Source of NOx . - 4.3.2 NOx Cycles. - 4.4 CIOx Cycles. - 4.5 Reservoir Species and Coupling of the Cycles. - 4.6 Stratospheric Species Observations and Predictions. - 4.6.1 Upper Stratosphere. - 4.6.2 Lower Stratosphere. - 4.7 Ozone Hole. - 4.7.1 Polar Stratospheric Clouds. - 4.7.2 PSCs and the Ozone Hole. - 4.7.3 Antarctic Ozone Hole Measurements. - 4.7.4 Arctic Ozone Hole. - 4.7.5 Summary. - 4.8 Heterogeneous (Nonpolar) Stratospheric Chemistry. - 4.8.1 Heterogeneous Hydrolysis of N2O5. - 4.8.2 Effect of Volcanoes on Stratospheric Ozone. - 4.8.3 Summary of Midlatitude and Tropical Stratospheric Ozone Chemistry. - 4.9 Transport Between the Tropical and Midlatitude Stratosphere. - 4.10 Ozone-Depleting Potential of Halocarbons. - 4.11 Effect of Aircraft Emissions on Stratospheric Ozone. - 4.12 Carbonyl Sulfide (OCS) and the Stratospheric Aerosol Layer. - 4.12.1 Atmospheric Chemistry of OCS and OCS Lifetime. - 4.12.2 Stratospheric Aerosol Layer. - 4.13 Projections of Future Ozone Change. - Appendix 4 Sensitivity/Uncertainty Analysis of Atmospheric Chemical Mechanisms. - 4.A.1 Sensitivity Coefficients. - 4.A.2 The Direct Decoupled Method. - 4.A.3 Adjoint Methods. - 4.A.4 Green's Function Methods. - References. - Problems. - 5 Chemistry of the Troposphere. - 5.1Basic Photochemical Cycle of NO2, NO, and O3. - 5.2 Atmospheric Chemistry of Carbon Monoxide and NOx. - 5.3 Atmospheric Chemistry of Formaldehyde and NOx. - 5.4 Chemistry of the Background Troposphere. - 5.4.1 Ozone Photolysis. - 5.4.2 Methane Oxidation. - 5.4.3 Hydrogen Peroxide. - 5.5 The Hydroxyl Radical. - 5.6 The Nitrate Radical. - 5.7 The Ozone Budget of the Troposphere and the Role of NOx. - 5.7.1 Tropospheric Sinks of Ozone. - 5.7.2 Tropospheric Source of Ozone. - 5.7.3 Fate of NOx. - 5.7.4 Ozone Budget of the Troposphere. - 5.7.5 Climatology of Regional Tropospheric Ozone. - 5.8 Chemistry of Nonmethane Organic Compounds in the Troposphere. - 5.8.1 Alkanes. - 5.8.2 Alkenes. - 5.8.3 Aromatics. - 5.8.4 Aldehydes. - 5.8.5 Peroxyacyl Nitrates (PANs). - 5.8.6 Ketones. - 5.8.7[Alpha], [Beta]-Unsaturated Carbonyls. - 5.8.8 Ethers. - 5.8.9 Alcohols. - 5.8.10 Acids. - 5.9 Atmospheric Chemistry of Biogenic Hydrocarbons. - 5.9.1 Isoprene. - 5.9.2 Other Biogenic Hydrocarbons. - 5.10 Summary of Organic/NOx Chemistry. - 5.10.1 Generalized Organic/NOx Chemistry. - 5.10.2 Behavior of Generalized Mechanism. - 5.10.3 Effect of Temperature on Ozone Formation in Urban and Rural Environments. - 5.11 Relative Roles of VOC and NOx in Ozone Formation. - 5.11.1 Importance of the VOC/NOx Ratio. - 5.11.2 Ozone Isopleth Plot. - 5.11.3 Relation of [03] to [NOy]. - 5.12 Origin and Behavior of the Radical Pool in Photochemical Ozone Formation. - 5.13 Organic Reactivity with Respect to Ozone Formation. - 5.13.1 OH Reactivity. - 5.13.2 Incremental Reactivity. - 5.14 Atmospheric Chemistry of Reduced Nitrogen Compounds. - 5.14.1 Amines. - 5.14.2 Nitriles. - 5.14.3 Nitrites. - 5.15 Atmospheric Chemistry (Gas Phase) of Sulfur Compounds. - 5.15.1 Sulfur Oxides. - 5.15.2 Reduced Sulfur Compounds (Dimethyl Sulfide). - 5.16 Tropospheric Chemistry of Halogen Compounds. - 5.16.1 Chemical Cycles of Halogen Species. - 5.16.2 Tropospheric Chemistry of CFC Replacements: Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and Hydrochlorofiuorocarbons (HCFCs). - References. - Problems. - 6 Chemistry of the Atmospheric Aqueous Phase. - 6.1 Liquid Water in the Atmosphere. - 6.1.1 Cloud Types and Liquid Water Content. - 6.2 Absorption Equilibria and Henry's Law. - 6.2.1 Gas/Aqueous-Phase Distribution Factor. - 6.3 Aqueous-Phase Chemical Equilibria. - 6.3.1 Water. - 6.3.2 Carbon Dioxide/Water Equilibrium. - 6.3.3 Sulfur Dioxide. - 6.3.4 Ammonia/Water Equilibrium. - 6.3.5 Nitric Acid/Water Equilibrium. - 6.3.6 Equilibrium of Other Important Atmospheric Gases. - 6.4 Aqueous-Phase Reaction Rates. - 6.5 S(IV) to S(VI) Transformation and Sulfur Chemistry. - 6.5.1 Oxidation of S(IV) by Dissolved O3. - 6.5.2 Oxidation of S(IV) by Hydrogen Peroxide. - 6.5.3 Oxidation of S(IV) by Organic Peroxides. - 6.5.4 Uncatalyzed Oxidation of S(IV) by O2. - 6.5.5 Oxidation of S(IV) by O2 Catalyzed by Iron and Manganese. - 6.5.6 S(IV) Oxidation by the OH Radical. - 6.5.7 Oxidation of S(IV) by Oxides of Nitrogen. - 6.5.8 Reaction of Dissolved SO2 with HCHO. - 6.5.9 Comparison of Aqueous-Phase S(IV)Oxidation Paths. - 6.6 Aqueous-Phase Nitrite and Nitrate Chemistry. - 6.6.1 NOx Oxidation. - 6.6.2 Nitrogen Radicals. - 6.7 Aqueous-Phase Organic Chemistry. - 6.8 Oxygen and Hydrogen Chemistry. - 6.9 Dynamic Behavior of Solutions with Aqueous-Phase Chemical Reactions. - 6.9.1 Closed System. - 6.9.2 Calculation of Concentration Changes in a Droplet with Aqueous-Phase Reactions. - Appendix 6 Thermodynamic and Kinetic Data. - References. - Problems. - 7 Properties of the Atmospheric Aerosol. - 7.1 The Size Distribution Function. - 7.1.1 The Number Distribution nN(Dp). - 7.1.2 The Surface Area, Volume, and Mass Distributions. - 7.1.3 Distributions Based on In Dp and log Dp. - 7.1.4 Relating Size Distributions Based on Different Independent Variables. - 7.1.5 Properties of Size Distributions. - 7.1.6 The Log-Normal Distribution. - 7.1.7 Plotting the Log-Normal Distribution. - 7.1.8 Properties of the Log-Normal Distribution. - 7.1.9 Other Aerosol Distributions. - 7.2 Ambient Aerosol Size Distributions. - 7.2.1 Urban Aerosols. - 7.2.2 Marine Aerosols. - 7.2.3 Rural Continental Aerosols. - 7.2.4 Remote Continental Aerosols. - 7.2.5 Free Tropospheric Aerosols. - 7.2.6 Polar Aerosols. - 7.2.7 Desert Aerosols. - 7.3 Aerosol Chemical Composition. - 7.4 Vertical Variation. - References. - Problems. - 8 Dynamics of Single Aerosol Particles. - 8.1 Continuum and Noncontinuum Dynamics. - 8.1.1 The Mean Free Path. - 8.2 The Dragona Single Particle: Stokes' Law. - 8.2.1 Corrections to Stokes' Law. - 8.2.1 Corrections to Stokes' Law: The Drag Coefficient. - 8.2.2 Stokes' Law and Noncontinuum Effects: Slip Correction Factor. - 8.3 Gravitational Settling of an Aerosol Particle. - 8.3.1 Settling of Particles for Any Re. - 8.4 Motion of an Aerosol Particle in an External Force Field. - 8.4.1 Motion of a Charged Particle in an Electric Field. - 8.5 Brownian Motion of Aerosol Particles. - 8.5.1 Particle Diffusion. - 8.5.2 Aerosol Mobility and Drift Velocity. - 8.5.3 Mean Free Path of an Aerosol Particle. - 8.6 Phoretic Effects. - 8.6.1 Thermophoresis. - 8.6.2 Diffusiophoresis. - 8.6.3 Photophoresis. - 8.7 Aerosol and Fluid Motion. - 8.7.1 Motion of a Particle in an Idealized Flow (90°Corner). - 8.7.2 Stop Distance and Stokes Number. - 8.8 Diameters of Nonspherical Particles. - References. - Problems. - 9 Thermodynamics of Aerosols. - 9.1 Thermodynamic Principles. - 9.1.1 Internal Energy and Chemical Potential. - 9.1.2 The Gibbs Free Energy, G. - 9.1.3 Conditions for Chemical Equilibrium. - 9.1.4 Chemical Potentials of Ideal Gases and Ideal Gas Mixtures. - 9.1.5 Chemical Potential of Solutions. - 9.1.6 The Equilibrium Constant. - 9.2 Aerosol Liquid Water Content.- 9.2.1 Chemical Potential of Water in Atmospheric Particles. - 9.2.2 Temperature Dependence of the DRH. - 9.2.3 Deliquescence of Multicomponent Aerosols. - 9.2.4 Crystallization of Single and Multicomponent Salts. - 9.3 Equilibrium Vapor Pressure Over a Curved Surface: The Kelvin Effect. - 9.4 Thermodynamics of Atmospheric Aerosol Systems. - 9.4.1 The H2SO4-H2O System. - 9.4.2 The Sulfuric Acid-Ammonia-Water System. - 9.4.3The Ammonia-Nitric Acid-Water System. - 9.4.4 The Ammonia-Nitric Acid-Sulfuric Acid-Water System.- 9.4.5 Other Inorganic Aerosol Species. - References. - Problem. - 10 Nucleation. - 10.1 Classical Theory of Homogeneous Nucleation: Kinetic Approach. - 10.1.1 The Forward Rate Constant [Beta]t. - 10.1.2 The Reverse Rate Constant [Gamma]i. - 10.1.3 Derivation of the Nucleation Rate. - 10.2 Classical Homogeneous Nucleation Theory: Constrained Equilibrium Approach. - 10.2.1 Free Energy of i-mer Formation. - 10.2.2 Constrained Equilibrium Cluster Distribution. - 10.2.3 The Evaporation Coefficient [Gamma]t. - 10.2.4 Nucleation Rate. - 10.2.5 Recapitulation. - 10.3 Experimental Measurement of Nucleation Rates. - 10.3.1 Upward Thermal Diffusion Cloud Chamber. - 10.3.2 Fast Expansion Chamber. - 10.3.3 Turbulent Mixing Chambers. - 10.3.4 Experimental Evaluation of Classical Homogeneous Nucleation Theory. - 10.4 Modifications of the Classical Theory and More Rigorous Approaches. - 10.5 Binary Homogeneous Nucleation. - 10.6 Binary Nucleation in the H2SO4-H2O System. - 10.7 Nucleation in the Presence of a Preexisting Aerosol. - 10.7.1 Homogeneous-Homomolecular Nucleation. - 10.7.2 Effect of a Preexisting Aerosol on H2SO4-H2O Binary Nucleation. - 10.8 Heterogeneous Nucleation. - 10.8.1 Nucleation on an Insoluble Foreign Surface. - 10.8.2 Ion-Induced Nucleation. - 10.9 Nucleation from Chemical Reaction. - Appendix 10 The Law of Mass Action. - References. - Problems. - 11 Mass Transfer Aspects of Atmospheric Chemistry. - 11.1 Mass and Heat Transfer to Atmospheric Particles. - 11.1.1 The Continuum Regime. - 11.1.2 The Kinetic Regime. - 11.1.3 The Transition Regime. - 11.1.4 The Accommodation Coefficient. - 11.2 Mass Transport Limitations in Aqueous-Phase Chemistry. - 11.2.1 Characteristic Time for Gas-Phase Diffusion to a Particle. - 11.2.2 Characteristic Time to Achieve Equilibrium in the Gas-Particle Interface. - 11.2.3 Characteristic Time of Aqueous Dissociation Reactions. - 11.2.4 Characteristic Time of Aqueous-Phase Diffusion in a Droplet. - 11.2.5 Characteristic Time for Aqueous-Phase Chemical Reactions. - 11.3 Mass Transport and Aqueous-Phase Chemistry. - 11.3.1 Gas-Phase Diffusion and Aqueous-Phase Reactions. - 11.3.2 Aqueous-Phase Diffusion and Reaction. - 11.3.3 Interfacial Mass Transport and Aqueous-Phase Reactions. - 11.3.4 Application to the S(IV)-Ozone Reaction. - 11.3.5 Application to the S(IV)-Hydrogen Peroxide Reaction. - 11.3.6 Calculation of Aqueous-Phase Reaction Rates. - 11.3.7 An Aqueous-Phase Chemistry/Mass Transport Model. - 11.4 Mass Transfer to Falling Drops. - 11.5 Characteristic Time for Atmospheric Aerosol Equilibrium. - 11.5.1 Solid Aerosol Particles. - 11.5.2 Aqueous Aerosol Particles. - Appendix 11 Solution of the Transient Gas-Phase Diffusion Problem Equations (11.4)to (11.7). - References. - Problems. - 12 Dynamics of Aerosol Populations. - 12.1 Mathematical Representations of the Aerosol Size Distributions. - 12.1.1 Discrete Distribution. - 12.1.2 Continuous Distribution. - 12.2 Condensation. - 12.2.1 Solution of the Condensation Equation. - 12.3 Coagulation. - 12.3.1 Brownian Coagulation. - 12.3.2 Coagulation in Laminar Shear Flow. - 12.3.3 Coagulation in Turbulent Flow. - 12.3.4 Coagulation from Gravitational Settling. - 12.3.5 Brownian Coagulation and External Force Fields. - 12.3.6 The Coagulation Equation. - 12.3.7 Solution of the Coagulation Equation. - 12.4 The Discrete General Dynamic Equation. - 12.5 The Continuous General Dynamic Equation. - 12.6 Evolution of an Aerosol Size Distribution During Gas-to-Particle Conversion. - 12.6.1 Diffusion-Controlled Growth. - 12.6.2 Surface Reaction-Controlled Growth. - 12.6.3 Volume Reaction-Controlled Growth. - 12.6.4 Dimensionless Size Spectra Evolution.

Description / Table of Contents: Continuation of Table of Contents: Appendix 12 Solution of (12.92). - References. - Problems. - 13 Organic Atmospheric Aerosols. - 13.1 Organic Aerosol Components. - 13.2 Elemental Carbon. - 13.2.1 Formation of Soot and Elemental Carbon. - 13.2.2 Emission Sources of Elemental Carbon.- 13.2.3 Ambient Elemental Carbon Concentrations. - 13.2.4 Ambient Elemental Carbon Size Distribution. - 13.2.5 Degree of Mixing of EC in Ambient Aerosols. - 13.2.6 Heterogeneous Chemistry of Carbonaceous Particles. - 13.3 Organic Carbon. - 13.3.1 Ambient Aerosol Organic Carbon Concentrations. - 13.3.2 Primary Versus Secondary Organic Carbon. - 13.4 Primary Organic Carbon. - 13.4.1 Sources. - 13.4.2 Chemical Composition. - 13.4.3 Primary OC Size Distribution. - 13.5 Secondary Organic Carbon. - 13.5.1 Overview of Secondary Organic Aerosol Formation Pathways. - 13.5.2 Dissolution and Gas/Particle Partitioning of Organic Compounds. - 13.5.3 Adsorption and Gas/Particle Partitioning of Organic Compounds. - 13.5.4 Precursor Gases. - 13.5.5 Physical Properties. - 13.6 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs). - 13.6.1 Emission Sources. - 13.6.2 Size Distributions. - 13.6.3 Atmospheric Chemistry. - 13.6.4 Partitioning Between the Gas and Aerosol Phases. - 13.7 Biogenics. - Appendix 13 Measurement of Elemental and Organic Carbon. - References. - Problems. - 14 Meteorology of Air Pollution. - 14.1 Temperature in the Lower Atmosphere. - 14.1.1 Pressure and Temperature Relationships in the Lower Atmosphere. - 14.1.2 Temperature Changes of a Rising (or Falling) Parcel of Air. - 14.2 Atmospheric Stability. - Problems. - 15 Cloud Physics. - 15.1 Properties of Water and Water Solutions. - 15.1.1 Specific Heat of Water and Ice. - 15.1.2 Latent Heats of Evaporation and of Melting for Water. - 15.1.3 Water Surface Tension. - 15.2 Water Equilibrium in the Atmosphere. - 15.2.1 Equilibrium of a Flat Pure Water Surface with the Atmosphere. - 15.2.2 Equilibrium of a Pure Water Droplet. - 15.2.3 Equilibrium of a Flat Water Solution. - 15.2.4 Atmospheric Equilibrium of an Aqueous Solution Drop. - 15.2.5 Atmospheric Equilibrium of an Aqueous Solution Drop Containing an Insoluble Substance. - 15.3 Cloud and Fog Formation. - 15.3.1 Isobaric Cooling. - 15.3.2 Adiabatic Cooling. - 15.3.3 Cooling with Entrainment. - 15.3.4 A Simplified Mathematical Description of Cloud Formation. - 15.4 Growth Rate of Individual Cloud Droplets. - 15.5 Growth of a Droplet Population. - 15.6 Cloud Condensation Nuclei. - 15.7 Cloud Processing of Aerosols. - 15.7.1 Nucleation Scavenging of Aerosols by Clouds. - 15.7.2 Chemical Composition of Cloud Droplets. - 15.7.3 Nonraining Cloud Effects on Aerosol Concentrations. - 15.7.4 Interstitial Aerosol Scavenging by Cloud Droplets. - 15.7.5 Aerosol Nucleation Near Clouds. - 15.8 Other Forms of Water in the Atmosphere. - 15.8.1 Ice Clouds. - 15.8.2 Rain. - 15.9 Cloud Climatology. - References. - Problems. - 16 Micrometeorology. - 16.1 Basic Equations of Atmospheric Fluid Mechanics. - 16.2 Turbulence. - 16.3 Equations for the Mean Quantities. - 16.4 Mixing-Length Models for Turbulent Transport. - 16.5 Variation of Wind with Height in the Atmosphere. - 16.5.1 Mean Velocity in the Surface Layer in Adiabatic Conditions. - 16.5.2 Effects of Temperature on the Surface Layer. - 16.5.3 Wind Profiles in the Nonadiabatic Surface Layer. - 16.5.4 Determination of the Friction Velocity ux. - 16.5.5 Empirical Formula for the Mean Wind Speed. - 16.6 The Pasquill Stability Classes. - 16.7 The Convective Boundary Layer. - 16.8 Meteorological Measurements. - References. - Problems. - 17 Atmospheric Diffusion Theories. - 17.1 Eulerian Approach. - 17.2 Lagrangian Approach. - 17.3 Comparison of Eulerian and Lagrangian Approaches. - 17.4 Equations Governing the Mean Concentration of Species in Turbulence. - 17.4.1 Eulerian Approaches. - 17.4.2 Conditions for Validity of the Atmospheric Diffusion Equation. - 17.4.3 Lagrangian Approaches. - 17.5 Solution of the Atmospheric Diffusion Equation for an Instantaneous Source. - 17.6 Mean Concentration from Continuous Sources. - 17.6.1 Lagrangian Approach. - 17.6.2 Eulerian Approach. - 17.6.3 Summary of Continuous Point Source Solutions. - 17.7 Statistical Theory of Turbulent Diffusion. - 17.7.1 Qualitative Features of Atmospheric Diffusion. - 17.7.2 Motion of a Single Particle Relative to a Fixed Axis.- 17.8 Summary of Atmospheric Diffusion Theories. - Appendix 17 Further Solutions. - 17.A.1 Solution of (17.47) to (17.49). - 17.A.2 Solution of (17.68) and (17.69). - 17.A.3 Solution of (17.77) to (17.79). - References. - Problems. - 18 Analytical Solutions for Atmospheric Diffusion: The Gaussian Plume Equation and Others. - 18.1 Gaussian Concentration Distributions. - 18.2 Derivation of the Gaussian Plume Equation as a Solution of the Atmospheric Diffusion Equation. - 18.3 Summary of Gaussian Point Source Diffusion Formulas. - 18.4 Dispersion Parameters in Gaussian Models. - 18.4.1 Correlations for [Sigma]y and [Sigma]z Based on Similarity Theory. - 18.4.2 Correlations for [Sigma]y and [Sigma]z Based on Pasquill Stability Classes. - 18.5 Plume Rise. - 18.6 Analytical Properties of the Gaussian Plume Equation. - 18.7 Functional Forms of Mean Wind Speed and Eddy Diffusivities. - 18.7.1 Mean Wind Speed. - 18.7.2 Vertical Eddy Diffusion Coefficient Kzz.- 18.7.3 Horizontal Eddy Diffusion Coefficients Kxx and Kyy. - 18.8 Solutions of the Steady-State Atmospheric Diffusion Equation. - 18.8.1 Diffusion from a Point Source. - 18.8.2 Diffusion from a Line Source. - References. - Problems. - 19 Dry Deposition. - 19.1 Deposition Velocity. - 19.2 Resistance Model for Dry Deposition. - 19.2.1 Aerodynamic Resistance. - 19.2.2 Quasi-Laminar Resistance. - 19.2.3 Surface of Canopy Resistance. - 19.2.4 Relative Magnitudes of ra, rb,and rc. - 19.3 Dry Deposition of Particles. - 19.4 A Model for Dry Deposition Calculations. - 19.5 Measurement of Dry Deposition. - 19.5.1 Direct Methods. - 19.5.2 Indirect Methods. - 19.5.3 Comparison of Methods. - 19.6 Some Comments on Modeling and Measurement of Dry Deposition. - 19.7 Interaction Between Equilibration Processes and Dry Deposition. - 19.7.1 Solution of the Model Equations. - 19.7.2 The Deposition Ratio. - 19.7.3 Effects of Equilibration Processes on Dry and Wet Deposition. - References. - Problems. - 20 Wet Deposition. - 20.1 General Representation of Atmospheric Wet Removal Processes. - 20.1.1 Parameters Used in Wet Deposition Studies. - 20.2 Below-Cloud Scavenging of Gases. - 20.2.1 Below-Cloud Scavenging of an Irreversibly Soluble Gas. - 20.2.2 Below-Cloud Scavenging of a Reversibly Soluble Gas. - 20.3 Precipitation Scavenging of Particles. - 20.3.1 Raindrop-Aerosol Collision Efficiency. - 20.3.2 Scavenging Rates. - 20.4 In-Cloud Scavenging. - 20.5 Cloud Processes and Wet Deposition. - 20.6 Acid Deposition. - 20.6.1 Acid Rain Overview. - 20.6.2 Current Acid Rain Data and Trends. - 20.6.3 Effects of Acid Deposition. - 20.6.4 Cloudwater Deposition. - 20.6.5 Fogs and Wet Deposition. - 20.6.6 Source-Receptor Relationships. - 20.6.7 Linearity. - 20.7 Acid Deposition Process Synthesis. - 20.7.1 Chemical Species Involved in Acid Deposition. - 20.7.2 Dry Versus Wet Deposition. - 20.7.3 Chemical Pathways for Sulfate and Nitrate Production. - 20.7.4 Acid Rain Chemistry. - References. - Problems. - 21 Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate. - 21.1 Global Temperature Record and Solar Variability. - 21.1.1 The Global Temperature Record. - 21.1.2 Solar Variability. - 21.2 Possible Effects of Global Warming. - 21.3 Carbon Dioxide. - 21.4 Atmospheric Chemistry and Climate Change. - 21.4.1 Direct Radiative Impacts. - 21.4.2 Indirect Chemical Impacts. - 21.4.3 Atmospheric Lifetimes and Adjustment Times. - 21.5 Radiative Effects of Clouds. - 21.6 Radiative Forcing and Climate Sensitivity. - 21.7 Relative Radiative Forcing Indices. - References. - Problems. - 22 Radiative Effects of Atmospheric Aerosols: Visibility and Climate. - 22.1 Scattering and Absorption of Light by Small Particles. - 22.1.1 Rayleigh Scattering Regime. - 22.1.2 Geometric Scattering Regime. - 22.1.3 Scattering Phase Function. - 22.1.4 Extinction by an Ensemble of Particles. - 22.2 Visibility. - 22.3 Scattering, Absorption, and Extinction Coefficients from Mie Theory. - 22.4 Calculated Visibility Reduction Based on Atmospheric Data. - 22.5 Direct Effect of Aerosols on Climate. - 22.5.1 Optical Depth. - 22.5.2 Upscatter Fraction. - 22.5.3 Scattering Model of an Aerosol Layer. - 2.5.4 Cooling Versus Heating of an Aerosol Layer. - 22.5.5 Scattering Model of an Aerosol Layer for a Nonabsorbing Aerosol. - 22.5.6 Direct Aerosol Forcing of Climate by Sulfate Aerosols. - 22.5.7 Effect of Mineral Dust on Radiative Forcing of Climate. - 22.5.8 Effect of Carbonaceous Aerosols on Radiative Forcing of Climate. - 22.5.9 Internal and External Mixtures. - 22.6 Indirect Effect of Aerosols on Climate. - 22.6.1 Radiative Model for a Cloudy Atmosphere. - 22.6.2 Sensitivity of Cloud Albedo to Cloud Drop Number Concentration. - 22.6.3 Relation of Cloud Drop Number Concentration to Aerosol Concentrations. - 22.6.4 Estimates of Indirect Radiative Forcing of Aerosols. - 22.7 Summary: Estimates of Contributions to Radiative Forcing. - 22.8 Climate Response to Anthropogenic Aerosol Forcing. - Appendix 22 Calculation of Scattering and Extinction Coefficients by Mie Theory. - References. - Problems. - 23 Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models. - 23.1 Introduction. - 23.1.1 Model Types. - 23.1.2 Types of Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models. - 23.2 Box Models. - 23.2.1 The Eulerian Box Model. - 23.2.2 A Lagrangian Box Model. - 23.3 Three-Dimensional Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models. - 23.3.1Coordinate System - Uneven Terrain. - 23.3.2 Initial Conditions. - 23.3.3 Boundary Conditions. - 23.4 One-Dimensional Lagrangian Models. - 23.5 Other Forms of Chemical Transport Models. - 23.5.1 Atmospheric Diffusion Equation Expressed in Terms of Mixing Ratio. - 23.5.2 Pressure-Based Coordinate System. - 23.5.3 Spherical Coordinates. - 23.6 Numerical Solution of Chemical Transport Models. - 23.6.1 Coupling Problem -Operator Splitting. - 23.6.2 Chemical Kinetics. - 23.6.3 Diffusion. - 23.6.4 Advection. - 23.7 Applications of Atmospheric Chemical Transport Models. - 23.7.1 Los Angeles Basin Photochemical Smog. - 23.7.2 Acid Deposition in North America. - 23.7.3 Global Sulfur. - 23.8 Model Evaluation. - 8 References. - Problems. - 4 Statistical Models. - 24.1 Recept or Modeling Methods. - 24.1.1 Chemical Mass Balance (CMB). - 24.1.2 Factor Analysis. - 24.1.3 Empirical Orthogonal Function Receptor Models. - 24.2 Probability Distributions for Air Pollutant Concentrations. - 24.2.1 The Log-Normal Distribution. - 24.2.2 The Weibull Distribution. - 24.3 Estimation of Parameters in the Distributions. - 24.3.1 Method of Quantiles. - 24.3.2 Method of Moments. - 24.4 Order Statistics of Air Quality Data. - 24.4.1 Basic Notions and Terminology of Order Statistics. - 24.4.2 Extreme Values. - 24.5 Exceedances of Critical Levels. - 24.5.1 Distribution of Exceedances. - 24.5.2 Expected Return Period or Waiting Time. - 24.6 Alternative Forms of Air Quality Standards. - 24.6.1 Evaluation of Alternative Forms of the Ozone Air Quality Standard with 1971 Pasadena, California, Data. - 24.6.2 Selection of the Averaging Time. - 24.7 Relating Current and Future Air Pollutant Statistical Distributions. - References. - Problems. - Appendix A Units and Physical Constants. - A.1 SI Base Units. - A.2 SI Derived Units. - A.3 Fundamental Physical Constants. - A.4 Properties of the Atmosphere and Water. - A.5 Units for Representing Chemical Reactions. - A.6 Concentrations in the Aqueous Phase. - A.7 Symbols for Concentration. - References. - Appendix B Rate Constants of Atmospheric Chemical Reactions. - References. - Index.