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  • Articles  (4,258)
  • Oxford University Press  (4,258)
  • Nature of Science, Research, Systems of Higher Education, Museum Science  (4,258)
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  • 1
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
    Description: ‘Basic research’ is based on epistemological and intentional criteria. In terms of science policy, however, these criteria imply contradictory views on investment in ‘basic research’. The former espouses the linear model of innovation and encourages policy-makers concerned with economic problems to expand investment on basic research. However, the latter can collide with the policy norm of policy-makers and discourage investment in ‘basic research’ in an institutional setting where the nation-state prevails over scientists, as in South Korea. Emphasizing policy ideas and policy learning, this paper empirically shows that changes in investment priority and the emergence of new concepts about ‘basic research’ are co-products of a policy paradigm of the linear model and a policy norm of industrial competitiveness in Korea. Specifically, emphasis was placed on the balance between pure and oriented basic research, but moved on to ‘oriented basic research’, ‘basic engineering’, and to ‘basic research’ coupled with ‘woncheon-technology’.
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  • 2
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
    Description: Contending that collaboration management practices and interpersonal relationships are the main factors in successful collaboration in R&D, scholars have turned their attention to the relationships between collaborators. Internal factors in research collaboration activities are not yet understood at the team level. They are the so-called black box of collaboration study. The purpose of this paper is to empirically demonstrate how factors relating to team characteristics, motivation, and processes influence research impact. The study works from a multi-theoretical perspective, extending from behavioral science to general management study, and seeks to answer the question: How should we organize and manage a collaborative team to improve its research impact? The empirical results show that, along with previously identified qualitative and quantitative factors, input factors such as: project motivation, transformational leadership, frequent face-to-face communication, more outsourcing, more attentional resource, and more evenly distributed workload improve research impact.
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  • 3
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
    Description: It is often argued that the unintended consequences of science policy transformation over the last 50 years—increased role of fixed-term project funding, evaluation and temporary contracts—are short-termism, fragmentation and limited freedom to choose research topics and collaborators. This paper focuses on a phenomenon that should be highly unlikely in this context: long-term international research collaborations lasting over 10 and 20 years which remain creative and productive. To shed light on the little studied topic of why and how long-term international research collaborations evolve, the paper develops a mid-range theory from multiple longitudinal case studies. It suggests that long-term collaborations combining formal and informal interactions operate as virtuous circles whereas earlier results ensure feedback loops and thematic and organisational continuity, but renewal is crucial. The emergent theory is built from multiple data sources and methods analysing international collaborations in the emerging field of nanosciences in Europe.
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  • 4
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
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  • 5
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
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  • 6
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
    Description: The STInno project, which was part of the EU Framework Programme 7 aimed to minimise the distance between south–north regions in Europe with a specific focus on wastewater treatment clusters. Three triple helix collaborations from three different countries participated, using their knowledge to work on a case study of olive mill wastewaters. The objective of this paper was to study how the triple helix functioned in practice. Results showed that a management model of the triple helix is somewhat different from the analytical model. A shift between these two views occurred during the project and the participants had to relate to this, as it had an effect on the outcomes. Concepts of social capital and trust are used to further elaborate on this by emphasising the importance of the people side of the triple helix and how the original, analytical model can be limiting when used in management practice.
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  • 7
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
    Description: We empirically study how the characteristics of research and innovation systems influence the openness of national research funding programmes as regards the availability of funding to non-resident researchers. Based on a unique data set of national R&D programmes in the EU27 we identify a number of country-specific factors. These factors determine the degrees of programme openness observed when controlling for programme features in a hierarchical estimation model. Interestingly, we find that the quality and performance of national research add to the explanation of programme openness, whereas national integration into EU funding and research collaboration does not.
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  • 8
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
    Description: By linking the realms of public policy-making, science and the public, advisory committees that include academics, state representatives and societal stakeholders answer to a double challenge that governments face today: a need for technical knowledge and an increasing demand for public acceptance and accountability. In contrast to purely scientific policy advice, little theoretical attention has so far been paid to these hybrid advisory committees. Drawing on and adapting research on knowledge utilisation, theories of delegation, decision-making and governance, an analytical framework of the use of multi-source, negotiated expertise will be developed and applied to four cases set up by the German Federal Government with mandates in social policy and in science and technology policy. The study shows the committees’ pronounced governance potential, which builds on their political and epistemic authority. It describes two distinct dynamics that lend the committees to instrumental, problem solving, and symbolic, substantiating purposes.
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  • 9
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
    Description: This paper investigates how different kinds of knowledge are mobilised in interactions between the stakeholders, scientists and bureaucrats who are involved in EU fisheries management. It reports on an initiative led by the North Sea Regional Advisory Council aimed at making a long-term management plan for Nephrops fisheries in the North Sea. The sharing of knowledge between the actors is explored using insights from organisation management, focusing on the kinds of resources and efforts that are needed at different boundaries to allow knowledge sharing and knowledge production to occur. The findings point to the challenge of reaching a common understanding between actors when both novelty and high stakes are involved. Experiences gained during this pioneering initiative raise questions about how far it is possible to take a ‘bottom up’ collaborative process aimed at developing management instruments within a setting where there are conflicts of interests between the stakeholders involved.
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  • 10
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
    Description: This paper analyses public support and argues that supply does not match demand in terms of the support needs of different types of new technology-based firms (NTBFs). The demand side of public support to NTBFs is analysed by developing a typology of NTBFs, based on venture origin and degree of innovativeness. Each type’s characteristics, challenges and support needs are identified. The supply side is analysed in terms of the goals, instruments and level of aggregation of the two main policy areas that provide support for NTBFs: small and medium-sized enterprise policy and science, technology and innovation policy. Finally, the demand and supply sides are compared and three main shortcomings of existing public support to NTBFs are identified. This paper makes a twofold contribution: first, the typology gives guidelines for policy-makers with respect to the support needs of the NTBFs. Second, it identifies shortcomings in existing public support and recommends improvements.
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  • 11
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
    Description: Though the concept of innovation systems has become influential in both academia and policy-making, an analytical approach to understanding innovation systems is still lacking. In particular, there is no analytical framework to measure ‘Mode 1’ and ‘Mode 2’ knowledge production. We propose a framework based on the proximity concept. Mode 1 and Mode 2 knowledge production are characterized by collaborations with cognitive, organizational, social, institutional and geographical proximity, and distance, respectively. Using a gravity model approach we apply our framework to the case of type 2 diabetes research and provide a characterization of the global innovation system and a comparative analysis of the North American and European innovation systems. Our main results hold that although collaborative research on type 2 diabetes generally follows a logic of proximity and hence is not characterized as Mode 2, important differences and similarities exist between the North American and European innovation systems.
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  • 12
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
    Description: The integration of national research systems is one of the central objectives of European research policies. Yet the epistemic objectives of this project have been poorly defined, and scant attention has been paid to whether political, social and financial integration of the European Research Area (ERA) is accompanied by epistemic integration. We discuss the conceptual framework and methodological practices to monitor research integration, and conclude that most of them, such as research collaboration, are only partial indicators of it. To augment existing approaches with an analysis of epistemic integration, we analyse the geographical sources of knowledge of Finnish research in the period 1995–2010. We show a broad shift towards a European knowledge base, demonstrating epistemic integration into the ERA, and that Finnish researchers are, paradoxically, sourcing knowledge from an increasingly distributed system of European knowledge hubs. As policy implications, we recommend clarifying the ERA’s epistemic objectives and redefining its strategy of ‘reducing fragmentation’.
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  • 13
    Publication Date: 2015-08-08
    Description: Attention is increasingly directed toward better understanding the factors driving collaborations among researchers, particularly between researchers from different disciplinary backgrounds. This study investigates factors associated with disciplinary and interdisciplinary research collaboration in the social sciences. We utilize data from a survey of Australian-based social scientists. Interdisciplinary collaboration constitutes a considerable proportion of social scientists’ collaboration activity. Factors linked to the duration and diversity of research careers are positively associated with participation in collaborations. Job experience in Australian and foreign universities also boosts total collaboration, while holding an international citizenship increases interdisciplinary collaboration. Interdisciplinary collaborations are also associated with researcher orientation toward applied research activity. Investment in social science research is important for maintaining existing interdisciplinary and applied collaborations, although better information on these collaborations is desirable. Measures to expand such collaborations should take career stage into account. Broad-based population policies may also be an important underlying factor supporting international collaboration.
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  • 14
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
    Description: The objective of this paper is to study the use of intellectual property (IP) rights by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The paper draws on different surveys and studies in selected countries, with an emphasis on Canadian SMEs, to compare the use and exploitation of IP by company size. The paper finds that despite the potential benefits of acquiring formal IP rights for SMEs, they use IP rights to a lesser degree than large companies due to several factors, mainly the low rate of innovation compared to large companies and the cost and complexity of the IP system. The paper also presents a framework to analyze whether there is a role for government to play in this area, and how the government could address this under-utilization of IP rights by SMEs.
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  • 15
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
    Description: Contributions on interdisciplinary research have so far focused on barriers to such collaborations and strategies for overcoming these. In this paper, we propose that a geographical perspective contributes to understand the formation of successful interdisciplinary research collaborations. The empirical analysis of a centre for clinical cancer research illustrates the importance of considering the role of geographical proximity to collaborators and decision-makers, as well as the co-location of excellent research groups within different fields, in overcoming barriers to interdisciplinary research. We suggest that policies aimed at stimulating lasting interdisciplinary research collaborations should take the distance between collaborators into account.
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  • 16
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
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  • 17
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
    Description: The main question that guides this paper is how governments are focusing (and must focus) on competence building (education, training and skills) when designing and implementing innovation policies. After a brief literature review, this paper suggests a typology of internal/external and individual/organizational sources of competences that are related to innovation activities. This serves to examine briefly the most common initiatives that governments are taking in this regard. The paper identifies three overall deficiencies and imbalances in innovation systems in terms of education, training and skills: the insufficient levels of competences in a system, the time lag between firms’ short-term needs for specific competences and the long time required to develop them, and the imbalances between internal and external sources of competences in firms. From these, the paper elaborates a set of overall criteria for the (re)design of policy instruments addressing those tensions and imbalances.
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  • 18
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
    Description: Ex-ante evaluation of publicly funded R&D projects is a very important part of the public funding process. The main purpose of the ex-ante evaluation process is to rate and choose which R&D projects the public program wishes to support financially. Publicly funded R&D projects in the energy sector can contribute to the further development of explorative and existing energy technologies that meet climate challenges. The aim of this paper is to investigate the ex-ante evaluation process of a Danish energy program with regard to exploration. The paper applies a qualitative approach, combining in-depth interviews with an observation study of 34 project evaluations. The findings show that there is a divergence and confusion between what the informants think constitutes the main purpose of the program, the ex-ante evaluation process, and the level of exploration. The policy implications can help to improve the ex-ante evaluation process of publicprograms.
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  • 19
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
    Description: Scholars have emphasized the role of collaboration for the development of scientific capability and economic growth in developing countries. However, due to the difficulty in obtaining the appropriate evidence, there has been little empirical research on the role of collaboration in developing countries. The purpose of this study is to analyze the evolving collaboration strategy of Korea’s government-supported research institutes (GRIs). Using 44 years of bibliographic data, our analytic framework, which considers the dependence and diversity in knowledge creation, established three main findings. First, the transition of knowledge inflow into the competency of research organizations in developing countries requires the drive of the government along with the internalization of knowledge. Second, universities play an important role in sharing knowledge as scientific capability grows. Third, the role of GRIs with regards to collaboration changes as the scientific capability of external R&D entities and policy directions change.
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  • 20
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
    Description: For years, technological innovations have been the cause of controversy. In reaction to this, increasingly often the bodies responsible for implementing these innovations undertake social dialogue with stakeholders. An important environment for this is media discourse, which defines the problems and key actors and disseminates strategies for argumentation. Effective communication on public policies is one of the challenges in deliberative democracy. This paper aims to analyse the role of experts and knowledge in reference to the models of public communication on shale gas. Using a qualitative press analysis, an incoherence was observed in the understanding of knowledge and the profile of experts and the models of communication using them. The communication, which is rather oriented towards persuasion without legitimisation of scientific factual knowledge, fails. Reference in the discourse to the unknown or uncertain directs attention to the issues related to the strategic exploitation of nonknowledge.
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  • 21
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
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  • 22
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
    Description: A survey of a large, US-based science organization with members from a range of disciplines ( n = 431) found relatively positive views about the public but such views were largely unrelated to past online engagement or willingness to engage in the future. Social norms, efficacy, and a desire to contribute to the public debate were the primary correlates of engagement. The research aims to provide quantitative evidence about how specific attitudes might limit scientists’ willingness to communicate with the public online in the context of recent calls to scientists to take a more active role in public debates about policy involving scientific issues. It highlights substantial remaining uncertainty about the drivers of engagement and the attendant need for ongoing research.
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  • 23
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
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  • 24
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
    Description: In this paper we examine the relationship between research performance, age, and seniority in academic rank of full professors in the Italian academic system. Differently from a large part of the literature, our results generally show a negative monotonic relationship between age and research performance, in all the disciplines under analysis. We also highlight a positive relationship between seniority in rank and performance, occurring particularly in certain disciplines. While in medicine, biology, and chemistry this result could be explained by the ‘accumulative advantage’ effect, in other disciplines, like civil engineering, and pedagogy and psychology, it could be due to the existence of a large performance differential between young and mature researchers, at the moment of the promotion to full professors. These results, witnessed both generally and at the level of the individual disciplines, offer useful insights for policy makers and administrators in academia on the role of older professors.
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  • 25
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
    Description: We explore the impact of organizational size in six federally funded research organizations on a range of organizational processes related to the pursuit of innovation. The data utilized consisted of 266 scientists drawn from 64 research projects across five programmatic research areas: alternative energies, biology, chemistry, geophysical sciences, and material sciences. A sixth project category was added to accommodate the highly interdisciplinary character of a handful of projects. Although the data had some limitations, it was found that organizational size had a negative impact on three categories of innovation processes: the amount of time spent in research and professional activities, how research time is spent, and exchanges of technical knowledge. In addition, some potential advantages of larger size, such as: greater research resources, better perceived managerial quality or a visionary strategy, were not found to be significant.
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  • 26
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
    Description: In this paper, we use insights from science studies to elucidate the nature of advisory science in the context of disasters, particularly those involving geophysical hazards. We argue that there are some key differences between disaster advisory science and the issues that are most discussed in science studies: they are both time- and space-specific and they constitute major social, economic and scientific shocks. We suggest that disasters require flexible advisory structures that maximise the co-production of science and social order, and present a framework for this. We argue that the aim of increasing resilience to natural hazards requires that sociology of scientific knowledge play a part in the application of scientific advice: disaster studies has focused on the reduction of vulnerability as a reaction against technical-rational models of scientific advice, but in doing so has restricted the potential role of the social sciences in the framing of scientific advice and expertise.
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  • 27
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
    Description: To encourage the commercial translation of biomedical discoveries, public policies increasingly seek to stimulate the venture capital industry. Very little is known, however, about the way venture capitalists assess the likely benefits new technologies may bring to clinical practice and healthcare systems. Drawing on a five-year fieldwork conducted in Quebec (Canada), which included in-depth interviews and document analysis, we explore why capital investors choose to invest in certain health technology-based ventures and how they influence the innovation process. Our findings clarify how capital investors: first, use market-oriented valuations when they pick and ‘coach’ technology entrepreneurs; second, act to transform and protect their investments; and finally, exert their authority along the technology development process. Current innovation policies should be carefully examined because capital investors’ understanding of the world in which they operate largely determines which health technologies make their way into healthcare systems and which may never come into existence.
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  • 28
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
    Description: In China the use of public procurement as an innovation policy instrument has been closely associated with the drive to promote indigenous innovation. Implementation was largely through the use of catalogues intended to signal and to formally accredit the supply and demand of technologically-oriented products. This paper reviews these experiences by examining the wider context and three case studies. Accreditation is shown to carry a risk of protectionism. Signaling performs a function analogous to a technology roadmap and was assisted by giving listed technologies priority for public procurement. For both types of instrument the intended mechanism did not work as planned but the broader role they sought to fill was an important factor in bringing innovations to market. The appropriateness and effectiveness of such instruments are shown to be dependent upon the state of both the innovation and the procurement systems in which they are set.
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  • 29
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
    Description: The past two decades have seen an increase in the use of funding schemes such as ‘centres of excellence’. This paper examines how centre of excellence schemes have been adapted to two distinct national public research systems (Norway and Sweden) and the role of the schemes in the systems. It develops a conceptual framework involving three impact dimensions of the centres: organisational, social and international. Together with principal–agent theory the conceptual framework is used to investigate and explain which dimensions are given the most emphasis in the two countries. The main findings are that, in a country with a highly competitive funding system (Sweden), funding agencies emphasise organisational impact to overcome the problem of moral hazard, while a country characterised by relatively high block grant funding of the universities (Norway) tends to emphasise international impact, and invests in strategies to overcome the problem of adverse selection.
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  • 30
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
    Description: This article addresses the patterns of gender and temporary international research visits among researchers, using data from a population of 10,349 Spanish doctorate holders in nine research fields. It analyzes rates of international mobility, and the frequency, duration, and destinations of temporary visits, by gender, with implications for scientific careers. We find that in their overall rates of mobility across fields, women are more internationally mobile than men. But compared to men: first, women’s frequency of international visits is lower; second, their visits occur at earlier ages and stages in their careers; third, their visits are shorter; and finally, their destinations are closer to home. Given the paucity of empirical research on gender and international research mobility, the patterns reported here are sound data points for continuing comparative, cross-national investigations, and point to consequential considerations for gender equity and science and public policy.
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  • 31
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
    Description: As participation by small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) in European collaboration research programs is less than has been striven for, this study investigates the motives of R&D-based SMEs for (non)participation in these programs. Based on the resource-based view, we formulate a set of hypotheses about incentives and barriers that influence the likelihood of participation by SMEs. These hypotheses are empirically tested using a survey of 247 Dutch R&D-based SMEs. We find that European collaborative research programs attract the participation of rather limited numbers of especially science-based SMEs having prior experience with international collaboration, based on the incentives of cost sharing and knowledge sharing and the barrier formed by the costs of participating in these programs. Policy measures are derived that might improve the participation of SMEs in European collaborative research programs are derived from our results.
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  • 32
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
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  • 33
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
    Description: Wind power is increasingly vital for meeting energy challenges and mitigating global climate change and is therefore an important part of renewable energy portfolios in many countries. Given the key and evolving roles of European and Asian countries in driving this sector, this article focuses on two sets of key questions: first, do wind power innovation paths differ between Europe and Asia? If so, how do they differ? Second, do innovation paths reflect different initial conditions in Europe and Asia? Can we expect divergence in the future? We find that although national paths are shaped by a range of national characteristics and therefore differ along key dimensions, the increasing roles of cross-national firm interactions amplify tendencies towards global convergence. These patterns of divergence and convergence can potentially enhance the contribution of wind power to the low-carbon transition but also have implications for the competitive dynamics of the wind power industry.
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  • 34
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
    Description: According to the literature, women researchers are sometimes at a disadvantage in academic recruitment due to insufficient network ties and subtle gender biases among evaluators. But how exactly do highly formal recruitment procedures allow space for mobilizing informal, potentially gendered, network ties? Focusing on the preliminary stages of recruitment, this study covers an underexposed aspect of women’s underrepresentation in academia. By combining recruitment statistics and interviews with department heads at a Danish university, it identifies a discrepancy between the institutionalized beliefs among managers in the meritocracy and the de facto functioning of the recruitment procedures. Of the vacancies for associate- and full professorships, 40% have one applicant, and 19% are announced under closed procedures with clear implications for gender stratification. The interviews reveal a myriad of factors explaining these patterns showing how department heads sometimes exploit decoupling processes to reduce external constraints on management function and ensure organizational certainty.
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  • 35
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    Oxford University Press
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
    Description: With the field of innovation studies (IS) now half a century old, the occasion has been marked by several studies looking back to identify the main advances made over its lifetime. Starting from a list of 20 advances over the field’s history, this discussion paper sets out 20 challenges for coming decades. The intention is to prompt a debate within the IS community on what are, or should be, the key challenges, and more generally on what sort of field we aspire to be. It is argued that the empirical focus of our studies has failed to keep pace with the fast changing world, especially the shift from manufacturing to services and the increasingly urgent need for sustainability. The way we conceptualise, define, operationalise and analyse ‘innovation’ seems somewhat rooted in the past, leaving us less able to grapple with other less visible or ‘dark’ forms of innovation.
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  • 36
    Publication Date: 2016-06-16
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  • 37
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
    Description: The analytical framework of regional innovation systems highlights the systemic nature of regional economies and the need for policy coordination within regions. Coordination presupposes an understanding of the underlying problems that may act as barriers to regional development. Three generic problems facing regions are: lack of resources (e.g. human and financial capital), negative lock-in (e.g. to historically strong sectors), and fragmentation of actors and activities. There are only a few examples of innovation system studies that investigate these problems by analysing actors and their activities as well as the institutional framework surrounding them. This paper offers a framework for analysing innovation system problems, focusing on actors and activities as well as institutions. In doing so, the need for coordination of activities performed by different actors is highlighted, as is the relevance of neutrality in the coordinating function. Three sectoral policy initiatives in a Swedish region are studied.
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  • 38
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
    Description: Intractable policy controversies like migrant integration often involve a high level of politicization. This paper looks specifically at how and why politicization changes research–policy dialogues, involving both the structure of these dialogues and how they affect policy-making and knowledge production. Migrant integration policy (in five EU countries and at EU level) is taken as a case study. Bringing together theories on knowledge utilization, knowledge production and the structure of research–policy relations (dialogue structures), our analysis shows that a process of ‘politicization of science’ goes hand in hand with a process of ‘scientification of politics’. Research–policy dialogues continue in the context of politicization, but in a fundamentally different way. Different sorts of institutional dialogues between research and policy emerge that do justice to political primacy, knowledge utilization becomes more symbolic but not less important, and knowledge production tends to become more fragmented in the context of politicization.
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  • 39
    Publication Date: 2015-04-07
    Description: In recent decades, many disciplines have dealt with the relationship between scientific research and policy-making, and many different models for science–policy interactions have been proposed. This paper aims to investigate the models of science–policy interaction implicitly or explicitly adopted by stakeholders, by means of a Delphi study performed with Italian researchers, politicians, doctors and journalists. The study was developed within the framework of the European project on Research into Policy to Enhance Physical Activity, which aimed to improve evidence-informed policy-making using the field of physical activity as the case study. Our results show the persistence of the traditional linear model and how it coexists with subsequent models in the same individual visions.
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  • 40
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
    Description: Innovation policies are no longer the responsibility of national-level governments alone, because regions and supra-national organizations also implement these policies. This paper aims to identify the character of the relations between different government levels which implement innovation policy in six Baltic Sea Region (BSR) countries (Sweden, Denmark, Finland, Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania). Expansion of innovation policy to different government levels may create a risk of overlapping between various initiatives, therefore a distribution of tasks and policy coordination is important. The theoretical background of the paper focuses on the concept of policy mix which emphasizes the role of interactions between different policies in different dimensions. Innovation policy strategies and in-depth interviews with policy-makers were analysed to characterize the multi-level innovation policy mixes. The results demonstrate that innovation policy mixes in the BSR countries are not characterized by incoherence or overlapping, however, strong mutual reinforcement cannot be identified either.
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  • 41
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
    Description: Five important policy initiatives were promulgated in response to the slowdown in US productivity in the early 1970s, and then again in the late 1970s and early 1980s. These initiatives included the Bayh–Dole Act of 1980, the Stevenson–Wydler Act of 1980, the Research and Experimentation Tax Credit Act of 1981, the Small Business Innovation and Development Act of 1982, and the National Cooperative Research Act of 1984. Scholars and policy-makers have long debated the direction and magnitude of impacts from these policies but empirical evidence remains modest, especially evidence of their aggregate effects. Our assessment of these policies is based on quantifying their collective impact on industrial investments in R&D in the post-productivity slowdown period. Our findings support the conclusion that the relative levels of industrial investments in R&D from 1980 onwards were significantly higher than before, ceteris paribus .
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  • 42
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    Oxford University Press
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
    Description: Many publicly debated issues have implications for health, including smoking, pesticides, food additives, seat belts, fluoridation, vaccination and climate change. Campaigners on such issues use a variety of methods, including presenting evidence and arguments, denigrating opponents, lobbying and organising protests. In some cases, campaigners seek to censor opponents, most commonly on the grounds that their views are false and dangerous. To probe rationales for censorship, recent events in the Australian public debate over vaccination are examined. A citizens’ group critical of vaccination has come under heavy attack, with pro-vaccination campaigners and politicians trying to shut down the group and restrict its speech. This case study provides a window into arguments about free speech on scientific controversies with implications for public health. It highlights the tension between the alleged dangers of expressing ideas and the value of open debate in a free society.
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  • 43
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
    Description: We explore the landscape of technology licensing among Chinese entities in the period 2000–12, using a unique database on technological licensing from the State Intellectual Property Office of China. We find that: first, among Chinese licensee organizations, firms have dominated in terms of the number of licensed technologies; second, the geographical distribution of licensed technologies among the provinces has gradually reached a new quantitative balance; third, utility models are the most popular technologies to be licensed and the majority of technology licensing in China has been between Chinese entities, and most transactions have been local within provinces; and finally, Chinese firms have gradually in-licensed newer and newer technologies, but the technologies in-licensed from foreign sources are by no means state-of-the-art. We make several suggestions for innovation policy-making and for directions for futureresearch.
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  • 44
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
    Description: The nature of public participation in EU research governance is an under-explored area. Assumptions that governance arrangements enable direct participation of ‘the public’ are identified in the academic literature on science communication. This paper considers the extent to which such assumptions can be supported. It presents findings from a preliminary investigation into the discursive construction of the ‘scientific citizen’ in selected official texts of the EU in the context of the development of the European Research Area, focusing on new research infrastructures with the legal status of a European Research Infrastructure Consortium. Specific modes of participation are identified: as assessors of the accountability of decision-makers; as recipients and beneficiaries of scientists’ knowledge-based decisions; and as participants in the scientific process via open access arrangements. The participation of the ‘scientific citizen’ is constructed as linked but external to the decision-making processes.
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  • 45
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
    Description: This paper evaluates how changes in US National Institutes of Health (NIH) funding levels affected US universities’ total biomedical R&D efforts, over a period of dramatic change in the federal funding environment. Instrumental variables estimation reveals that during the NIH budget doubling period (1998–2003), each federal dollar that US universities received spurred an additional $0.26 in research support from non-federal sources, with stronger complementarity found among historically less-research-intensive institutions. However, in the more competitive post-doubling environment (2006 onwards), the more research-intensive PhD-granting universities substituted funding from non-federal sources to maintain stable levels of R&D expenditures. In contrast, at non-PhD-granting and historically less-research-intensive institutions, total R&D funding and expenditures declined overall with reduced availability of federal funds. However, the effect of successful federal applications on subsequent non-federal investment remained significant and positive for this latter group, suggesting federal R&D funding may play an important signaling role.
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  • 46
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    Oxford University Press
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
    Description: The Science Media Centre (SMC) is a new type of organisation at the science–media interface that acts like a press office and supports newsrooms. The first SMC was founded in 2002 in the UK, but, despite its supposed success, its impact on public debates has so far hardly been studied. Based on theoretical considerations and an interview study, this paper argues that the SMC can be understood as a public policy instrument to secure science’s licence to practice. As a technical fix to the social problem of a ‘crisis of public trust in science’, the SMC acts as an emergency press office in science- and technology-intensive controversies. Its deficit model-informed communication policy is that the political is technical, the technical should be evidence-based and this evidence should come from scientific experts. The implications for public debates are considered.
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  • 47
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
    Description: Reliance on market forces can lead to underinvestment in social welfare enhancing innovation. The lack of new medical products in the area of neglected diseases is a case in point. R&D for neglected diseases has increased with new funding and collaborations taking place mainly through product development partnerships (PDPs). PDPs are self-governing, private non-profit R&D organizations. In contrast to push and pull instruments designed to address private-sector R&D underinvestment, PDPs have emerged voluntarily to address this public health challenge. In this study we examine how non-profit R&D collaboration for neglected diseases takes place through PDPs. We find that PDPs act as ‘system integrators’ that leverage the resources and capabilities of a network of public, philanthropic and private-sector partners. This paper contributes to an understanding of R&D in a non-profit context and highlights the importance of collaboration and non-market institutions for promoting innovation where market failures occur.
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  • 48
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
    Description: The politics of European collaborative Big Science are inherently uncertain. The European Spallation Source (ESS) for materials science, planned to be built in Sweden with a collaborative European funding solution that was recently finalized is the most recent example. Sweden has so far invested around one billion SEK (110 million), taking a significant risk given these uncertainties and given Sweden’s complete lack of experience in hosting such big labs. Tracing the Swedish government’s investments in the ESS project, this article shows that so far, the Swedish ESS bid seems to be generally well funded, but that a long-term plan for the funding and a contingency plan for increased costs seem to be absent. This adds to the seeming unpreparedness of Sweden and elevates the already quite high level of risk for Swedish science and science policy of investing in the ESS.
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  • 49
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
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  • 50
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
    Description: This paper sets out a structured methodology for conducting a societal impact assessment (SIA) of security research and security measure implementation. It first provides an overview of the need for and role of SIA, then presents an account of the existing impact assessment methodologies that have influenced this guide. The paper then describes the core methodology based upon an iterative approach to six key sectors of impact, then provides analytical questions for use in this process, before setting out a step-by-step process guideline. This guideline includes guidance on identifying stakeholders and incorporating best practice in impact assessment. Guidance on the content of an SIA report is then provided. The paper concludes with recommendations as how to best embed such a methodology within the broader security research process. The methodology has particular relevance for security research conducted within the EU.
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  • 51
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
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  • 52
    Publication Date: 2015-06-09
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  • 53
    Publication Date: 2015-02-10
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  • 54
    Publication Date: 2015-02-10
    Description: This paper examines the role of grant size in research funding. There is an increasing focus in a number of countries on larger grant forms, such as centers of excellence, and in some cases also increases in the size of individual project grants. Among the rationales for this are economies of scale in research and redistribution of resources towards top researchers in order to increases scientific productivity and pathbreaking research. However, there may potentially also be negative impacts of increasing funding size, and there is limited empirical evidence on the actual consequences of increases in size. In this paper we critically examine the rationales behind increases in funding size and the empirical evidence on the impacts of size in research funding. Our goal here is to present a more coherent view of the potential impacts of these initiatives, both positive and negative, that can help inform funding design.
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  • 55
    Publication Date: 2015-02-10
    Description: On the basis of patent information available online at the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (USPTO) we point at two major and interconnected challenges that policy-makers face in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE) when combating the lagging innovation performance. First, we address the spatial concentration by using a distribution analysis at the city level. The results suggest that patenting is concentrated in post-socialist territories more than in western nations and regions. However, there is not a single outstanding hub in CEE when one compares USPTO patents normalized for the respective population sizes. Secondly, we argue that dominance of foreign control over USPTO patents is mostly embodied in international co-operations at the individual level, and only rarely spilled-over to MNE subsidiaries. In our opinion, catching-up of CEE in terms of patenting is unlikely, unless innovation policy measures focus on growing hubs and target both domestic inventors and international relations of companies.
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  • 56
    Publication Date: 2015-02-10
    Description: We explore new perspectives for analysing knowledge networks, arguing that knowledge networks can no longer be referred to as egalitarian, non-hierarchical, and neutral forms of social organization. Instead, networks reproduce tensions, asymmetries, and hierarchies linked to science, technology, and innovation policy incentives and incorporate dynamic and multi-situated nodes of power. This paper draws on evidence gathered from a case study on transnational and translocal knowledge networks in nanotechnology, which have central nodes at a public research center located in Chihuahua (Chihuahua) and its auxiliary branch in Monterrey (Nuevo Leon) in Northern Mexico. We propose that, in order to understand the production of asymmetries in knowledge networks, an incentive policy element must be added to the equation. The latter refer to monetary, symbolic, and material incentives stemming from all arenas where networks interact.
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  • 57
    Publication Date: 2015-02-10
    Description: This paper analyses the formation of Finnish innovation policy from the mid-1980s to 2010. Inspired by Foucauldian thinking in line with selected social-constructivist policy approaches, it conceptualises innovation policy as a discourse constituted of policy knowledge and policy-making practices. Our alternative approach towards policy formation, introduced in this paper, highlights the role of rules, and gradual changes in these, in defining truth values in policy knowledge, which in turn actualise in policy practice. The paper shows three phases in the investigated policy in Finland. Based on theoretical insights on policy formation, the paper argues that changes in innovation policy cannot be explained as a rational learning process or as isomorphic convergence processes across countries. Rather, they are an outcome of highly politicised negotiations in trans-local contexts where the role of a nation state can vary over time. Another finding is that changes in policy occur in relatively slowly.
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  • 58
    Publication Date: 2015-02-10
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  • 59
    Publication Date: 2015-02-10
    Description: This paper aims to understand the roles universities play in regional innovation systems in China. Specifically, it examines how Chinese practice concerning the engagement of the universities with society for promoting regional innovation systems differs from Western practices from the perspective of the Triple Helix. It focuses on China’s leading metropolis, Shanghai, and takes as a case study the Tongji Creative Cluster which, unlike most other clusters in China, is based on knowledge-intensive services rather than high-tech manufacturing. We find that although it is commonly assumed that the statist Triple Helix model characterises the development of the innovation system in China, the practices of the Tongji Creative Cluster take a different approach, combining both bottom-up initiatives in the initial stage and top-down coordination in later developments. We argue that this model is more useful for China’s regional innovation systems as it can overcome many challenges in the statist model.
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  • 60
    Publication Date: 2015-02-10
    Description: Enhancing the responsiveness of science and innovation programs to societal values is a critical element of responsible innovation. Distinct from laboratory-level research into socio-technical integration, this paper focuses on integration and responsiveness at the level of research priority setting. Taking the case of nanotechnology, it evaluates decision-making in the USA and the UK in the wake of novel policy initiatives for societal research and engagement. It asks to what extent decision-makers explicitly reflected upon societal considerations during priority setting and allocation. Interviews with key decision-makers and staff reveal limited integration of societal actors and considerations during research prioritization. In response to a pervasive history of institutional practices that preclude socio-technical integration, and in contrast to concerns that such considerations may slow down R&D, we propose that building responsiveness into research prioritization can support productivity, contribute to more socially robust outcomes, and possibly even enhance national competitiveness.
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  • 61
    Publication Date: 2015-02-10
    Description: Within the economic geography literature, research has been undertaken to gain an understanding of how science concentrations have developed. However, most of the research has been based on the listing of chronological events or is rather descriptive. More recently, attempts have been made to apply an evolutionary economic geography framework to understand the development of science concentrations as it enables a better understanding of these developments by providing a view on how processes of change operate over time. In the light of this, this paper utilizes an evolutionary economic geography framework to analyze one type of science concentration: a science city. The case of Newcastle Science City is analyzed for the period 2004–11. The findings highlight that organizational restructuring and the establishment of new organizations, stimulating new connections between individuals and regional organizations and avoiding early lock-ins, facilitates the development of science concentrations.
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  • 62
    Publication Date: 2015-02-10
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  • 63
    Publication Date: 2015-02-10
    Description: This paper assesses the contribution of foreign-born scientists and engineers to nanoscience innovation. While studies have assessed immigrants’ general contributions to American science and engineering, less is known about their presence within emergent, cutting-edge, and multidisciplinary fields. Multiple sources are utilized to determine the nativity of researchers within nanotechnology, a platform technology with important implications for economic growth, industrial competitiveness, and numerous fields of scientific research. Specifically, it examines the authors of the most highly-cited articles published in the period 1999–2009. Based on comparisons with the prevalence of foreign-born in the scientific and engineering community and general population, the study’s findings reveal that researchers were disproportionally foreign-born, a trend that has grown over time. Additionally, although over-represented among high-impact researchers, there were no significant differences between the institutional locations (academia versus industry) and research activities (productivity and patterns of collaboration) of foreign and native scientists and engineers.
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  • 64
    Publication Date: 2015-02-10
    Description: This paper explores socio-political opportunities for and barriers to introducing technology assessment (TA) as a support for science and technology (S&T) policy-making in seven European countries, most of which lack any significant TA activities or institutions. The comparative analysis is based on interviews and workshops with relevant S&T actors in the countries explored as well as an analysis of documents. The study clearly shows that any attempt to promote and establish TA has to take account of the situations in the countries explored, which differ in many respects from the situation in the 1980s and 1990s when a first wave of TA institutionalisation took place at national parliaments in Europe. Elements of ‘civic epistemologies’ such as a lively public debate on S&T policies are missing in some of the countries explored and S&T policy-making is busy modernising the R&D system in order to keep up with global competition.
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  • 65
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
    Description: Much previous research has explored university–industry technology transfer, but few researchers have examined the more comprehensive technology transfer process from faculty to firm. This paper focuses on faculty’s decisions on invention disclosure and selection of the mode of commercialization, and it aims to fill this gap through developing game models involving faculty, university, and firm. The results reveal a series of specific conditions for each commercialization mode, indicating that faculty’s share of licensing revenue and non-economic benefit have a positive impact on invention disclosure and the amount of effort expended by faculty, while increasing licensing price, decreasing the invention disclosure rate, and not necessarily increasing the investment by the firm. The empirical evidence supports our theory and renders a practical interpretation in the context of the 35 Chinese universities with the most patent applications. Finally, this paper provides new insights for faculty, university, and firm, as well as implications for policy-makers.
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  • 66
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
    Description: Many countries have amended legislation and introduced policies to stimulate universities to transfer their knowledge to society. The effects of these policies on scientists are relatively unexplored. We employ principal–agent theory to increase our understanding of the relationship between impact policies and scientific practice. Our methodology includes the analysis of policy documents and of data gathered in focus groups. We conclude that there is a gap between policy on the one hand and how scientists perceive it on the other. Policy documents put forward a broad notion of impact, but scientists perceive them as focusing too narrowly on commercial impacts. Scientists are further puzzled by how societal impact is evaluated and organised, and their perceptions frame their behaviour. Our policy recommendations focus on improving the interaction between intermediaries, such as universities and research councils, and scientists so as to include the latter’s perspective in policy-making.
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  • 67
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
    Description: Public perception of nanotechnology is important as it helps scientists and policy makers understand how the public decides whether or not to support the development of these technologies. To examine the public’s perception and attitude toward nanotechnology in China, we conducted a case study in Dalian through a survey in 2013 ( N = 741). Support for the technology was indicated by 96.6% of the sample. This sample also had the highest self-reported awareness of nanotechnology worldwide, with 88.4% of the sample reporting having heard of nanotechnology, although they possessed little knowledge about the technology. Support was associated more with beliefs (e.g. expectations for nanotechnology, trust, benefit/risk ratio) than with knowledge. Mass media news reports and advertisements were the top means of communication about nanotechnology. It is very possible that the rate of support for nanotechnology may change in future, as with support for genetically modified food.
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  • 68
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
    Description: Evidence-based policy-making has been a much-debated concept. This paper builds on various insights for a novel perspective: policy-driven, narrative-based evidence gathering. In a case study of UK priority setting for bioenergy innovation, documents and interviews were analysed to identify links between diagnoses of the problem, societal visions, policy narratives and evidence gathering. This process is illuminated by the theoretical concept of sociotechnical imaginaries—technoscientific projects which the state should promote for a feasible, desirable future. Results suggest that evidence has been selectively generated and gathered within a specific future vision, whereby bioenergy largely provides an input-substitute within the incumbent centralised infrastructure. Such evidence is attributed to an external expertise, thus helping to legitimise the policy framework. Evidence has helped to substantiate policy commitments to expand bioenergy. The dominant narrative has been reinforced by the government’s multi-stakeholder consultation favouring the incumbent industry and by incentive structures for industry co-investment.
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  • 69
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
    Description: This paper attempts to provide a systematic assessment of the ‘Bayh–Dole’ effect on the university–industry–government structures of Malaysia, a developing economy, from a quantitative dimension, in order to provide policy-makers with the central aspects of structural change. This paper takes account of those studies which question the significance of university patenting from the perspective of quality and utility. We observe widespread endogenization of university patenting and co-patenting processes in indigenous technology development cycles after the passage of Bayh–Dole-type legislation. The basic research supports and subsequent provisions of Bayh–Dole-type legislation provide us with the implications of strategic policy in attaining a productive network structure for technological innovations. We consider the importance of Bayh–Dole-type legislation in routinizing university research with regard to potential commercial values or applications. Thus, we break new ground in considering what the passage of such legislation actually achieves in a developing economy.
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  • 70
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
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  • 71
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
    Description: In this study, data envelopment analysis (DEA) is used to evaluate the relative efficiency of a sample of 54 Italian and 30 Polish state universities over the period 2001–11. The investigation was conducted in two steps. Unbiased DEA efficiency scores were first estimated and then regressed on external variables to quantitatively assess the direction and size of the impact of potential determinants. The analysis reveals a strong heterogeneity in the efficiency scores for each country, which is more pronounced than the difference in average efficiency scores between them. There is evidence that efficiency is determined by the structure of a university’s revenues and academic staff: competitive versus non-competitive resources, and the number of professors. The study also explores the variation in the efficiency and productivity over time. While changes in pure efficiency were similar between the two countries, the efficiency frontier improved more in Italy than in Poland.
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  • 72
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
    Description: Responsible innovation implies an aligment of what developers and societal actors perceive to be the problems and purposes of new technologies. With this, the challenge is to prospectively identify those potential concerns and (systemic) barriers that might hamper the development and embedding of innovation. We address this challenge by contextualising different visions of medical neuroimaging, which we identified via interviews and focus groups. We show that different visions result in different desirable technology paths, each with specific concerns and barriers. Concerns include medicalisation and the burden of knowing a predisposition. Barriers comprise: scientific unknowns, technical impossibilities, disciplinary boundaries, and the focus on disease categories and cure in research and health practice. Proposed strategies to overcome the barriers include: different research incentives, training of scientists and health professionals, and developing person-centred health centres. We conclude with implications for the responsible management of medical neuroimaging, in which shared visions and mutual learning are key elements.
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  • 73
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
    Description: This paper investigates the determinants of professors’ career advancement in Italian universities. From the analyses, it emerges that the fundamental determinant of an academic candidate’s success is not scientific merit, but rather the number of years that the candidate has belonged to the same university as the president of the selection committee. Where applicants have participated in research work with the president, their probability of success also increases significantly. The factors of the years of service and occurrence of joint research with other members of the commission also have an effect, however, that carries less weight. Nepotism, although it exists, seems less important. The scientific quality of the members of the commission has a negligible effect on the expected outcome of the competition, and even less so the geographical location of the university holding the competition.
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  • 74
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
    Description: An invisible revolution, known as the third mission, is claimed to be occurring within universities. Accordingly, the canonical missions associated with research and teaching have been integrated with the one aimed at territorial development. But do all universities conceive the third mission in the same way? This paper tries to elucidate which organizational orientations emerge by classifying the espoused values embedded within the statutes of 75 Italian universities. Using a qualitative content analysis, we highlighted four orientation patterns: first, need for coherence , focused on balancing public functions and third-mission activities; second, exploitation , focused on patent disclosure; third, openness , readiness to participate in external change and to satisfy external needs; and finally, old school , focused on entrepreneurial activities as a source of funding. This classification shows a more complex phenomenon for the institutionalization of the third mission with respect to a simple binary public–private opposition.
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  • 75
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
    Description: Nowadays, the use of purposive inflows and outflows of knowledge to accelerate internal innovation and to expand the markets for external use of innovation has become essential in business strategies and national policies. In addition, the importance of knowledge and technology diffusion requires better understanding of knowledge networks and national innovation systems (NISs). We want to answer the following research question: what kinds of effects will occur in NISs if different levels of open innovation policies are introduced into NISs? According to our literature review, perfect open innovation policies should have three aspects: knowledge and technology production, distribution and consumption. We built a causal loop diagram and a system dynamics model to simulate the effects of open innovation policies on NISs and apply the results to the case of Cambodia to develop Cambodia’s national science and technology master plan.
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  • 76
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
    Description: This paper examines the formation and expansion of a new organizational field in experimental science: synchrotron radiation laboratories. These labs were once peripheral servants of some specialisms of solid-state physics, but over the 40 years studied they have grown into a worldwide generic resource for tens of thousands of users in a broad spectrum of disciplines. The paper uses insights primarily from historical institutionalism, but also neo-institutional theory, to analyze the formation and expansion of the organizational field of synchrotron radiation laboratories, and thus contributes to the analysis of the rather dramatic growth of this tool for experimental science from a small-scale lab curiosity to a generic research technology. But the key contribution of the paper is to provide insights into multi-level and multi-dimensional change in science systems by analyzing the emergence and expansion of a new organizational field in experimental science, which has implications not least for science policy.
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  • 77
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
    Description: Despite many previous studies, the causal relationship among intellectual property rights (IPR) protection, innovation and economic growth remains ambiguous. Focusing on the differential effects of stronger IPR on industries, we suggest four causal paths from IPR through R&D to economic performance. Using firm-level panel data in semiconductor, pharmaceutical and shipbuilding industries in Korea, we find that effective causal paths vary not only by industry but by firm size. Stronger IPR are beneficial to R&D-intensive industries where large domestic firms have strong R&D and IPR capabilities, but have no impact on globalized industries. On the other hand, stronger IPR are detrimental to industries and to small and medium enterprises (SMEs) characterized by limited resources. Thus, to boost innovation and economic growth, IPR policies need to be customized to industries as well as SMEs. Universally strong IPR policies are likely to discourage innovation and growth, causing some industries to suffer.
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  • 78
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    Oxford University Press
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
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  • 79
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    Unknown
    Oxford University Press
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
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  • 80
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    Oxford University Press
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
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  • 81
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
    Description: Gender disparities in science remain, despite decades of policies aimed at achieving gender parity. Yet, little is known about the macro-level factors affecting such disparities. This paper examines the degree to which country-level human development indicators (HDI) and gender inequality indicators (GII) gathered by the United Nations Development Report can reveal systemic gender inequalities in scholarship. Countries ‘low’ in HDI and GII had the lowest contribution of female participation in science and highest degree of international collaboration. Research from highly developed countries was more cited, although gender disparities remained. For HDI, gross national income was a strong predictor of scientific output and impact (and, to a lesser degree, collaboration). The rate of women in the labor force was the strongest predictive variable in GII, explaining differences in output, collaboration, and impact. However, predictive variables differed by HDI/GII quartile, suggesting that monolithic policies may not be appropriate for addressing gender disparities in science.
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  • 82
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
    Description: International mobility of researchers is increasingly constructed both as a science policy problem to be solved and as a goal to be pursued. Yet evidence on the experience of mobility and the factors associated with propensity to mobility remains patchy. We analyse comprehensive survey data on the mobility experience of university and non-university research institute researchers in the EU. Our results both confirm and challenge assertions about mobility made in the literature and in policy debates. We find that 57% of university respondents and 65% of institute respondents have experienced international mobility at least once in their research careers. We find that research visits are the most commonly experienced form of international mobility but that job migration (cross-country changes of employer) is also surprisingly common. International student mobility, and also industrial placement experience, seems to be a good predictor of subsequent mobility during the research career.
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  • 83
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
    Description: US legislators prepare and make decisions on bills that involve science and technology (S&T) policy components, but they or their staff may not have sufficient expertise to do this. Therefore, it becomes critical that scientists and engineers from academia and industry spend time in Washington, DC to constructively engage in policy decisions. R&D investment helps drive economic growth. However, US R&D investment has been on the decline, whereas investment continues to increase in some emerging and developed economies. Scientists and engineers need to be champions for R&D investment to keep the USA competitive in the global market. This perspective paper discusses: what is S&T policy, who makes laws, the federal R&D budget and the importance of sustained R&D funding, how the USA compares with the rest of the world in R&D investment and numbers of science graduates. Finally, the author discusses his experiences as an S&T fellow in Washington, DC.
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  • 84
    Publication Date: 2015-12-05
    Description: Chinese universities have undergone a massive transformation in recent decades. In addition to a dramatic increase in the number of universities and students, universities have shifted from primarily providing education to emphasizing research. Omnipresent political control is to be replaced by stronger academic self-organization. The result so far is a growing stratification of Chinese universities, with a few select research universities receiving the bulk of government research funding and a large number of universities with very little public funding for research which focus primarily on education. The rapidly changing landscape, with growing numbers but also increasing stratification and with conflicting relations between political control and self-organization, has given rise to tensions within universities and within the higher education system. In this paper, we identify these tensions and discuss their implications for China’s quest to establish world-class universities and to achieve the transition to an innovation-oriented nation.
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  • 85
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
    Description: Biotechnology is a platform technology that may significantly contribute to climate change mitigation and adaptation. Yet biotechnology is hardly ever referred to as a ‘clean technology’. This paper investigates why biotechnology tends to be ignored in this context. A global stakeholder survey on biotechnology and climate change was conducted with 55 representatives of 44 institutions. The results of a perception pattern analysis show that the majority of stakeholder representatives had a neutral or positive attitude towards the use of biotechnology and regarded its potential to address climate change problems as significant. The survey results further reveal a significant relationship between a representative’s institutional and disciplinary background and his or her attitude. To a considerable extent, a person’s background appears to determine whether biotechnology is framed as a risk or an opportunity for sustainable development.
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  • 86
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
    Description: The extant literature on cluster development focuses largely on ‘clusters’ where businesses are co-located along a supply chain to facilitate territorial concentration of a certain economic activity. This paper presents an inverse model of ‘cluster development’ strategy pioneered by the Emirate of Abu Dhabi. This model is coined as the ‘surrogate mother’ whereby the seeds for a new industry are initially planned in more ‘fertile’ offshore locations, with the intention of transferring knowledge and ‘spill-back’ home at a later phase. The paper introduces the case of Abu Dhabi as an experiment in cluster development and provides an early examination of experience to date in the light of the cluster life-cycle framework. We find that while this model remains an experiment-in-progress, it serves as a good source of learning for other resource-abundant economies seeking industrial renewal and/or greater economic diversification.
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  • 87
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
    Description: Over the last century and a half, global technological leadership has shifted from Great Britain to the USA. In this paper we argue that China is positioning itself to assume global leadership in technology within the coming few decades. We identify three sources of competitive advantage for China’s ascent in the global technology stakes: its massive domestic market, its centralized power and willingness to employ state-sponsored industrial policy and government support, and the process of globalization that continues to transform markets worldwide. After acknowledging skeptical views of China’s capacity to achieve global technology leadership, we survey the present state of affairs and assess its prospects for growth based on statistical evidence and multiple examples. We argue that the three sources of competitive advantage we explicate offer China a path to imminent global technological leadership.
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  • 88
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
    Description: A scenario workshop methodology was used to obtain various assessments of the prospects of multi-stress resistant plants. As biotechnological breakthroughs they are supposed to counter climate change and food shortages. In Europe, however, green biotechnology is highly controversial and positions have become rather entrenched. In our results, the scenario method showed itself to be highly suited to easing the grip of cognitive entrenchments and hierarchical communication structures. At least within the arena of the workshop, technologies as well as participants are on equal footing and can be grouped into various arrangements. This exposes participants to novel perspectives and engages them in deliberations on alternative science policy options, thus taking existing problems and needs into account rather than adapting society to the solutions and requirements of the envisioned technologies.
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  • 89
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
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  • 90
    Publication Date: 2016-02-06
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  • 91
    Publication Date: 2013-12-07
    Description: In this special section of this issue of Science and Public Policy , authors are reflecting the fundamental challenges that the rapid progress in science and technology poses for human rights and privacy in particular. They aim to find new answers to the question how a (global) governance of science and technology could address these challenges. Earlier versions of the papers were presented at the International Conference on Privacy and Emerging Sciences and Technologies, held 27-28 November 2012 in Berlin and at the First European Conference on Technology Assessment that took place in Prague on 13-15 March 2013.
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  • 92
    Publication Date: 2013-12-07
    Description: The possibility of so-called ‘smart' technologies to improve city life has filled both pages of concern and PR leaflets. While the corporations driving these developments have emphasized how smart technologies can improve efficiency, critics have warned against the risks associated with the proliferation of smart surveillance. However, a critical discourse about the potential, limits and risks of the proliferation of smart technologies has not yet emerged, and in most instances public officials and decision-makers are ill-equipped to judge both the value and the externalities of the technologies being sold under the label ‘smart cities'. This paper presents a summary of smart solutions and definitions, and draws on the surveillance literature to address issues and risks related to the global drive to outsmart competing cities in a context of global governance. Using a multi-faceted and multi-disciplinary approach, it aims to provide a starting point for a public debate that involves policy-makers, developers and academics.
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  • 93
    Publication Date: 2013-12-07
    Description: With social network sites (SNS) becoming a pervasive phenomenon, already existing conflicts with privacy are further intensified. As shown in this paper, online and (once) offline contexts increasingly conflate, thereby posing new challenges to the protection of the private sphere. SNS quickly evolve their features and challenge privacy preferences, often without user consent; ‘social graphs’ make social relations highly transparent; social plugins interconnect user traces from within and outside the SNS. As the large amounts of personal information available in SNS are processed with context-rich information, the individual’s informational self-determination is heavily strained. These data attract potential and real observers for behavioural advertising and also for profiling by security authorities. We argue that the emerging usage of SNS (social plugins, increasing role of biometrics and mobile computing) multiplies privacy challenges as all types of privacy become affected. This raises additional demand for public policy to foster privacy-by-design combined with awareness-raising mechanisms to improve informational self-determination.
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  • 94
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    Oxford University Press
    Publication Date: 2013-12-07
    Description: This paper critically explores, from a political economy perspective on public policy, the commodification of privacy on the Internet as a practical-economic and a discursive process. On the one hand, dominant online business models conflict structurally with users’ need for privacy and the users themselves work on their own powerlessness in this regard. On the other hand, there is a privacy discourse that is possessive individualistic in nature but broadly informs the public policy process. It is argued that this discourse is not suitable to prevent economic-practical commodification of personal data and its problems. Criteria and strategies for improvement are identified, and concrete legal, self-regulatory, and technical implications for public privacy policy are derived. This paper uses material from a qualitative interview study and the example of social networking sites to exemplify its theoretical claims.
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  • 95
    Publication Date: 2013-12-07
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  • 96
    Publication Date: 2013-12-07
    Description: This paper presents the results of an exploratory study into the science–policy experiences of former Environment Ministers (senior politicians) and Department Secretaries/Deputy Ministers (senior public servants) to better understand the role of science-based knowledge in the Executive decision-making processes of Westminster-based governments. Our participants identified a number of factors affecting the value of science-based evidence to strategic public policy processes. They described a lack of access to appropriately contextualized knowledge and a lack of accountability to demonstrate how science was considered in Cabinet decision-making. Many participants felt senior academics had an obligation to be more involved in public policy debates, to advocate policy positions based on their research and to ask questions that could assist governments on environmental issues. Concomitant was the desire for fundamental institutional changes, including greater use of deliberative public participation tools in environmental science and policy and more networked approaches to science.
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  • 97
    Publication Date: 2013-12-07
    Description: The concept of responsible research and innovation (RRI) is increasingly used to describe novel ways of governing research and the relationship between key research stakeholders including researchers, industry, policy-makers and civil society. It is thus of key importance for science, research and innovation policy. This paper defines RRI as a higher-level responsibility or meta-responsibility that aims to shape, maintain, develop, coordinate and align existing and novel research and innovation-related processes, actors and responsibilities with a view to ensuring desirable and acceptable research outcomes. It shows the role privacy has in the developing framework of RRI. The paper discusses dimensions of RRI as well as weaknesses of the current approach towards RRI and provides future directions for research and practice that will allow RRI to live up to its promise and ensure that past and present work on privacy and data protection find an appropriate place within this framework.
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  • 98
    Publication Date: 2013-12-07
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  • 99
    Publication Date: 2013-12-07
    Description: Nations, universities, and regional governments promote the dissemination of scientific and technical knowledge. They focus on knowledge-based innovations and the university’s economic function in terms of technology transfer, intellectual property, university–industry–government relations etc. Faculties other than engineering or applied sciences, however, may not be able to recognize opportunities in this ‘linear model’ of technology transfer. We elaborate a non-market perspective on the third mission in terms of disclosure of the knowledge and areas of expertise available for disclosure to other audiences at a provincial university. The use of information and communications technologies can enhance communication between actors on the supply and demand sides. Using an idea developed in the context of the Dutch science shops, university staff were questioned about keywords and areas of expertise with the specific purpose of disclosing this information to audiences other than academic colleagues. The results were brought online in a hyperlink index structure.
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  • 100
    Publication Date: 2013-12-07
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