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Note: Contents List of Abbreviations List of Symbols Part A Basics of Atmospheric Measurement Techniques 1 Introduction to Atmospheric Measurements / Thomas Foken, Frank Beyrich, Volker Wulfmeyer 1.1 Measuring Meteorological Elements 1.2 History 1.3 The Structure of the Atmosphere 1.4 Devices, Systems, and Typical Specifications 1.5 Applications 1.6 Future Developments 1.7 Further Reading References 2 Principles of Measurements / Wolfgang Foken 2.1 Basics of Measurements 2.2 History 2.3 Errors in Measurement 2.4 Regression Analysis 2.5 Time Domain and Frequency Domain for Signals and Systems 2.6 Dynamics of Measuring Systems 2.7 Analog and Digital Signal Processing 2.8 Hardware for Digital Measurement Systems 2.9 Further Reading References 3 Quality Assurance and Control / Cove Sturtevant, Stefan Metzger, Sascha Nehr, Thomas Foken 3.1 Principles and Definition 3.2 History 3.3 Elements of Quality Management 3.4 Application 3.5 Future Developments 3.6 Further Reading References 4 Standardization in Atmospheric Measurements / Simon Jäckel, Annette Borowiak, Brian Stacey 4.1 Background and Definitions 4.2 History 4.3 Principles and Procedures 4.4 Standardization in the Field of Atmospheric Measurements 4.5 Future Developments 4.6 Further Reading References 5 Physical Quantities / Thomas Foken, Olaf Hellmuth, Bernd Huwe, Dietrich Sonntag 5.1 Selection of Parameters 5.2 History and Thermodynamic Standards 5.3 Units and Constants 5.4 Parameters of Air, Water Vapor, Water, and Ice 5.5 Parameterization of Optical Properties of Clouds 5.6 Absorption Coefficients for Water Vapor, Ozone, and Carbon Dioxide 5.7 Parameters of Soil 5.8 Time and Astronomical Quantities 5.9 Tables in Other Chapters 5.10 Future Developments 5.11 Further Reading References Part B In situ Measurement Techniques 6 Ground-Based Platforms / Olaf Kolle, Norbert Kalthoff, Christoph Kottmeier, J. William Munger 6.1 Principles of Platforms 6.2 History 6.3 Theory 6.4 Platforms and Sensor Installations 6.5 Specification 6.6 Quality Control and Safety 6.7 Maintenance 6.8 Applications 6.9 Future Developments 6.10 Further Reading References 7 Temperature Sensors / Thomas Foken, Jens Bange 7.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 7.2 History 7.3 Theory 7.4 Devices and Systems 7.5 Specifications 7.6 Quality Control 7.7 Maintenance 7.8 Applications. 7.9 Future Developments 7.10 Further Reading References 8 Humidity Sensors / Dietrich Sonntag, Thomas Foken, Holger Vömel, Olaf Hellmuth 8.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 8.2 History 8.3 Theory 8.4 Devices and Systems 8.5 Specifications 8.6 Quality Control 8.7 Maintenance 8.8 Application 8.9 Future Developments 8.10 Further Readings References 9 Wind Sensors / Thomas Foken, Jens Bange 9.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 9.2 History 9.3 Theory 9.4 Devices and Systems 9.5 Specifications 9.6 Quality Control 9.7 Maintenance 9.8 Application 9.9 Future Developments 9.10 Further Reading References 10 Pressure Sensors / Anni Torri, Thomas Foken, Jens Bange 10.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 10.2 History 10.3 Theory 10.4 Devices and Systems 10.5 Specifications 10.6 Quality Control 10.7 Maintenance 10.8 Application 10.9 Future Developments 10.10 Further Reading References 11 Radiation Sensors / Klaus Behrens 11.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 11.2 History 11.3 Theory 11.4 Devices and Systems 11.5 Specifications 11.6 Quality Control 11.7 Maintenance 11.8 Applications 11.9 Future Developments 11.10 Further Reading References 12 In-situ Precipitation Measurements / Arianna Cauteruccio, Matteo Colli, Mattia Stagnaro, Luca G. Lanza, Emanuele Vuerich 12.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 12.2 History 12.3 Theory 12.4 Devices and Systems 12.5 Specifications 12.6 Quality Control, Uncertainty, and Calibration 12.7 Maintenance 12.8 Application 12.9 Future Developments 12.10 Further Reading References 13 Visibility Sensors / Martin Löffler-Mang, Klaus Heyn 13.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 13.2 History 13.3 Theory 13.4 Devices and Systems 13.5 Specifications 13.6 Quality Control 13.7 Maintenance 13.8 Application 13.9 Future Developments 13.10 Further Reading References 14 Electricity Measurements / Giles Harrison, Alec Bennett 14.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 14.2 History 14.3 Theory 14.4 Devices and Systems 14.5 Specifications 14.6 Quality Control 14.7 Maintenance 14.8 Applications 14.9 Future Developments 14.10 Further Reading References 15 Radioactivity Sensors / Jacqueline Bieringer, Thomas Steinkopff, Ulrich Stöhlker 15.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 15.2 History 15.3 Theory 15.4 Devices and Systems 15.5 Specifications 15.6 Quality Control 15.7 Maintenance 15.8 Application 15.9 Future Developments 15.10 Further Reading References 16 Gas Analysers and Laser Techniques / Dwayne Heard, Lisa K. Whalley, Steven S. Brown 16.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 16.2 History 16.3 Theory 16.4 Devices and Systems 16.5 Specifications 16.6 Quality Control 16.7 Maintenance 16.8 Applications 16.9 Future Developments 16.10 Further Reading References 17 Measurement of Stable Isotopes in Carbon Dioxide, Methane, and Water Vapor / Ingeborg Levin, Matthias Cuntz 17.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 17.2 History of Stable Isotope Measurements in Atmospheric CO2, CH4 and H2O 17.3 Theory 17.4 Devices and Systems 17.5 Specifications 17.6 Quality Control 17.7 Maintenance 17.8 Application 17.9 Future Developments 17.10 Further Readings References 18 Measurement of Fundamental Aerosol Physical Properties / Andreas Held, Alexander Mangold 18.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 18.2 History 18.3 Theory 18.4 Devices and Systems 18.5 Specifications 18.6 Quality Control 18.7 Maintenance 18.8 Application 18.9 Future Developments 18.10 Further Reading References 19 Methods of Sampling Trace Substances in Air / Christopher Pöhlker, Karsten Baumann, Gerhard Lammel 19.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 19.2 History 19.3 Theory 19.4 Devices and Systems 19.5 Specifications 19.6 Quality Control 19.7 Maintenance 19.8 Application 19.9 Future Developments 19.10 Further Reading References 20 Optical Fiber-Based Distributed Sensing Methods / Christoph K. Thomas, John Selker 20.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 20.2 History 20.3 Theory 20.4 Devices 20.5 Specifications 20.6 Quality Control 20.7 Maintenance 20.8 Applications 20.9 Future Developments 20.10 Further Reading References 21 Odor Measurements / Ralf Petrich, Axel Delan 21.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 21.2 History 21.3 Theory 21.4 Devices and Systems 21.5 Specifications 21.6 Quality Control 21.7 Maintenance 21.8 Application 21.9 Future Developments 21.10 Further Readings References 22 Visual Observations / Thomas Foken, Raymond Rülke 22.1 Principles of Visual Observations 22.2 History 22.3 Theory 22.4 Observed Parameters 22.5 Quality Control 22.6 Application 22.7 Future Developments 22.8 Further Readings References Part C Remote-Sensing Techniques (Ground-Based) 23 Sodar and RASS / Stefan Emeis 23.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 23.2 History 23.3 Theory 23.4 Devices and Systems 23.5 Specifications 23.6 Quality Control 23.7 Maintenance 23.8 Applications 23.9 Future Developments 23.10 Further Reading References 24 Backscatter Lidar for Aerosol and Cloud Profiling / Christoph Ritter, Christoph Münkel 24.1 Measurement Prinziples and Parameters 24.2 History 24.3 Theory 24.4 Devices and Systems 24.5 Specifications 24.6 Quality Control 24.7 Maintenance 24.8 Applications 24.9 Further Reading References 25 Raman Lidar for Water-Vapor and Temperature Profiling / Volker Wulfmeyer, Andreas Behrendt 25.1 Measurement Principles and Parameters 25.2 History 25.3 Theory 25.4 Devices and Systems 25.5 Specifications 25.6 Quality Control 25.7 Maintenance 25.8 Applications 25.9 Future Developments 25.10 Further Reading References 26 Water Vapor Differential Absorption Lidar / Scott M. Spuler, Matthew Hayman, Tammy M. Weckwerth 26.1 Measurement Principles and Param

Note: Contents 1 General Basics 1.1 Micrometeorology 1.2 Atmospheric Scales 1.3 Atmospheric Boundary Layer 1.4 Energy Balance at the Earth’s Surface 1.4.1 Net Radiation at the Earth’s Surface 1.4.2 Ground Heat Flux and Ground Heat Storage 1.4.3 Turbulent Fluxes 1.5 Water Balance Equation References 2 Basic Equations of Atmospheric Turbulence 2.1 Equation of Motion 2.1.1 Navier-Stokes Equation of Mean Motion 2.1.2 Turbulent Equation of Motion 2.1.3 Closure Techniques 2.2 Equation of the Turbulence Kinetic Energy 2.3 Flux-Gradient Similarity 2.3.1 Profile Equations for Neutral Stratification 2.3.2 Integration of the Profile Equation—Roughness and Zero-Plane Displacement 2.3.3 Monin-Obukhov’s Similarity Theory 2.3.4 Bowen-Ratio Similarity 2.4 Flux-Variance Similarity 2.5 Turbulence Spectrum 2.6 Atmospheric Boundary Layer 2.6.1 Mixed Layer Height 2.6.2 Resistance Law 2.6.3 Integral Turbulence Characteristics References 3 Specifics of the Near-Surface Turbulence 3.1 Properties of the Underlying Surface 3.1.1 Roughness—Additional Remarks 3.1.2 Zero-Plane Displacement—Additional Remarks 3.1.3 Profiles in Plant Canopies 3.2 Internal Boundary Layers 3.2.1 Definition 3.2.2 Experimental Findings 3.2.3 Thermal Internal Boundary Layer 3.2.4 Blending-Height Concept 3.2.5 Practical Relevance of Internal Boundary Layers 3.3 Obstacles 3.4 Footprint 3.4.1 Definition 3.4.2 Footprint Models 3.4.3 Application of Footprint Models 3.5 High Vegetation 3.5.1 Behaviour of Meteorological Parameters in a Forest 3.5.2 Counter Gradient Fluxes—Coherent Structures 3.5.3 Roughness Sublayer—Mixing Layer 3.5.4 Coupling Between the Atmosphere and Plant Canopies 3.6 Advection 3.7 Conditions Under Stable Stratification 3.8 Energy Balance Closure References 4 Experimental Methods for Estimating the Fluxes of Energy and Matter 4.1 Profile Method 4.1.1 Profile Method with Two Measurement Heights 4.1.2 Profile Measurements with Several Measurement Heights 4.1.3 Power-Law 4.2 Eddy-Covariance Method 4.2.1 General Basics 4.2.2 Basics in Measurement Technique 4.2.3 Applicable Correction Methods 4.2.4 Corrections in Question 4.2.5 Quality Assurance 4.2.6 Overall Evaluation 4.3 Flux-Variance Relations 4.4 Accumulation Methods 4.4.1 Eddy-Accumulations-Method (EA) 4.4.2 Relaxed Eddy-Accumulation Method (REA) 4.4.3 Disjunct Eddy-Covariance Method (DEC) 4.4.4 Surface Renewal Method 4.5 Fluxes of Chemical Substances References 5 Modeling of the Energy and Matter Exchange 5.1 Energy Balance Methods 5.1.1 Determination of the Potential Evaporation 5.1.2 Determination of the Actual Evaporation 5.1.3 Determination from Routine Weather Observations 5.2 Hydrodynamical Multilayer Models 5.3 Resistance Approach 5.4 Modelling of Water Surfaces 5.5 Boundary Layer Modelling 5.5.1 Prognostic Models for the Mixed Layer Height 5.5.2 Parametrization of the Wind Profile in the Boundary Layer 5.6 Modeling in Large-Scale Models 5.7 Large-Eddy Simulation 5.8 Area Averaging 5.8.1 Simple Area Averaging Methods 5.8.2 Complex Area-Averaging Methods 5.8.3 Model Coupling References 6 Measurement Technique 6.1 Data Collection 6.1.1 Principles of Digital Data Collection 6.1.2 Signal Sampling 6.1.3 Transfer Function 6.1.4 Inertia of a Measurement System 6.2 Measurement of Meteorological Elements 6.2.1 Radiation Measurements 6.2.2 Wind Measurements 6.2.3 Temperature and Humidity Measurements 6.2.4 Precipitation Measurements 6.2.5 Remote Sensing Methods 6.2.6 Other Measurement Techniques 6.3 Quality Assurance 6.3.1 Measurement Planning 6.3.2 Quality Control 6.3.3 Intercomparison of Measurement Devices References 7 Microclimatology 7.1 Climatological Scales 7.2 Generation of Local Climates 7.2.1 Small-Scale Changes of Climate Elements 7.2.2 Local Climate Types 7.3 Microclimate Relevant Circulations 7.3.1 Land-Sea Wind Circulation 7.3.2 Mountain-Valley Circulation 7.4 Local Cold-Air Flows 7.5 Land Use Changes and Local Climate 7.5.1 Changes of Surface Roughness 7.5.2 Changes of the Evaporation 7.5.3 Change of the Albedo 7.5.4 Degradation 7.6 Microclimatological Measurements References 8 Applied Meteorology 8.1 Examples of Applied Meteorological Applications 8.1.1 Distribution of Air Pollution 8.1.2 Meteorological Conditions of Wind Energy Use 8.1.3 Sound Propagation in the Atmosphere 8.1.4 Human Biometeorology 8.2 Perspectives of the Applied Meteorology References Appendix References Index