ALBERT

Anmerkung: Contents Preface Introduction List of Symbols Part I Fundamentals Chapter 1 Identification of Clouds 1.1 Atmospheric Structure and Scales 1.2 Cloud Types Identified Visually 1.2.1 Genera, Species, and Étages 1.2.2 Low Clouds 1.2.3 Middle Clouds 1.2.4 High Clouds 1.2.5 Orographic Clouds 1.3 Cloud Systems Identified by Satellite 1.3.1 Mesoscale Convective Systems 1.3 .2 Hurricanes 1.3.3 Extratropical Cyclones Chapter 2 Atmospheric Dynamics 2.1 The Basic Equations 2.1.1 Equation of Motion 2.1.2 Equation of State 2.1.3 Thermodynamic Equation 2.1.4 Mass Continuity 2.1.5 Water Continuity 2.1.6 The Full Set of Equations 2.2 Balanced Flow 2.2.1 Quasi-Geostrophic Motion 2.2.2 Semigeostrophic Motions 2.2.3 Gradient-Wind Balance 2.2.4 Hydrostatic Balance 2.2.5 Thermal Wind 2.2.6 Cyclostrophic Balance 2.3 Anelastic and Boussinesq Approximations 2.4 Vorticity 2.5 Potential Vorticity 2.6 Perturbation Form of the Equations 2.6.1 Equation of State and Continuity Equation 2.6.2 Thermodynamic and Water-Continuity Equations 2.6.3 Equation of Motion 2.6.4 Eddy Kinetic Energy Equation 2.7 Oscillations and Waves 2.7.1 Buoyancy Oscillations 2.7.2 Gravity Waves 2.7.3 Inertial Oscillations 2.7.4 Inertio-Gravity Waves 2.8 Adjustment to Geostrophic and Gradient Balance 2.9 Instabilities 2.9.1 Buoyant, Inertial, and Symmetric Instabilities 2.9.2 Kelvin-Helmholtz Instability 2.9.3 Rayleigh-Benard Instability 2.10 Representation of Eddy Fluxes 2.10.1 K-Theory 2.10.2 Higher-Order Closure 2.10.3 Large-Eddy Simulation 2.11 The Planetary Boundary Layer 2.11.1 The Ekman Layer 2.11.2 Boundary-Layer Stability 2.11.3 The Surface Layer Chapter 3 Cloud Microphysics 3.1 Microphysics of Warm Clouds 3.1.1 Nucleation of Drops 3.1.2 Condensation and Evaporation 3.1.3 Fall Speeds of Drops 3.1.4 Coalescence 3.1.5 Breakup of Drops 3.2 Microphysics of Cold Clouds 3.2.1 Homogeneous Nucleation of Ice Particles 3.2.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation of Ice Particles 3.2.3 Deposition and Sublimation 3.2.4 Aggregation and Riming 3.2.5 Hail 3.2.6 Ice Enhancement 3.2.7 Fall Speeds of Ice Particles 3.2.8 Melting 3.3 Types of Microphysical Processes and Categories of Water Substance in Clouds 3.4 Water-Continuity Equations 3.5 Explicit Water-Continuity Models 3.5.1 General 3.5.2 Explicit Modeling of Warm Clouds 3.5.3 Explicit Modeling of Cold Clouds 3.6 Bulk Water-Continuity Models 3 .6.1 Bulk Modeling of Warm Clouds 3.6.2 Bulk Modeling of Cold Clouds Chapter 4 Radar Meteorology 4.1 General Characteristics of Meteorological Radars 4.2 Reflectivity Measurements 4.2.1 Obtaining Reflectivity from Returned Power 4.2.2 Relating Reflectivity to Precipitation 4.2.3 Estimating Areal Precipitation from Radar Data 4.3 Polarization Data 4.4 Doppler Velocity Measurements 4.4.1 Radial Velocity 4.4.2 Velocity and Range Folding 4.4.3 Vertical Incidence Observations 4.4.4 Range-Height Data 4.4.5 Velocity-Azimuth Display Method 4.4.6 Multiple-Doppler Synthesis 4.4.7 Retrieval of Thermodynamic and Microphysical Variables Part II Phenomena Chapter 5 Shallow-Layer Clouds 5.1 Fog and Stratus in a Boundary Layer Cooled from Below 5.1.1 General Considerations 5.1.2 Turbulent Mixing in Fog 5.1.3 Radiation Fog 5. 1.4 Arctic Stratus 5.2 Stratus, Stratocumulus, and Small Cumulus in a Boundary Layer Heated from Below 5.2.1 General Considerations 5.2.2 Cloud-Topped Mixed Layer 5.2.3 Mesoscale Structure of Mixed-Layer Clouds 5.3 Cirriform Clouds 5.3.1 General Considerations 5.3.2 Cirrus Uncinus 5.3.3 Ice-Cloud Outflow from Cumulonimbus 5.3.4 Cirriform Cloud in a Thin Layer Apart from a Generating Source 5.4 Altostratus and Altocumulus 5.4.1 Altostratus and Altocumulus Produced as Remnants of Other Clouds 5.4.2 Altocumulus as High-Based Convective Clouds 5.4.3 Altostratus and Altocumulus as Shallow-Layer Clouds Aloft 5.4.4 Ice Particle Generation by Altocumulus Elements 5.4.5 Interaction of Altocumulus and Lower Cloud Layers Chapter 6 Nimbostratus 6.1 Stratiform Precipitation 6.1.1 Definition and Distinction from Convective Precipitation 6.1.2 Radar-Echo Structure 6.1.3 Microphysical Observations 6.1.4 Role of Convection 6.2 Nimbostratus with Shallow Embedded Convection Aloft 6.3 Nimbostratus Associated with Deep Convection 6.4 Radiation and Turbulent Mixing in Nimbostratus Chapter 7 Cumulus Dynamics 7.1 Buoyancy 7.2 Pressure Perturbation 7.3 Entrainment 7.3.1 General Considerations 7.3.2 Continuous, Homogeneous Entrainment 7.3.3 Discontinuous, Inhomogeneous Entrainment 7.4 Vorticity 7.4.1 General Considerations 7.4.2 Horizontal Vorticity 7.4.3 Vertical Vorticity 7.5 Modeling of Convective Clouds 7.5.1 General Considerations 7.5.2 One-Dimensional Time-Dependent Model 7.5.3 Two- and Three-Dimensional Models Chapter 8 Thunderstorms 8.1 Small Cumulonimbus Clouds 8.2 Multicell Thunderstorms 8.3 Supercell Thunderstorms 8.4 Environmental Conditions Favoring Different Types of Thunderstorms 8.5 Supercell Dynamics 8.5.1 Storm Splitting and Propagation 8.5.2 Directional Shear 8.6 Transition of the Supercell to the Tomadic Phase 8.7 Nonsupercell Tornadoes and Waterspouts 8.8 The Tornado 8.8.1 Observed Structure and Life Cycle 8.8.2 Tornado Vortex Dynamics 8.9 Gust Fronts 8.10 Downbursts 8.10.1 Definitions and Descriptive Models 8.10.2 Effects of Microbursts on Aircraft 8.10.3 Dynamics of Microbursts 8.11 Lines of Thunderstorms Chapter 9 Mesoscale Convective Systems 9.1 General Characteristics of the Cloud and Precipitation Patterns 9.1.1 Satellite Observations 9.1.2 Precipitation Structure 9.1.3 Life Cycle of a Precipitation Area 9.2 The Squall Line with Trailing Stratiform Precipitation 9.2.1 General Features 9.2.2 The Convective Region 9.2.3 The Stratiform Region 9.3 General Kinematic Characteristics of Mesoscale Convective Systems 9.3.1 Divergence Associated with Mesoscale Convective Systems 9.3.2 Vorticity in Regions Containing Mesoscale Convective Systems Chapter 10 Clouds in Hurricanes 10.1 General Features of Hurricanes 10.1.1 Definition and Regions of Formation 10.1.2 General Pattern of Clouds and Precipitation 10.1.3 Storm-Scale Kinematics and Thermodynamics 10.2 The Inner-Core Region 10.3 Basic Hurricane Dynamics 10.4 Clouds and Precipitation in the Eyewall 10.4.1 Slantwise Circulation in the Eyewall Cloud 10.4.2 Strength of the Radial-Vertical Circulation in the Eyewafl Cloud 10.4.3 Vertical Convection in the Eyewall 10.4.4 Downdrafts 10.4.5 Eyewall Propagation 10.5 Rainbands Chapter 11 Precipitating Clouds in Extratropical Cyclones 11.1 Structure and Dynamics of a Baroclinic Wave 11.1.1 Idealized Horizontal and Vertical Structure 11.1.2 Dynamics Governing Large-Scale Vertical Air Motion 11.1.3 Application of the Omega Equation to a Real Baroclinic Wave 11.1.4 Low-Level Cyclone Development 11.2 Circulation at a Front 11.2.1 Quasi-Geostrophic Frontogenesis 11.2.2 Semigeostrophic Frontogenesis 11.2.3 Moist Frontogenesis 11.2.4 Some Simple Theoretical Examples 11.3 Horizontal Patterns of Frontal Zones in Developing Cyclones 11.4 Clouds and Precipitation in a Frontal Cyclone 11.4.1 Satellite-Observed Cloud Patterns 11.4.2 Distribution of Precipitation within the Cloud Pattern 11.4.3 Narrow Cold-Frontal Rainbands 11.4.4 Wide Cold-Frontal Rainbands 11.4.5 Warm-Frontal Rainbands 11.4.6 Clouds and Precipitation Associated with the Occlusion 11.5 Clouds in Polar Lows 11.5.1 Comma-Cloud System 11.5.2 Small Hurricane-like Vortex Chapter 12 Orographic Clouds 12.1 Shallow Clouds in Upslope Flow 12.2 Wave Clouds Produced by Long Ridges 12.2.1 Flow over Sinusoidal Terrain 12.2.2 Flow over a Ridge of Arbitrary Shape 12.2.3 Clouds Associated with Vertically Propagating Waves 12.2.4 Clouds Associated with Lee Waves 12.2.5 Nonlinear Effects: Large-Amplitude Waves, Blocking, the Hydraulic Jump, and Rotor Clouds 12.3 Clouds Associated with Flow over Isolated Peaks 12.4 Orographic Precipitation 12.4.1 Seeder-Feeder Mechanism over Small Hills 12.4.2 Upslope Condensation 12.4.3 Orographic Convection References Index