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  • Chemical Engineering  (583)
  • 1955-1959  (583)
  • 101
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    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 361-366 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: The reaction rate of gaseous acetylene and hydrogen chloride was studied experimentally on a mercuric chloride-activated carbon catalyst at pressures from 1 to 4 atm. and temperatures of 167°, 212°, and 257°F. The measurements were made in a differential reactor packed with mercuric chloride impregnated on activated carbon, the data being taken to obtain the separate effect of the partial pressure of each of the components on the rate.The results indicated that hydrogen chloride was strongly adsorbed on the catalyst and that vinyl chloride was also adsorbed to a significant extent. A rate equation, which well represented the data, was developed from the following postulates: (a) acetylene is adsorbed on the catalyst on one type of site, (b) hydrogen chloride and vinyl chloride are adsorbed on a different kind of site, (c) the formation of vinyl chloride occurs by reaction of adsorbed acetylene and adsorbed hydrogen chloride, and (d) the rates of adsorption and desorption are fast compared with the formation rate of vinyl chloride.
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  • 102
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 411-411 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 103
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 111-115 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: A generalized computing method is developed to perform mathematical “relaxation” on a Datatron digital computer. The application of the developed relaxation or iteration procedures results in obtaining numerical solutions to several engineering boundary-value problems expressed by elliptic differential equations. The developed digital relaxation routine is found to be effective, fast, and practical in solving numerous steady-state heat and mass transfer problems with arbitrary and quite often complex boundary conditions. While the specific speed and accuracy of the developed digital method is found to depend upon the type of differential equation, the grid size, and computational tolerance requirements, a typical problem indicates that 250 iterations/min. speed and 1% accuracy may be achieved in an average case.The examples presented in this paper are chosen from the more classical heat transfer and temperature and pressure distribution problems in order to indicate some other areas where similar engineering problems can be solved however complex the boundary conditions may be.
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  • 104
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    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 181-188 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Experimental studies are described concerning the fluid dynamics, particularly in the turbulent region, of dilute solutions of free-draining, nonassociating, linear polymers; sodium carboxymethylcellulose, ammonium alginate, polyisobutylene, and carboxypolymethylene, all of which are pseudoplastic. These solutions were run in laminar, transition, and turbulent flow in a pipeline flow apparatus designed to permit measurement of dynamic pressure drop and impact pressure by radial traverse.Photographic studies with dye injection used at the tube wall and at the tube center showed that turbulent flow of these pseudoplastic fluids has the following characteristics compared to Newtonian fluids: poor over-all radial mixing, thicker nonturbulent layer at the wall, and decreased rate of formation of horseshoe vortices at the wall.
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  • 105
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 204-208 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Measurements of pressure drop and mean local fluid velocities have been made in a smooth rectangular duct of large aspect ratio. Data have been taken on the steady, isothermal flow of water at room temperature in the viscous, transition, and lower turbulent ranges of flow. Impact probes were installed in the center of the stream, where flow between infinitely broad parallel plates was closely approximated. The limits of the transition range are discussed, and mean local fluid velocities are correlated. Comparison is made with transitional behavior in smooth tubes.
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  • 106
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 212-222 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 107
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 225-234 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: An experimental technique for the determination of velocity distributions in two-dimensional laminar flow is described. The method utilizes the optical interference patterns observed in flowing doubly refracting liquids when viewed by transmitted polarized light. The fluid shear-stress distribution may be determined from these interference patterns by methods similar to those employed in solid photoelasticity. Methods are presented for the calculation of velocity distributions from the observed stress distributions. Experiments are described in which the technique was applied to determine velocity profiles in parallel-walled, converging and diverging channels and for flow about a cylindrical obstacle. The doubly-refracting liquids employed were aqueous solutions of an organic dye. Independent experimental checks were obtained in most instances, and these are in satisfactory agreement with the calculated results.
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  • 108
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 235-239 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: The physical absorption of gas by water in a tower packed with Raschig rings has been investigated. The liquid-side mass transfer coefficient which was separated by dividing the capacity coefficient by the wetted surface area is discussed from the standpoints of the two-film and penetration theories. A new and simpler dimensionless group is presented which correlates about 90% of the data reported, including the author's own, within an accuracy of ±20%.
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  • 109
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 257-262 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Heat transfer and fluid dynamics were studied in columns in which hot mercury was sprayed into a rising stream of water. Volumetric and area heat transfer coefficients are presented which were found to be lower than those reported for heat transfer from fixed spheres.It was observed that considerable water bypassed the stream of drops, while some surrounding the drops flowed downward. This behavior resulted in water temperatures at the base of the column which were considerably higher than the inlet water temperatures. Consequently the outlet mercury temperature did not approach the inlet water temperature as a limit. The very unconventional flow pattern of the water was unexpected and is believed to be an important factor in spray-column heat transfer and mass transfer kinetics.
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  • 110
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 268-269 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 111
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 271-273 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 112
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 273-274 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 113
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959) 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 114
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 276-276 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 115
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 116
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 339-344 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Transformation are obtained which reduce the system of differential equations for certain types of diffusion-controlled reactions to the equation for pure diffusion.Simple relationships between the diffusion rate with and without reactions are presented for reversible unimolecular reactions, certain types of reversible bimolecular reactions, and irreversible reactions between species with equal diffusivities. It is shown that these relationships are independent of geometry, hydrodynamics, or boundary conditions, and so the mass transfer coefficient in the presence of reactions can be obtained from the coefficient in the absence of reactions without an explicit knowledge of the mass transfer mechanism.The reaction factor for irreversible reactions with equal diffusivities, obtained by others for specific mass transfer mechanisms, is found to be quite general and essentially independent of the mechanism.Some data on the absorption of sulfur dioxide in a laminar water jet is considered.
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  • 117
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 354-360 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Fundamental knowledge consists of understanding not only the models which correlate and rationalized observations but also the quantity and quality of the observations. The degree of correlation attempted should be consistent with this quantity and quality.The scientist correlates and rationalizes observations primarily to broaden his general understanding of the physical universe, and his efforst at correlation are more often than not a way of speculating on the future experiments which should be undertaken to test his concepts. For this purpose he is often satisfied with accuracy to one order of magnitude. The engineer, faced with the design and operation of expensive equipment, is almost always interested in a much higher accuracy in his correlations.Virtually all existing data in the rate processes are forced into rationalizations based upon either potential-difference or potential-gradient models. The application of these models to systems of even relatively simple geometry gives rise to mathematical complexity beyond present analtic ability. Even so, our ability to measure and observe seems to be far below our ability to analyze. These two models have been used effectively in chemical engineering in the past and have served to organize a great deal of information in the rate processes. Present research efforts appear to be directed primarily toward filling in gaps in available data and in refining the application of the models. We seem to suffer from a lack of models to test and a lack of data designed to test critically the existing models. There is relatively little exploratory research in chemical engineering as compared, for example, to physics.When one views chemical engineering as a chain extending from economics, markets, mechanical design, process design, and process development to process research, the uncertainties inherent in some of the links easily involve variances of 50 to 80%. Under these circumstances it would appear that the present orientation of research is distributed much too heavily toward refinement of existing ideas and not nearly enough toward exploration.
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  • 118
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 373-378 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Mathematical relationships based on material balance and rate equations have been derived for the study of ion exchange kinetics in a fixed-bed operation. Numerical techniques for the solution of the systems possessing equilibrium relationships of the Freundlich-adsorption isotherm type have been developed, and numerical results have been obtained with the use of a digital computer. The resulting numerical solutions have been found to be dependent on parameters involving time, position, and the relative resistances of the liquid and resion phases. The numerical solutions are presented in both tabular and graphical forms.
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  • 119
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 379-384 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Mixtures of hydrochloric and phosphoric acids were extracted from aqueous solution by organic solvents in a study to advance the theories of solvent extraction.Four solvents, t-amyl alcohol, n-butanol, cyclohexanol, and 2-hydroxyethyl, n-hexyl ether, were found to give high distribution coefficients of 0.1 to 0.5 for both acids. In studies using the ether type of solvent an increase of the pH of the aqueous phase from 0 to 10 reduced the distribution ratio of phosphoric acid by a factor of 1,100.The substitution of hydriodic acid for hydrochloric caused a 42% increase in the K of phosphoric acid, which could indicate the importance of internal pressure of the additive in extraction. Measurements of activity coefficients of the hydrochloric acid in aqueous solution showed only a 1% increase in its activity coefficient with addition of large amounts of phosphoric acid. This could not be sufficient to cause up to a 40% increase in the distribution coefficient of the hydrochloric acid with the addition of the phosphoric acid.
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  • 120
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 61-68 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: An experimental investigation was performed on the mass transfer by sublimation from the outer surfaces of hollow naphthalene cylinders, 0.75 and 1.00 in. in diam., in parallel air streams at velocities between 20 and 120 ft./sec. Local mass transfer rates on the cylinders were obtained by a profilometric technique consisting of accurate determinations of changes in radii of the subliming surfaces at points along elements of the cylinders.Local coefficients of mass transfer obtained with laminar boundary layers for Reynolds numbers (based on axial length) between 12,000 and 100,000 were found to be up to 8% greater, because of surface curvature, than corresponding values for flat surfaces. Moreover comparison of the mass-transfer data with a theoretical prediction for laminar skin friction on circular cylinders indicates an effect of surface curvature on the Chilton-Colburn anology between momentum and mass transfer amounting to as much as 6% in the range of air velocity employed. For turbulent boundary layers obtained by artificial triggering of turbulence at the leading edges of the cylinders no effect of surface curvature was found. The results obtained for Reynolds numbers of 40,000 to 1,000,000 are lower than previously published correlations of turbulent heat, mass, and momentum transfer, when compared by the Boelter, Martinelli, and Jonassen form of the analogy.
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  • 121
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 453-457 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: A differential type of flow reactor, 0.25-in. I.D., was used to study the kinetics of the hydrogenation of ethylene on an alumina-supported nickel catalyst. This is apparently the first investigation made above atmospheric pressures. Data were obtained from 14.7 to 70 1b./sq. in. abs. and feed compositions from 40 to 90 mole % hydrogen. Measurements at temperatures from 30° to 80°C. indicated an apparent activation energy of 11,600 cal./g.-mole.It was found that the activity of the catalytic surface was reduced by exposure to ethylene, or mixtures containing an excess of ethylene, owing to the formation of acetylene residues. Pretreatment of the catalyst at temperatures of 170°C. with mixtures of ethylene and hydrogen stabilized the catalyst so that reliable rate data could be obtained.The rate measurements at 70°C. were correlated by an equation. While the mechanism of the reaction cannot be determined from the data, the rate expression and other kinetic studies suggest a process in which hydrogen is adsorbed on the small fraction of the surface not occupied by acetylenic residues and the reaction takes place between this adsorbed hydrogen and ethylene in the gas phase.
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  • 122
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 545-551 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: An experimental study on the system hydrogen sulfide-carbon dioxide was performed from the critical region to the solid-liquid-vapor region. For seven mixtures individual phase diagrams were determined by the establishment of dew, volume percentage liquid, hubble, critical, and triple points. A splendid study of this system had been reported earlier by Bierlein and Kay (1) for temperatures above 32°F. However from a temperature point of view this earlier work represents about one half of the phase diagram from the critical locus to the locus of triple points. Hence in this study particular attention was devoted to the lower temperature regions.Equilibrium constants were determined from 100 to 1,200 lb./sq. in. abs. Vapor and liquid equilibrium compositions from this investigation were compared with those obtained by Bierlein and Kay (1) at 20, 40, 60, and 80 atm.Solid-liquid-vapor loci were found to meet at a minimum temperature, lower than either of the individual pure component triple points, due to the formation of a eutectic mixture consisting of 12.5 mole % carbon dioxide. Vapor and liquid compositions in equilibrium with solid were established along the vapor-liquid-solid carbon dioxide and vapor-liquid-solid hydrogen sulfide loci.
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  • 123
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 564-564 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 124
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 561-563 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: The Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium Series is composed of papers on specific subjects conveniently bound in individual books, which are published at intervals. The books are 81/2 by 11 inches, paper covered, and cost as follows: “Computer Techniques in Chemical Engineering,” $3.00 to members, $4.00 to nonmembers; “Nuclear Engineering Part V,” $3.50 to members, $4.50 to nonmembers; “Adsorption, Dialysis, and Ion Exchange,” $3.50 to members, $4.50 to nonmembers. They may be ordered from the Secretary's Office, the American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 25 West 45 Street, New York 36, New York.The A.I.Ch.E. Journal will publish, from time to time, abstracts of the articles appearing in the Symposium Series volumes, beginning with volume 55.
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  • 125
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 137-137 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 126
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 150-154 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Heat transfer to a horizontal cylinder from an ordinary fluid containing a volume heat source was studied analytically. The first approach to this problem was to assume that the heat source existed only in the boundary layer surrounding the cylinder. By solving the equations for a vertical flat plate cooling the ambient fluid and applying the results to a horizontal cylinder, one could determine the effect of a volume heat source on the heat transfer coefficient for the cylinder case. The variables studied were volume heat sources from 0 to 300 B.t.u./(sec.)(cu. ft.) and temperature difference across the boundary layer in the range 20° to 100°F.In the laminar-flow region a volume heat source was found to increase the heat transfer coefficient for any given temperature difference across the boundary layer. This increase, due to the decrease in boundary-layer thickness caused by the volume heat source, was moderate, being about 20% for a 1 1/4-in. O.D. cylinder with a heat source strength of 100 B.t.u./(sec.) (cu. ft.) and a temperature difference across the boundary layer of 20°F.
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  • 127
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 269-270 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
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  • 128
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  • 129
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 8J 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
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  • 130
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 394-396 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Fixed-bed kinetic studies were made for Fe+++  -  H+ exchange, with perchlorate as the anion, covering concentrations from 0.5 N to 2.0 N in total cation, flow rates of 5 ml./min. sq. cm. to 45 ml./min. sq. cm. bed depth of 25 to 60 cm., and average resin particle diameters of 0.28 and 0.56 mm. The results are correlated on the assumption of internal diffusion as the rate-controlling step and an essentially irreversible equilibrium.
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 406-406 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 407-407 
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    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
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  • 133
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 410-410 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 134
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 8S 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 135
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959) 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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  • 136
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    AIChE Journal 5 (1959), S. 413-418 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: The influence of high concentration gradients and high evaporative velocities on rates of mass transfer was studied by evaporating liquids into low-speed inert gas streams at pressures approaching the vapor pressure of the liquids.Inert gas concentration in some experiments changed nearly fivefold across the boundary layer. The velocity normal to the surface (owing to evaporation), usually neglected in comparison with main-stream velocity, varied from 0.038 to 19 times the main-stream velocity.The data for air-water, air-carbon tetrachloride, air-chlorobenzene, and helium-chlorobenzene systems were represented within experimental error over the Graetz number range of 0.1 to 1,800 by the flat-duct equations of Butler and Plewes (2) and also by the usual dimensionless plots.
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  • 137
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 37-42 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Local rates of convective heat transfer from air at high temperature to a cold wall were measured in the inlet region of a circular tube. Air entered the tube with a flat velocity and temperature profile at temperatures from 480° to 2,000°F. and flow rates corresponding to Reynolds numbers from 4,500 to 22,500. The inner surface of the 1.0-in. I.D. tube was maintained at approximately 100°F. by water cooling. Local rates of heat transfer were determined at 1.5, 4, 7, and 10 tube diameters from the entrance by measuring the radial temperature profile in thermally isolated, annular sections of the tube wall.The local rate data for all gas temperatures are well represented by previous correlations for small temperature differences if the gas properties are evaluated at the bulk temperature rather than at the film temperature. The data agree well with the data of previous investigators wherever the experimental ranges overlap.
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  • 138
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 43-48 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Experimental data are reported for condensing Freon-114 (tetrafluorodichloroethane) and steam at several pressures. The condition of the vapors ranged from saturation to 180°F. of superheat. The condensing tube containing embedded thermocouples was 3/4 in. in diameter and 3 ft. long. Visual observation showed that steam condensed by dropwise condensation in part. Increase of superheat in the vapor at constant pressure caused a lowering of the tube-wall temperature, which was indicative of a lowering of the surface temperature of the condensate. The lowering of the condensate-surface temperature below the saturation temperature was computed from the experimental tube-wall temperatures, the heat flux, and Nusselt's equation for the condensate-film resistance. The lowering of the condensate-surface temperature is correlated with degree of superheat. An interfacial coefficient of heat transfer between the superheated vapor and the condensate surface is reported based on the computed surface temperatures. Schrage's analysis and equations for relating mass and heat transfer with conditions at an interface were simplified and used to correlated the experimental condensing load with the degree of superheat.
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  • 139
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 49-52 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: A new, simple electric analogue model is demonstrated which gives solutions, accurate within ten %, to problems in nonsteady state flow of heat, diffusion, and flow of liquids in porous media. The analogue consists essentially of a sandwich of electrical conducting paper, polyethylene or polyester sheeting, and metal foil. One- or two-dimensional problems can be treated. This analogue provides a medium with distributed resistance and capacitance rather than the finite steps of conventional analogues; therefore two-dimensional problems of complex shape can easily be modeled. The analogue is pulsed by a square wave generator and the transient potential response is displayed on a cathode-ray oscilloscope.
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  • 140
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 53-57 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Problems in heat conduction involving a moving boundary are encountered in the freezing of liquids and in other situations. Such problems are difficult to solve, and exact solutions are almost unknown. A graphical method for obtaining numerical solutions to problems of this type which can be described in terms of one space coordinate is derived and is demonstrated in two examples involving the freezing of liquids. The method, which does not require specialized knowledge or equipment, takes into account both sensible heats and latent heat.
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  • 141
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 58-62 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Heat transfer measurements were made with vertical stainless steel bayonet tubes, 3/8 to 3/4 in. O.D., with lengths from 2.6 to 6.5 in. The heat source was steam. The boiling film ΔT ranged from 154° to 314°F. for three organic liquids and from 547° to 788°F. for nitrogen, all at 1 atm. No forced convection was used. Benzene, carbon tetrachloride, and nitrogen on the longer tubes had h values two or three times greater than predicted by the Bromley equation; however, the Reynolds numbers were found to exceed 2,000. Nitrogen on the 2.6-in. length obeyed the equation; the Reynolds numbers were less than 2,000, the flow was proved by photography to be turbulent and the h values were much higher than predicted for viscous flow. A correlation is given which fits all the data except for methanol. It shows that a vertical orientation is superior to the horizontal for liquids boiling outside tubes.
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  • 142
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 69-74 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Steady state heat transfer experiments were carried out in a 4-in. I.D. transite tube packed with 3/8-, 1/4-, and 5/32-in. steel spheres. Heat was generated in the pellets by means of a high-frequency induction coil surrounding the test section. Average heat transfer coefficients between the bed of spheres and a stream of air passing through the bed were calculated for Reynolds numbers of from 200 to 10,400. To ensure the reproducibility of the data, the bed was repacked six times for each pellet size.A study of the effect of the tube-to-pellet-diameter ratio indicates that this effect is large for low values of the ratio, but much smaller for higher ratios. The results are presented both graphically and in terms of empirical equations. The analogies among heat, mass, and momentum transfer are discussed, and it was found that no simple relation between the heat transfer coefficient and the friction factor exists for packed beds with a gas as the fluid.An attempt is made to predict the heat transfer rates for packed beds from heat transfer data for single spheres and from pressure-drop measurements for the packed bed; however, the rates predicted from the pressure-drop measurements are somewhat lower than the experimental results.
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  • 143
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 63-68 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Heat and momentum transfer studies have been made for the flow of gases through fixed beds consisting of randomly packed, solid metallic particles. The experimental technique employed in these studies made possible for the first time the procurement of gas-film heat transfer data under steady state conditions and in the absence of mass transfer effects. Electric current passed through the metallic particles of the bed created within the particles a steady generation of heat, which was continuously removed by gases flowing through the bed. Several direct temperature measurements of both gases and solids within the bed made possible the direct calculation of the heat transfer coefficient for the gas film to produce the Colburn heat transfer factor jh, which has been found to correlate with the modified Reynolds number, Reh = √ ApG/[µ(1 - ∊)ϕ]. The shape factor ϕ was established in these studies for cubes and cylinders and was found to be identical to their respective sphericities.Pressure-drop measurements produced a friction factor fk of the Blake type, which yielded separate curves for each shape when correlated with the modified Reynolds number Rem. No simple relationship was found to exist between the heat transfer and friction factors. A single correlation of the pressure-drop data was obtained for the modulus fkoϕn when correlated with a Reynolds number of the type Rem = √ ApG/[µ(1 - ∊)]. The exponent n varies with the particle shape.Experimental runs have been carried out for 3/16, 1/4, 5/16-in. spheres, 1/4 and 3/8-in. cubes, and regular cylinders using hydrogen and carbon dioxide to extend the range of molecular weights beyond that of air, used for the majority of these runs. A particle-size, column-diameter effect was found to exist for both heat and momentum transfer. This effect becomes significant in the low Reynolds region.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 75-80 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Local boiling heat transfer coefficients were experimentally determined for nucleate boiling around the outer circumference of horizontal copper tubing. The tubes used were of 16 B.W.G. hard-temper copper with outside diameters of 1 1/4 and 2 in; the liquids boiled were methanol and n-hexane. The maximum peripheral variation occurred with the 1 1/4-in. tube in methanol where an over-all ΔT of 30.2°F. gave local outside coefficients varying between 249 and 548 B.t.u./(hr.)(sq. ft.)(°F.). The minimum variation was found to occur in the same system, in which an over-all ΔT of 72.3°F. gave coefficients varying between 856 and 910 B.t.u./(hr.)(sq. ft.)(F.°). The results, plotted in polar coordinates, showed a cardioid configuration for methanol with the maximum coefficients occurring at the bottom of the tube. The n-hexane results had the general shape of horizontal ellipses with maximum coefficients occurring at the sides of the tube.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 81-89 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: One of the important factors affecting the rate of heat transfer by natural convection is the temperature-density relationship of the convecting fluid. The importance of this factor is amplified when the heat is being transferred to a medium which has a maximum density.This investigation consisted of measuring the heat transfer rates, velocity gradients, and temperature profiles when heat is transferred from a flat vertical plate to water in the region of 4°C. In some experiments the flow in the boundary layer was observed to be downward while at other conditions of plate and fluid temperature a dual motion (both up and down) was noted, thus establishing a basic difference in the heat transfer mechanism and precluding a unified theory. Theoretical consideration is given to each mechanism and a criterion is derived to predict the flow regime which will prevail at fixed conditions of plate and bulk temperatures.An analogue computer was used to establish theoretical velocity and temperature profiles. The theoretical values agree reasonably well with the measured values; however, the experimental temperrature gradients near the wall were not sufficiently accurate to be extrapolated to determine a point heat transfer coefficent.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 97-101 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 90-96 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Rates of flow of pure gases, both those with no adsorption and those with appreciable adsorption, were studied as a function of pressure level, pressure drop, and temperature for flow through 1/2-in.-diameter cylindrical plugs of activated carbon and of unsintered Vycor glass. Adsorption isotherms for the pure gases on Vycor glass were measured over the range of variables covered in the flow studies. A few measurements were made for bulk liquid flowing through a Vycor plug.Permeabilities, which are proportional to the rate of flow per unit of pressure drop, were satisfactorily correlated for hydrogen, helium, argon, and nitrogen by employing existing gas-phase flow theory. Permeabilities considerably larger than the values predicted from the nonadsorbed gas correlation, sometimes more than seventeen times as large, were observed for ethylene, propylene, and isobutane flowing through a Vycor plug. For the hydrocarbon-Vycor systems, permeabilities for vapor flow are as much as sixty times larger than for bulk liquid flow.The unusual flow phenomena for the hydrocarbon-Vycor systems are attributed to a rapid transport in the adsorbed layer. The total transport is treated as being the sum of gas-phase and adsorbed-layer flow. An equation describing adsorbed-layer movement is derived by utilizing a force balance together with thermodynamic principles. The resulting equation has just one empirical constant, and its use requires adsorption-isotherm data. It correlates very well the surface flow rates for the major range of the variables covered in this investigation. Rate measurements were made for adsorbed-layer concentrations ranging from about one tenth of a monolayer up through the capillary condensation region. Deviations in the one constant form of the equation are observed below one tenth of a monolayer. The available literature data on flow in adsorbed layers are reasonably well correlated by the same equation.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 13M 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 114-124 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Mass transfer from 3/8- and 1/2-in.-diameter spheres of adipic acid and from 3/8-, 1/2-, 5/8- and 3/4-in.-diameter spheres of benzoic acid into a controlled stream of water passing in laminar flow through a 3-in.-diameter pipe is found to be correlated by the single equaton NSh = 2 + 0.95 NRe0.5 NSc0.33 for sphere Reynolds numbers between 100 and 700. The limitations on the application of this equation, due to mass transfer by natural convection, are discussed. Correlations are also obtained for transfer from separate regions of the sphere surface.Skin-friction-drag coefficients for single fixed spheres have been calculated from reported pressure distributions for Reynolds numbers between 100 and 1,000.Good agreement is obtained between the mass transfer j factor and other reported values for heat transfer, but comparison with the calculated frictional forces indicates that the equality proposed by Colburn (3) does not hold, because the distributions of the mass transfer and the skin friction over the surface differ.
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  • 150
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 127-131 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Nearly 900 values of local heat transfer coefficients were correlated for water flowing through long annuli 1/8, 1/4, and 3/8 in. wide, electrically heated at their inner surfaces and containing three spacer ribs. Both cosine and uniform lengthwise heat-flux distributions were employed. All heat transfer coefficients were computed for positions corresponding to (L/De) ratios larger than 150. Several methods of correlation were attempted and compared, especially with respect to the method of evaluating physical properties. The proportionality of the Colburn j factor to the Prandtl and Reynolds numbers with their usual exponents was verified, and the dependence of j upon D2/D1 was analyzed. There was no significant effect of cosine heat-flux distribution on the heat transfer coefficients. Evaluating physical properties at the usual film temperature gave the best correlation. A simplified dimensional equation for water at moderate temperatures and pressures was also developed.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 202-207 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: A method of calcuation is presented by which estmates may be made of the stage efficiency of continuously operated, agitated, baffled vessels used in mixer-settler extractors. The calculations are limited to cases where the agitatiing impeller is a flat-blade turbine, and do not include estimates of the entrance and exit effects. The method has been tested with all the available experimental data, which include three different sizes of vessels, systems, and impeller sizes, and a variety of operating conditions including speeds of agitation, rates of flow, and ratios of contacted liquids. Because of limitations of the author's knowledge, the calculations are necessarily approximate, but they nevertheless correctly indicate the nature of the variations in stage efficiency to be expected with all of the design and operating variables for which tests could be applied.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 197-201 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: A mathematical treatment is developed on the basis that two concentric spheres can serve as the model for a random assemblage of spheres moving relative to a fluid. The inner sphere comprises one of the particles in the assemblage and the outer sphere consists of a fluid envelope with a “free surface.” The appropriate boundary conditions resulting from these assumptions enable a closed solution to be obtained satisfying the Stokes-Navier equations omitting inertia terms. This solution enables rate of sedimentation or alternatively pressure drop to be predicted as a function of fractional void volume.Comparison of the theory is made with other relationships and data reported in the literature. Of special interest is its close agreement with the well known Carman-Kozeny equation which has been widely used to correlate data on packed beds as well as sedimenting and fluidized systems of particles. This is remarkable in view of the fact that the force on each particle in a packed bed can be up to several hundred times that exerted on a single particle in an undistrubed medium.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 207-210 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Experimental flow rate data are presented for saturated liquid, saturated vapor, and two-phase liquid-vapor carbon dioxide through a convergent nozzle and a square-edged orifice. The data cover the range from the triple-point pressure to the critical pressure. Charts have been prepared for this complete range at critical flow. Results are also presented for subcritical flow.The tests at various back pressures indicate that the saturated liquid behaved as a cold liquid without evaporation ahead of the throat.Saturated vapor became supersaturated in the nozzle, and the vapor behaved as if no condensation occurred.Equations are presented for the flow rates of saturated vapor, and two-phase mixtures in the critical flow region.A Mollier (pressure-enthalpy) diagram is used to determine the flow rates of saturated vapor and two-phase mixtures where supersaturtation takes place. In these cases, the lines of constant specific volume or density are extrapolated from the superheated region into the normal two-phase region to obtain values corrected for supersaturation.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 240-245 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: A consistent method is presented for predicting local velocities in smooth tubes, concentric annuli, and parallel plates. Consideration is limited to the steady, isothermal, fully turbulent flow of constant-density fluids. Experimental data show the proposed correlation to be indepdent of Reynolds number and radius ratio. Intermediate quantities, calculated from friction data, permit local velocities to be determined over a wide range of operating conditions.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 246 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 317-318 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: The experimental freezing-point data of the methane-n-hexane and the methane-n-octane binaries are presented and compared with the methane-carbon dioxide system investigated by Donnelly and Katz. A step-by-step variation of the freezing point in the paraffin homologous series is exploited to provide reasonably accurate extrapolation of the experimental data on the two binaries and scattered freezing-point data on the methane-n-butane mixture to other paraffin hydrocarbon mixtures of methane in which the heavier constituent ranges from ethane to n-nonane, inclusive.A composite graph of the freezing points of the various binaries with methane, from ethane to n-nonane, is presented.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 319-323 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: A solution to the problem of heat transfer with simultaneous heat generation in viscous tubular flow is presented. The temperature profiles and heat transfer coefficients which are obtained apply to compressible as well as incompressible Newtonian and power-law non-Newtonian fluids with constant physical properties and to systems in which the heat generation is an arbitrary function of radius. An example of heat transfer with frictional heat generation in a non-Newtonian fluid is also presented, and the solution to the problem in which a fluid enters a tube in laminar flow with an arbitrary temperature profile is given, with a consideration of a first approximation to the case of heat transfer in a turbulent fluid in which heat is being generated.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 324-329 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Experiments in which a liquid film runs over a vertical string of spheres surrounded by a concentric tube through which air is blown upward have shown that loading in a packed tower is due to the formation of standing waves on the liquid film. In the ball-and-tube system a wave is formed just below the equator of each ball, owing to the pressure gradient within the air stream as it accelerates through the narrowing gap between the ball and the tube. Interfacial shear and surface tension are of secondary importance. The similarity between the characteristics of the ball-and-tube system and those of the randomly packed tower suggests that loading in the latter system is also due to wave formation. With this concept of loading, a correlation has been dérived.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 330-331 
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    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Application of shape factors to problems of conductive heat flow eliminates the need for lengthy calculations by numerical approximation methods. Shape factors for several systems, determined bvy electrical analogues, are given in the accompanying article.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 332-337 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: An experimental study of local heat transfer coefficients in a baffled tubular heat exchanger for five baffle spacings and two tube spacings (23/16-in.-pitch, four-tube bundle, and 11/4-in.-pitch, fourteen-tube bundle) is reported. Shell-side air-flow rate was constant for all runs. The variation of the local heat transfer coefficient around the tubes and along the length of the tubes for each tube spacing and baffle spacing was investigated. Average shell-side heat transfer coefficients were evaluated from local values and were found to agree with average values reported in the literature. These average values varied with the six-tenths power of the mass velocity in the heat exchanger. The average Nusselt number and the pressure drop across the exchanger each increased at about the same rate as the number of baffles was increased from two to ten. The average heat transfer rate decreased with decreased tube spacing. This effect was evident from the local heat transfer coefficients, and it is explained on the basis of the mechanism of flow around tubes. An eddy flow zone was detected between the baffles. Average heat transfer rates in the eddy and crossflow zones were almost equal and were about 15% below the average rate in the longitudinal-flow zone. The variation of the average heat transfer coefficient along a tube definitely showed the effects of baffles. High coefficients occurred in the baffle holes and in the baffle windows.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 338-342 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: A convection-controlled mass transfer process in which the rate of mass transfer results in an electrical signal should have certain advantages as the working principle for a velocity-and turbulence-measuring device. The velocity can be read at a remote place as a calibrated electrical signal. Compensation for phase shift and amplitude attenuation of a fluctuating signal should be small because the measuring probe would have no capacity for the transferred quantity. In water, such processes are possible whenever electrolysis occurs under conditions of concentration polarization, and they exist in relatively uncomplicated from as the limiting currents of polarographic analysis. The investigation reported here was intended as a survey and evaluation of electrolytic methods for measuring water velocities.The series of experiments that was performed showed that a working instrument could be designed on the principle of convection-controlled electrolysis, but that the chemical reactions involved were unreliable for consistent trouble-free results. Practical instruments appear to be possible only after long development and considerable study of chemical mechanisms.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 343-345 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: The ratio of the effective to the normal diffusivity of a material diffusing within porous solids is less than unity. In the simple theory the porosity and tortuosity, or labyrinth, factors are used to explain the magnitude of this ratio and to account respectively for the reduced cross-sectional area and the increased diffusion distance. However, abnormally large values of the tortuosity factor are obtained from experimentally measured effective diffusivities within pelleted or extruded porous solids. This work is concerned with the quantitative effect of periodic pore constrictions on the effective diffusivity. The pore model assumed for this study is a hyperbola of revolution giving a pore constriction at the vertex of the hyperbola. Solutions to the steady state diffusion equation in a pore of this shape were obtained at various values of β, the ratio of the maximum to the minimum cross-section in the pore. Comparison of the rate of diffusive transport in this pore and an equivalent cylindrical pore indicates that δ, the ratio of the effective to the normal diffusivity, is about 0.33 at β = 25 for large pores. At the same value of β, δ would be smaller for diffusion in the Knudsen region.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 430-435 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Volumetric data of nonpolar gaseous mixtures are analyzed in terms of the theory of corresponding states. Special attention is given to an analysis of the second virial coefficient and to the calculation of pseudocritical constants.Second virial coefficients are calculated from experimental data for ten binary systems. These coefficients, with those previously published, are correlated by means of a generalized equation involving three parameters for each component: the critical volume, the reduced temperature, and the acentric factor.Equations are derived for the pseudocritical temperature and pressure of mixtures. These equations are considerably more accurate than those given by Kay's rule. Because of the complexity of the proposed equations for the pseudocritical parameters, a simplified pseudocritical method is presented which is sufficiently accurate for most chemical engineering purposes, especially at reduced temperatures exceeding 1.3.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 472-479 
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    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: A means of calculating the rate of entrainment of solids from commercial-size continuously operating fluidized beds was developed from the combined results of a theoretical and an empirical approach which through different channels arrived at the same fundamental mechanism. The calculation method shows agreement with data obtained from an apparatus simulating flow characteristics in large-scale equipment and compares favorably with smaller scale tests reported in the literature at pressures up to 200 1b./sq. in. gauge.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 495-496 
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    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 497-497 
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    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 498-498 
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 499-500 
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958) 
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 1-1 
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 15-23 
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    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: A broad empirical study of nine independent sets of data on fluidized-bed heat transfer is presented, with correlation of the data in two groups. A wide range of the many variables is covered, and some data on commercial units are included. Data for external (i.e., walls of the fluidizing vessel) and internal (i.e., tubes in the bed) heat transfer surfaces are correlated graphically. The correlations indicate the importance of heat transport by the mobile particles and of unsteady state conduction in the gas.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 3-14 
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    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: A method is presented for predicting the effect of allowance for radiation exchange on the distribution of temperature and heat transfer within a furnace chamber. The system is divided into surface zones and gas zones, the number being dependent on the desired accuracy of the result. Direct-exchange factors are available for gas-gas, gas-surface, and surface-surface zone interchange. From these factors one can determine the net exchange factor for any zone pair, making due allowance for interaction with all other zones. The resultant factors are then fed into a set of energy balances, one on each zone, which by simultaneous solution permit a determination of the space distribution of gas and surface temperatures and the distribution of heat flux over the surfaces.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 24-26 
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    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
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    Notes: Conditions for the incomplete displacement of gas from the valley between two parallel ridges by a liquid-drop front advancing over the ridges are calculated. The significant parameters are found to be the liquid density, surface tension, contact angle, and geometry of the ridges. The solution may be obtained analytically or, more conveniently, graphically. Surface roughnesses are divided into four classes, one of which can stably switch from liquid - to gas - fill, and another vice versa. This may account for some of the hysteresis effects reported in bubble nucleation. It is pointed out that surfaces consisting predominately of cavities are more likely to follow these considerations than grooved surfaces, owing to displacement of gas by advance of liquid along the grooves. An example important in boiling and cavitation theory is worked out, and qualitative agreement with the literature is shown.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 27-32 
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Profiles of eddy viscosity and Prandtl mixing length in fluids flowing steadily and isothermally in smooth tubes have been calculated from the velocity data of several investigators for Reynolds numbers between 1.2 × 103 and 3.2 × 106. In the transition range unusually high values of eddy viscosity and mixing length are obtained in some portions of the stream. In the fully turbulent range the effect of Reynolds number is small and the mixing length tends toward zero at the center of the tube. The parameters for turbulent flow between parallel plates have been correlated through the concept of an equivalent tube. The results are of importance in designing equipment for heat and mass transfer and mixing.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 33-36 
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: The coolant flow distribution among parallel passages in a nuclear reactor (or boiler or heat exchanger) can be very sensitive to variations in heat input, channel dimensions, etc. In a previous paper this flow sensitivity was defined in terms of certain partial derivatives, which were related by analytical expressions to fluid properties and operating characteristics. Flow sensitivity contributes largely to potential malfunction, reduced efficiency, or failures. The use of valves and orifices was quantitatively evaluated for supercritical water in the earlier paper. The scope of this paper is to consider the utility of mixing headers. These mixing chambers are located along the flow passage as a common receiver for parallel flow from many channels. The headers, in turn, supply subsequent lengths of heated passages in parallel. Analytical expressions are derived for the effect of headers on flow, outlet-fluid enthalpy, and channel-wall temperatures. The limiting cases of minimum and complete mixing in the headers are considered and numerical results for water at supercritical pressures are given to show the marked increase in stability obtained by use of intermediate mixing headers.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 102-113 
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    Notes: Superatmospheric pressures greatly reduce the temperature differences in nucleate boiling of or ganic liquids. Since nucleate boiling is characterized by bubble formation at the heating surface, it seems logical to investigate the pressure difference that causes bubble formation. It has been found that for organic liquids the difference in vapor pressure corresponding to the temperature difference behaves in a regular manner with pressure but does not vary greatly. This regular behavior permits prediction of temperature differences at higher pressures with a knowledge of only vapor-pressure and boiling data at one pressure. New boiling data have been obtained in the investigation.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 132-136 
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    Notes: An equivalent Poiseuille's Law is derived for a homogeneous isotropic turbulent field. The derivation is based on an analogy between momentum transfer and heat and mass transfer, three coefficients being used to characterize the exchange process: (1) the molecular viscosity µ, (2) an intensity parameter to characterize the magnitude of the turbulent velocity fluctuations ν2, and (3) a scale parameter to characterize the scale of the turbulence T.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 161-169 
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 153-156 
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    Notes: Measurements were made of the rate of fall of drops of five organic liquids through an aqueous phase contained in eight vertical cylinders of various diameters. Newton's equation for the wall proximity effect for rigid spheres or cylinders predicts values somewhat in excess of the observed. A correction factor equation with the more convenient equivalent spherical diameter is presented. Its use is limited to d/D ratios less than one half. The ultimate velocity of a drop of specific size in an infinite medium can be calculated from that measured in a small tube by multiplying the latter by the ratio of the tube cross-sectional area to the area of the annular space between tube wall and drop.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 170-174 
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Virtually all filtration literature has been concerned with constant rate or constant pressure with greater emphasis on the latter. In contrast to these types of operations, industrial filtrations involving centrifugal pumps are accomplished under variable-pressure - variable-rate conditions. In spite of its importance virtually no work has been reported in connection with variable-rate - variable-pressure filtration. Formulas developed for constant pressure and constant-rate filtration are not in general applicable to operations effected by centrifugal pumps. Methods solving variable-pressure - variable-rate filtration problems are presented.A method of determining average filtration resistance as a function of compressive pressure under variable-pressure - variable-rate conditions is discussed, and formulas for determining point filtration resistance from data for average resistances are presented.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 175-180 
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    Notes: Methods of predicting resistance in constant-pressure cake filtration have been classified into three groups, (1) basic particle and cake properties, (2) permeability tests, and (3) small-scale filtration tests. Methods 2 and 3 involve the concept of specific filtration resistance, a property characteristic of each unit mass of deposited cake, and these methods were extensively investigated in the laboratory. Specific resistances for three chemical slurries were determined by laboratory filtrations and filter- and compression-permeability tests. Results of these investigations showed that specific filtration resistance could be predicted from compression-permeability test data.Filtration tests made on commercial-scale equipment operating on pearl cornstarch illustrated the correlation between predicted and actual specific resistance values, the resistance predicted from compression-permeability test data agreeing very well with the actual resistance of the prefilt.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 190-196 
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: The role of eddy diffusion of mass (water vapor) and momentum was investigated in a specially devised wetted-wall channel in which the rippling of the liquid film was eliminated. The experimental measurements of the turbulent exchange coefficients for mass and momentum transport were carried out in a fully developed turbulent flow of air within the range of Reynolds numbers of 8,00 to 160,000. A correlation with Reynollds number revealed an approximately linear relationship of the eddy diffusivties to Reynolds number revealed an approximately linear relationship of the eddy diffusivities to Reynolds number [Equation (4)]. From the hot-wire measurements it was found that within the main protion of the turbulent core eddy diffusivities remained fairly constant.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 211-217 
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    Notes: The experimental apparatus and procedures which were developed for the determination of the heterogeneous phase behavior of the methane-hydrogen sulfide system have been described in a previous paper (2). The apparatus and procedures were tested and employed at temperatures in the range of  - 300 to 300°F. and at pressures up to 2000 1b./sq. in. abs. The vapor-liquid, vapor-solid, liquid-vapor-solid, liquid-liquid-vapor and liquid-liquid-solid phase border curves were determined for six mixtures of methane and hydrogen sulfide. The phase compositions were determined at selected points along the three-phase univariant equilibrium lines. An invariant point (quadruple point) was found which involves the equilibrium of two liquid phases, a vapor phase, and a solid phase. These data are presented on P-T and T-X diagrams.The data contribute to the understanding of phase behavior of light hydrocarbons containing hydrogen sulfide.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 231-239 
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 218-222 
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    Notes: In this theoretical analysis of heat transfer in film condensation the total vapor-side resistance to heat transfer is obtained by adding the resistance to conduction through the condensate film to the resistance due to the condensation process at the vapor-liquid interface.The analysis shows that under ordinary conditions conduction in the condensate film is controlling, provided the condensation coefficient is greater than about 0.10. However, under conditions of low total pressure, low heat flux, or low condensation coefficient, the resistances of both processes must be considered.Experiments carried out on the condensation of methanol are in good agreement with the theory. Furthermore, values of the condensation coefficient for methanol are reported which show that small quantities of air will greatly reduce its magnitude. This is offered as an explantion of the commonly observed phenomenon of reduction of heat transfer rates when noncondensable gases enter a system.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 247-247 
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 249-256 
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: The rate of absorption of nitrogen peroxide into water at 25° and 40°C. has been found to be a linear function of the concentration of nitrogen tetroxide in the gas phase and directly proportional to the interfacial partial pressure of the same species.The rate of absorption is independent of gas velocity over a range of ReG from 170 to 350. The results plotted as absorption rate divided by interfacial partial pressure of nitrogen tetroxide show no effect of liquid rate or contact time between gas and liquid over a tenfold range of contact time from 0.03 to 0.3 sec. This indicates that the rate-controlling step during nitrogen dioxide absorption into water is the rate of hydrolysis of nitrogen tetroxide.The absorption rate decreases with increasing temperature from 25° to 40°C., owing to the shift of the equilibrium in the gas phase away from the reacting species nitrogen tetroxide toward nitrogen dioxide and owing to the the decreased solubility of nitrogen tetroxide in water. The effect of these factors on absorption more than offsets the effect of the increase in reaction rate and higher diffusivity on absorption at 40°C.The reaction rate constant for the hydrolysis of nitrogen tetroxide has been determined and the solubility of dissolved but unreacted nitrogen tetroxide in equilibrium with gaseous nitrogen tetroxide has been found.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 263-265 
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: The unconventional behavior of equilibrium ratios and convergence pressures is illustrated for close-boiling systems with activity coefficients exceeding 1 throughout the two-phase region. Also presented is a correlation to predict convergence pressure, or the critical locus, of nonideal binary systems.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 293-296 
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    Notes: Binary systems that form azeotropes in the critical region of the system show a wide variation in their phase behavior. As part of an investigation of the factors responsible for this variation, the P-V-T-x relations of the ammonia-n-butane system were determined at the liquid-vapor phase boundaries from near room temperature to the highest temperature and pressure at which the liquid and vapor coexist. Ammonia and n-butane form an azeotrope whose composition varies from 81.7 mole % ammonia at 300 1b./sq. in. to 86.3 mole % at 1295 1b./sq. in. The critical locus possesses a minimum temperature point similar to other binary systems that form azeotropes in the critical region. The experimental results support the hypothesis that binary systems that form azetropes exhibit a characteristic pattern of P-T-x relations in the critical region that is distinctively different from systems that do not form azeotropes.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 296-299 
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    Notes: Because of the paucity of data on the phase behavior of binary systems that form azeotropes, the P-V-T-x relations of the ammonia-isooctane system were determined at the liquid-vapor boundaries from room temperature to the critical temperature of issoctane. Evidence of an azeotrope existing over a very limited pressure and temperature range was obtained. The sistem is unique in that the critical locus contains a minimum temperature point as well as a minimum and a maximum pressure point. These relations are shown to fit a general pattern of phase relations characteristic of binary systems that form azeotropes in the critical region. This pattern serves as an aid for the qualitative prediction of the P-T-x relations of such systems.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 300-304 
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    Notes: An empirical equation is developed which seems applicable to the general problem of fixed-bed catalytic design and relates the reaction rate (in a differential reactor) or conversion (through an integral reactor) to the surface reaction rate, the flow rate through the bed, and the physical properties of the system. The development is based on the assumption that there exists a film of stagnant fluid surrounding each catalyst particle, through which mass is transferred only by molecular motion, and that the thickness of this film varies throughout the bed from zero to some upper limit in a manner which is described by a distribution function. The equation involves two empirical constants: the multiplying constant and the exponent in the usual jd-factor-Reynolds-number relationship.The application of this equation is illustrated. It appears to provide a basis for evaluation of the contribution of diffusional steps in the over-all mechanism and to provide a means for predicting an expected conversion rate at any flow rate through the bed, provided only that the surface (chemical) reaction rate is known at the operating temperature. It also appears possible to calculate values of the surface-reaction-rate constant and the temperature coefficient from data taken from a reactor operating in the diffusion-controlled range.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 305-316 
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    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
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    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: The basic differential equations are developed for the prediction of saturation-time curves for the drainage of packed beds in either gravitational or centrifugal fields. The only mathematical solution existing at present, a series solution, is provided for these equations. A film drainage function is included to describe the movement of liquid along the surface of the particles when the main liquid level has passed through the pores of the bed. This method of analysis has been used successfully to predict the drainage of packed beds in a 9-in.-diameter hydroextractor. The important value of capillary suction head is best found from ancillary tests with Haines apparatus, but the value can be found with reasonable accuracy from the change in drainage rate as the liquid surface enters the upper surface of the packed bed. When these two rates are available, the permeability can also be found, and all the major variables are obtained from the drainage test on either the hydroextractor cake or the packed bed under gravity drainage.
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    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 376-380 
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    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: An experimental study of the rate of heat transfer from the retaining wall to a fluidized bed of solids was carried out for liquid water and glass spheres. The independent variables included mass velocity, particle size, bulk temperature, and wall temperature. Significant increases in heat transfer were observed, owing to the presence of the suspended solids, even to the extent of tripling the coefficient. For each of several particle sizes, the coefficient passed through a maximum corresponding to a particular mass velocity. The behavior of the bed at velocities below and above those for maximum coefficient was studied and categorized. Tentative correlations for both regions are offered.
    Additional Material: 13 Ill.
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  • 196
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    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 367-375 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: The axial dispersion of water flowing through fixed beds was determined by measuring and recording the dispersion of a pulse input of dye at one or two points downstream of the injection site. Dispersion coefficients at various flow rates were obtained in systems of 1/2-, 1-, 3-, and 5-mm. spheres and 2- and 6-mm. rings each packed in a 1.5-in. I.D. column. Data were also obtained with 3-mm. spheres in a 1-in. I.D. column. Bed length was varied from 6 to 36 in. Void fractions of from 0.365 to 0.645 were represented by the systems studied. One gas system was studied at Reynolds numbers below unity.The results of the water study indicate that the dispersion coefficient increases linearly with the Reynolds number in the range of Re = 0.5 to 100. Beyond that point the Reynolds number exponent decreases through 0.85 to a value of about 0.25 at a characteristic breakpoint in the region of Re = 350 to 400. Pressure-drop data secured for the systems studied clearly indicate that the cited breakpoint in dispersion behavior is identical with the well-known region of flow transition as characterized by the friction-factor-Reynolds-number relationship within a given system.The dispersion values for the 5- and 6-mm. particles, while obeying this Reynolds-number functionality, are of lower magnitude.A theory based upon bed-v⊙id cell-mixing efficiency is developed, and this efficiency is shown to be directly proportional to the Peclet number, which at the condition of perfect void-cell mixing should attain a value of about 2.Anomalous behavior was noted in two respects: (1) the pulse amplitude change between two stations is greater than that predicted by either diffusion or cell-mixing theory, lending strong support to a bed-capacitance effect, and (2) short-bed studies revealed unusually high dispersion coefficients, reflecting short-circuiting, that is, poor cell-mixing efficiencies in these shallow beds, presumably owing to entrance effects, yet independent of the mode of pulse injection.The dispersion of a pulse of air injected into a stream of helium flowing through a gas chromatographic column was briefly investigated. At Re 〈 1, E was found to be about equal to the calculated molecular diffusivity of this gas system.
    Additional Material: 9 Ill.
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  • 197
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    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 382 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Additional Material: 2 Ill.
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  • 198
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    Electronic Resource
    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    AIChE Journal 4 (1958) 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 199
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    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 383-388 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: A correlating equation for liquid-phase adsorption equilibria, including the effects of temperature and pore diameter, is presented, together with a derivation of the equation ascribing the equilibration process of physical adsorption to van der Waal's forces. The derivation is based on the effect of temperature and surface configuration on the concentration of adsorbate at the surface. The correlating equation was tested with experimental data for the benzene-cyclohexane-silica-gel system and the toluene-isooctane-silica-gel system. Temperatures ranged between 23.9° and 99°C. and the pore diameters between 20.7 and 149.5 Å.
    Additional Material: 3 Ill.
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  • 200
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    Hoboken, NJ : Wiley-Blackwell
    AIChE Journal 4 (1958), S. 389-392 
    ISSN: 0001-1541
    Keywords: Chemistry ; Chemical Engineering
    Source: Wiley InterScience Backfile Collection 1832-2000
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Process Engineering, Biotechnology, Nutrition Technology
    Notes: Results from precise calculations for fractionation of multicomponent hydrocarbon mixtures show that the relative separations between components are rationalized in a simple manner in terms of the relative volatilities. A quantitative criterion for sharpness of fractionation with complex mixtures, the Fractionation Index, is suggested. This function is useful for general correlation purposes. It also enables prediction of the detailed compositions of the products from a proposed fractionation and thereby simplifies the computation procedures.
    Additional Material: 7 Ill.
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