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  • 101
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract P- and S-wave velocity distributions obtained from DSS measurement have been used as a constraint in the inversion of surface-wave dispersion data. The combined interpretation was made as an attempt to enhance the resulting velocity models and to test the possibility to draw conclusions about the density distribution. The result indicates a potential value of a combined interpretation but it is obvious that very accurate velocity distributions are needed. The achieved density distribution is in good agreement with reported densities derived from gravimetric studies.
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  • 102
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    Pure and applied geophysics 119 (1981), S. 1093-1099 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Baltic Shield ; Deep seismic sounding ; Earthquakes in Finland
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The lithospheric models obtained for the Baltic Shield by using deep seismic soundings are discussed and results from different parts of the shield are compared with models achieved by the investigation of surface waves and of P to S converted waves. The results are found to agree rather well with each other particularly with regard to the first interface (at a depth of 10–15 km) and the whole thickness of the crust (c. 40 km). The macroseismic focal depth determinations of regional earthquakes are correlated with lithospheric structure. The main maximum in the focal depth distributions of Finnish earthquakes occur at a depth of 10–12 km. The geographical distribution of the earthquake epicentres suggests several seismo-active zones in the northern Baltic Shield. One new finding in this field concerns the Lapland zone, which runs in a north-westerly direction.
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  • 103
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    Pure and applied geophysics 119 (1981), S. 1116-1124 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract A long-range Scandinavian seismic profile of August 1979 is subjected to a preliminary evaluation by means of the records of the permanent Swedish network of stations. The resulting travel times confirm those earlier adopted in the calculation of Swedish earthquakes for the period 1951–1976.
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  • 104
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    Pure and applied geophysics 119 (1981), S. 1107-1115 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The deep seismic sounding project ‘Blue Norma’ was carried out in the summer of 1977 in northern Scandinavia in order to investigate the deep structure of the Norwegian continental margin and the Caledonian mountain chain. During the measurements, by chance the core phase PKIKP of an earthquake at the New Hebrides was recorded with 30 seismic field stations along a profile through the central Caledonides. The results of the refraction seismic data, as obtained by a ray-tracing method, are presented and compared to the interpretation of the relative residuals of the PKIKP travel times. From both data sets a continentward down-dipping crust-mantle boundary is evaluated. From the interpretation of the refraction seismic measurements a crustal thickness of 32 km below the coastline and 42 km below the central mountain chain is obtained. The increase of the crustal thickness derived by the inversion of the travel-time residuals along this line amounts only to 6 km. This considerable discrepancy can only be explained by an eastward increasing seismic velocity in the mantle.
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  • 105
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Carpathians ; Three-dimensional seismic modelling
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The joint analysis performed for the Carpathian region from seismological data (three-dimensional fields of velocities, areas of concentration of earthquake foci in the Vrancea focal zone) and interpretation of DSS data and those of other geophysical fields have permitted to obtain new evidence for the earth's crust and mantle structure in this region.
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  • 106
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    Pure and applied geophysics 119 (1981), S. 1192-1196 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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  • 107
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    Pure and applied geophysics 119 (1981), S. 1197-1197 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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  • 108
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 913-934 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Thermal ; Convection ; Cloud modelling
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract For a thermal starting from rest, the scales of motion consistent with the initial conditions are given. An alternative time scale based on the motion of the thermal is derived. The anticipated similarity solutions for thermals are summarised and possible qualitative differences between solutions are given. Within this consistent framework previously published laboratory and numerical models of thermals are discussed. Reasons why numerical models have not rigorously demonstrated the existence of a self-similarity solution are considered. Comparisons of all available results show that a single similarity solution valid for all thermals does not exist.
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  • 109
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 953-963 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Electric field ; Atmospheric electric field ; —seasonal variation of
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The measurement of the atmospheric electric field was carried out with a field mill at a small island in a bay on the Pacific coast of Japan. The data obtained during 80 months from 1971 to 1977 were analysed. It was found that characteristically the diurnal variation regularly alters with the seasons. Whereas the electric field in winter has the same diurnal pattern as that observed at globally representative stations, it exhibits in summer a pattern depending on the variation of the local electric conductivity. The alteration is inferred to be associated with regional atmospheric conditions surrounding the observation site.
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  • 110
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 935-952 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Cloud microstructure ; Clouds-liquid water content in
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract This paper examines the evidence for the model of a small cumulus cloud represented as a quasi static but turbulent entity, growing on the upshear side and decaying on the downshear side. While the air just outside the cloudy outline is, on average, stationary relative to the embedding airmass, there is a slight flow, upwards and forward as though the updraft has induced upward motion in the clear air outside the cloud, on the growing side. On the decaying side the motion is downwards and away from the cloud. This is a flow pattern which is not consistent with the air flowing around the cloud as it moves forward but it agrees well with the picture given. Decayed remnants of cloud are found throughout the air previously occupied by the cloud. The cloud outline moves through the embedding air at a velocity which is almost as large as the relative motion of the subcloud feeding airflow (which is almost free from internal wind shear in strong convection). The mixing of dry air from above the inversion yields the observed diluted liquid water content in small cumuli, if such mixing is allowed to proceed until the cloud density equals that of the surrounding air. Quantitative conditions relating the liquid water to inversion temperature and moisture changes, and to the stability of the environment are presented. The strong vertical mixing from the top of the cloud downwards is important to microphysical processes.
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  • 111
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 880-912 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Numerische Wetterprognose ; Rossby-und Lärmwellen ; Lärmhypothese ; Initialisierung ; Lärmfilterung ; Numerical weather prediction ; Rossby-and noise waves ; noise hypothesis ; initialization ; noise filtering
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Summary The process of initialization of the atmospheric field variables and the very short computing time steps are key problems in numerical large-scale weather simulation based on stringent fluid-dynamic models. In the present paper it is discussed how these two prediction problems cantogether be removed with the aid of special compatibility conditions (diagnostic differential equations) between the atmospheric field parameters. These equations can be utilized simultaneously (1) to mutually adjust the initial fields of the meteorological variables so that noise effects are suppressed as far as possible (unfiltered systems) (2) to substitute original flow equations so that the short-periodic, meteorologically irrelevant noise waves (requiring short time steps) in the mathematical solutions are eliminated (filtered systems). The consistent usage of noise filtering relationship results (with a reasonable amount of mathematical effort) in noise-wave components being considerably reduced and meteorologically relevant Rossby-waves being largely maintained during the numerical integration process. The practicability of the noise-filtering theory is analytically discussed on the basis of a (barotropic) one-layer prediction model. The problems of initialization and noise-filtering (time step) are discussed separately.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Die Anfangsadjustierung der atmosphärischen Zustandsvariablen und die sehr kleinen Rechenzeitschritte sind Kernprobleme der numerischen Simulation von grossräumigen Wetterentwicklungen auf der Basis strenger hydrodynamischer Vorhersagemodelle. In dem vorliegenden Aufsatz wird ausführlich diskutiert wie beide Prognosehindernisse mit geeigneten Verträglichkeitsbedingungen (diagnostische Differentialgleichungen) zwischen den atmosphärischen Feldgrössengemeinsam beseitigt werden. Diese Bedingungsgleichungen sind gleichzeitig verwendbar, um (1) die Anfangsfelder der meteorologischen Variablen so aneinander anzupassen, dass kurzperiodische Lärmeffekte weitgehend unterdrückt werden (ungefilterte Systeme) (2) originäre Modellgleichungen zu ersetzen, so dass die meteorologisch irrelevanten Lärmwellen (mit lästig kleinen Zeitschritten) in den mathematischen Lösungen eliminiert werden (gefilterte Systeme). Die konsequente Nutzung der Lärmfiltertechnik führt (bei einem vertretbaren mathematischen Aufwand) in der Praxis dazu, dass während des numerischen Lösungsprozesses Lärmwellenanteile bis zur Unwirksamkeit reduziert und meteorologisch relevante Rossby-Wellen hinreichend gut konserviert werden. Die Praktizierbarkeit der Lärmfiltertheorie wird an einem (barotropen) 1-Schichtenprognosemodell rechnerisch realisiert und veranschaulicht. Die Kernprobleme der Initialisierung und der Lärmfilterung (Zeitschritt) werden dabei separat diskutiert.
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  • 112
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 964-974 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Atmospheric chemistry ; Interhemispheric differences ; Mercury
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Atmospheric mercury concentrations were measured during a nautical expedition on the Atlantic Ocean between Hamburg (54°N, 10°E) and Santo Domingo (20°N, 67°W). In addition, samples were taken during flights on a commerical aircraft in the upper and middle troposphere between 60°N and 55°S, mostly over the Pacific Ocean. The data obtained in the lower troposphere over the Northern Atlantic show considerable variation in the Hg concentrations, with values ranging between 1 and 11 ng/m3; the average concentration was found to be 2.8 ng/m3. The upper tropospheric data show an interhemispheric difference with average values of 1.45 ng/m3 and 1.08 ng/m3 in the Northern and Southern Hemisphere, respectively. This suggests that mercury production occurs predominantly over the continents both by natural and anthropogenic processes. The mercury content in aerosols was found to be ≤0.3 ng/m3, or one-tenth of the atmospheric concentration. The data indicate a mean residence time of mercury in the atmosphere of a few months to one year.
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  • 113
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 975-989 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Rock mechanics ; Dilatancy-diffusion, Velocity changes
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Compressional and shear-wave velocities (V p andV s ) were measured during the generalized triaxial deformation (i.e.σ 1≠σ 2=2σ 3) of pyrophyllite. Observed velocity changes could be ascribed to crack development during dilatancy. Velocity changes were very localized with respect to the ultimate failure plane. The orientation and development of the failure plane was continuously observed with laser holography. Velocity reverals, i.e. changes from a decreasing trend to an increasing trend, were documented in a wet sample in bothV p andV s . These changes in bothV p andV p are inconsistent with dialatancy-diffusion models. The reversals were interpreted as a reflection of local stress reorientation caused by a slowly propagating fault.
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  • 114
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1007-1014 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Eddy diffusivity ; Stratosphere ; Lower mesosphere
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Meteorological rocket soundings, launched between 1968–74 at six locations representative of low, middle, and high latitudes in the northern hemisphere, are employed to determine the vertical, meridional and off-diagonal components of the eddy diffusivity in the northern hemispheric statosphere and lower mesosphere. It is shown that the distribution of the vertical and meridional components of the eddy diffusivity are similar in the northern hemisphere, although the magnitude of the former is 107 smaller than that of the latter; the magnitude of the off-diagonal eddy diffusivity is about 103 smaller than that of the meridional eddy diffusivity. In the troposphere, a maximum eddy diffusivity occurs in the mid-latitude at about 7 km above the mean sea level for both the summer and winter seasons. In the stratosphere, a maximum eddy diffusivity occurs in the mid-latitude at about 33 km in the winter, but no maximum in the summer.
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  • 115
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1015-1032 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Eddy diffusion coefficients ; Atmosphere 30–60 km
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The results of numerical models or of new observational programs are checked by comparing them with past observations. Also, it is desirable that the eddy diffusion coefficients used in two-dimensional models be derived from the same data set as the circulation statistics which the model outputs are checked against, so that all results refer to the same atmospheric conditions. For the first time, the three components of the eddy diffusion matrix, from 30–60 km, 80°N–10°S are computed, together with the means, variances and covariances of the wind and temperature through the same region using the same data set for 1960–76 and the same handling and analysis methods for all variables. Horizontal diffusivities,K yy , are obtained from the variance and integral time scale of the meridional wind speed. The present values are generally smaller than past estimates, presumably because temporal variations longer than a month have been removed in this work. Estimates ofK yz are based on the tentative assumption that the diffusivity is proportional to the slope of isentropic surfaces, and estimates ofK zz are based on the assumption that small-scale gravity waves are primarily responsible for vertical mixing.
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  • 116
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1033-1051 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Multiple scattering ; Ozone photochemistry ; Trace substances ; Two-dimensional model
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Computations of concentrations of minor stratospheric gases using a two-dimensional model of the stratosphere are reported. The model includes Rayleigh scattering. This results in an increase in the photodissociation rate computation time by a factor of 1.5. The effect of ground albedo is assessed by comparing our results with a calculation of photolysis rates for a constant albedo with latitude. Comparison of results with a reference model including only molecular absorption are also made. The largest differences (≲50%) occur in NO and OH. An approximate expression for including the effects of Rayleigh scattering and surface reflectance in multi-dimensional models is suggested.
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  • 117
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1052-1065 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Microwaves ; Ozone ; Passive sounding
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract It is shown how to retrieve the atmospheric ozone profile by means of ground based microwave measurements of the radiative intensity. Chahine's iteration method is used. The method is tested by a numerical experiment. The retrieval rms about the mean error is approximately 0.4 ppm. The required measurement accuracy for the brightness temperatures is ±0.01 K.
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  • 118
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1076-1089 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Precipitable water
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Values for mean precipitable water are computed for four seasons of the year and for different regions of the Southern Hemisphere. Relationships between surface dew-point temperature and precipitable water were studied for these regions. A harmonic analysis of our data on precipitable water is attempted. Out results are presented and discussed.
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  • 119
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1066-1075 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Intertropical convergence zone ; Onset of monsoon ; Indian summer monsoon
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The paper defines the intertropical convergence zone. (ITCZ) in the Indian monsoon region during the northern summer, identifies it with the northern boundary of the advancing monsoon and suggests that its seasonal movement can serve as an indicator of onset, advance and withdrawal of the monsoon. Evidence suggesting the movement of the ITCZ which is associated with the equatorial trough of low pressure is indirectly furnished by an analysis of the isallobaric or height-tendency field which reveals a distinct gradient towards the north/south during period of advance/withdrawal of the monsoon. A comparative study of the dates of onset of monsoon during two successive years appears to suggest that some of the problems encountered in using rainfall as the sole criterion for determining the onset and advance of the monsoon may be over-come by using the ITCZ concept as proposed in the present paper. Attention is drawn to the effects of synoptic-scale disturbances on the normal dates of onset, advance and withdrawal of the monsoon.
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  • 120
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1090-1108 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Atmospheric aerosols ; Ice crystals ; Scavenging
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract A theoretical model is presented which allows computing the efficiency with which aerosol particles of 0.001 ≤r≤1 μm are collected by columnar ice crystals in air of various relative humidities, temperatures, and pressures. Particle capture due to Brownian diffusion, thermo- and diffusiophoresis is considered. It is shown that phoretic effects importantly determine the particle capture process of 0.01≤r≤1 μm. The various pressure-temperature levels studied are found to affect the collection efficiency only ifr〉0.1 μm. Comparison shows that water drops generally are better aerosol particle scavengers than columnar ice crystals.
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  • 121
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Atmospheric aerosols ; Ice crystals ; Scavenging
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract A theoretical model is presented which allows computing the efficiency with which aerosol particles of radius 0.1≤r≤10 μm are collected by simple ice crystal plates of radius 50≤a c ≤640 μm in air of various relative humidities, temperatures and pressures. Particle capture due to thermophoresis, diffusiophoresis and inertial impaction are considered. It is shown that the capture efficiency of an ice crystal in considerably affected by phoretic effects in the range 0.1≤r≤1 μm. For aerosol particles ofr〉1 μm the efficiency is strongly controlled by the flow field around the crystal and the density of the aerosol material. Trajectory analysis also predicts that aerosol particles are preferentially captured by the ice crystal rim. Our theoretica results are found to agree satisfactorily with the laboratory studies presently available. Comparison shows that for the same pressure, temperature and relative humidity of the ambient air ice crystal plates are better aerosol particle scavengers than water drops.
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  • 122
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1145-1154 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Atmospheric chemistry ; Nitrogen compounds ; Ocean source
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The paper deals with the atmospheric gaseous nitrogen-compounds under special consideration of the ocean being a source for NH3. The distribution of NH3 and NH4 + in the ocean is discussed. Additionally a survey of measured marine pH-values is given. While in temperate latitudes the source-strength of the ocean seems to be low, no such statement can be made at present for tropical latitudes owing to lack of measurements.
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  • 123
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1155-1169 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Magnetic anomalies ; Spheres ; Wavenumber domain ; Noise
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract A Fourier transformation of the magnetic field from a magnetized sphere allows a particularly simple interpretation of the parameters of the sphere. The depth to the centre and total magnetic moments of the sphere are related to the intercept and slope of the power spectrum. The horizontal centre and direction of magnetization are related to slope and intercept of the phase spectra in two perpendicular, horizontal directions. Examples with artificial data contaminated by various noise components are presented.
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  • 124
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1130-1144 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Antarctic precipitation ; Heavy metal concentrations
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Ion exchange and flameless atomic absorption spectrophotometry methods were used to measure the concentrations of sodium, manganese, iron and silver in snow accumulating at several sites on the Antarctic continent. The results show that the ratio of Mn/Fe is consistently close to the crustal value at all sites. The silver concentrations observed suggest a different origin, probably oceanic. When referenced to sodium, the degrees of enrichment of silver, manganese and iron increase by factors of 8, 2 and 2 respectively over a distance of 500 km from the ocean, after changes in sodium are accounted for. Investigation of the heavy metal content of fresh falling precipitation occorring on the Ross Ice Shelf, has shown that more enhanced enrichments of silver, manganese and iron occur in this fresh precipitation by factors up to 100, than in samples of snow and firn collected from shallow (up to 2 meters depth) pits at the same locations. Because the occurrences of these precipitation types vary temporally and geographically, it seems apparent that the shear stress conditions in the near surface boundary layer need to be considered in studies of snow and ice chemistry, particularly in polar regions where the chemical composition of permanent snow and ice fields are often investigated for evidence of climatic change, of glaciological behavior and of origins of chemical constituents.
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  • 125
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1170-1178 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Seismology ; Love waves ; Laterally nonhomogeneous layer
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Rayleigh's principle and the concept of the local wave number have been utilised for the approximate determination of the dispersion of Love waves propagating in a laterally heterogeneous layer lying over a homogeneous half-space. The shear wave velocity and the rigidity in the surface layer have been assumed to decrease with the increase of the lateral distance from the origin. The range of validity of the dispersion equation obtained by this method has been examined critically. It was found that: (a) for existence of Love waves the minimum value of shear wave velocity in the layer must be less than that in the matter below, and (b) the phase velocity of Love waves decreases with the increase of the lateral distance from the origin.
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  • 126
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1191-1191 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
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  • 127
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1179-1190 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Time-term method ; Crustal structure from earthquakes ; Seismic refraction experiment ; California
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract TheP-arrival times of local and regional earthquakes that are outside of a small network of seismometers can be used to interpret crustal parameters beneath the network by employing the time-term technique. Even when the estimate of the refractor velocity is poorly determined, useful estimates of the station time-terms can be made. The method is applied to a 20 km diameter network of eight seismic stations which was operated near Castaic, California, during the winter of 1972–73. The stations were located in sedimentary basins. Beneath the network, the sedimentary rocks of the basins are known to range from 1 to more than 4 km in thickness. Relative time-terms are estimated fromP-waves assumed to be propagated by a refractor in the mid-crust, and again fromP-waves propagated by a refractor in the upper basement. For the range of velocities reported by others, the two sets of time-terms are very similar. They suggest that both refractors dip to the southwest, and the geology also indicates that the basement dips in this direction. In addition, theP-wave velocity estimated for the refractor of mid-crustal depths, roughly 6.7 km/sec, agrees with values reported by others. Thus, even in this region of complicated geologic structure, the method appears to give realistic results.
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  • 128
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1192-1208 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Free oscillations ; Earth ; Source moment tensor ; Multiplet splitting
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract It is shown, through numerical experiments, that the effect of ignoring ellipticity and rotation of the earth when inverting free oscillation data in moment tensor studies, is to introduce spurious spectral components in the solution. For numerical simulation of the data conditions of the 1970 deep Colombian event the spurious part has isotropic and deviatoric components, besides a distortion in the phase spectra which may lead to artificial precursive source in the solution. The magnitude of the artificial isotropic component is of the order of 10% of the real source moment tensor, depending on the data set used in the inversion. Measuring the excitation of each mode at each station using the technique of integrating over the spectral peaks does not cancel completely the effect of multiplet splitting, in particular that splitting due to rotation of the earth. The effect of lateral heterogeneities was simulated by introducing arbitrary splitting parameters which produced scattering in the eigenperiods compatible with those observed. For that splitting the inversion rendered additional isotropic components. We conclude that the observed implosive precursor the the 1970 Colombian event could have been artificially introduced by ignoring rotation, ellipticity and lateral heterogeneities of the earth. A procedure to invert free oscillation data for an elliptical rotating earth is proposed. It could be applied to a laterally inhomogeneous earth if the excitation for that model could be computed. Its application to real data for the deep Colombian event indicates that we will need to improve our knowledge on the effect of rotation, ellipticity, lateral heterogeneities and anelasticity on free oscillation and their excitation in order to solve accurately for the six components of the moment tensor independently.
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  • 129
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1214-1227 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Polar phase shift ; Rayleigh wave propagation
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The precision of measurement of surface-wave phase velocities at very long periods has reached a point where the exact, rather than asymptotic, form of the spherical harmonics must be considered in order to compute theoretical phase velocities or phase delays. The zeroth-order (i.e. constant) polar phase shift afterBrune et al. (1961) applies only between stations antipodal to each other. Everywhere else a correction for incomplete polar phase shift must be applied even if the waves do not cross a pole between the stations. The correction can exceed one percent of the total phase delay and thus be of the same order as the expected regional anomalies. It depends on the epicentral distance on the signal period and on the focal mechanism; the latter dependence can make the practical application cumbersome. We derive first-order asymptotic formulae for the correction of local phase velocities and total phase travel times of Rayleigh waves.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1209-1213 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Seismology ; Phase velocity dispersion ; Rayleigh waves ; ‘Hedgehog’ inversion method ; Lithosphere-asthenosphere system in Europe
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Long-period recordings of dispersive Rayleigh waves along numerous station lines, or ‘profiles’, in Europe have for the first time permitted a uniform inversion of these observations based on a new method of phase velocity regionalization. Regional dispersion relations obtained by this method have then been subjected to a complete inversion procedure commonly known as the ‘hedgehog’ method. The results are presented in a map outlining the thickness of the lower lithosphere (‘lid’) and the shear (S) velocities in both the ‘lid’ and the asthenosphere ‘channel’. A comparison of these results with the minimum compressional (P) wave velocities in the asthenosphere and their corresponding depths provides an estimate of theV p /V s ratio for the asthenosphere in the European area.
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  • 131
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1232-1233 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Theoretical seismograms ; Reflectivity method ; Anisotropic structures
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  • 132
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1228-1231 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Synthetic seismograms ; Diffracted waves ; Core-mantle boundary
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Summary To derive the structure of the Lower Mantle, observations of P and S waves at epicentral distances beyond 90 degrees have been used. The arrival times and amplitude decay with distance proved to be a source of information to derive the structure near the core-mantle interface. These observations were compared with results of theoretical calculations based on full wave theory [1, 2, 5, 6]. Another important theoretical method is the reflectivity method [4]. Differences between the two methods have a direct bearing on the interpretation of the observations and therefore need to be investigated. In the two methods the wave propagation involved in diffraction is simulated in different ways. In this paper the importance of approximations involved in each of the methods will be discussed. For this purpose the calculation of the frequency-dependent decay with distance of diffracted SH waves has been chosen. The approximations are considered to be important both in P and SH diffraction. The advantage of studying SH waves is the simpler and more straightforward formulation.
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  • 133
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1234-1247 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Theoretical seismograms ; Body-wave spectrum ; Focal depth
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Summary The SH body-wave spectrum of a deep earthquake, which occurred at the foot of the Kamchatka peninsula and was recorded in the Solomon Islands, presents a regular modulation. The distribution of minima in the amplitude spectrum, corresponding to jumps in the phase spectrum, conforms with that expected from the interference between direct and surface reflected waves. The strong dependence of the modulation on the focal depth, emerging from theoretical SH body wave spectra obtained with the contribution of the first 21 higher Love-wave modes, was used to investigate the focal depth of the event here considered. The value estimated, 140 km, agrees with an earlier focal depth determination by travel time data.
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  • 134
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1248-1271 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Earthquake source ; Stress drop model ; Computed near-field accelerograms
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Shallow strike slip earthquakes on vertical faults are modelled as two-dimensional antiplane strain ruptures in a uniformly prestressed homogeneous halfspace. Behind the rupture front, which is specified, the stress drops to a lower value. The elastodynamic boundary value problem is solved with a finite difference method. Several cases are studied, which include symmetric and one-directional rupture propagation, surface faulting, multiple events, variable rupture velocity, sticking and rebreaking of the fault plane. The time function of displacement, velocity and acceleration are interpreted as signals generated by events in the focus, namely starting, stopping and breaking through the surface of the rupture. The model explains peak velocity and peak acceleration in the near field of M≈5.5–6 earthquakes; which are typically about 0.2 m/s and 5 m/s2 at 10 km epicentral distance, if the rupture velocity is close to the shear wave velocity. Sticking of the fault does not alter the accelerograms significantly, but it increases the seismic moment in simple events and decreases it in multiple events.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1326-1328 
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  • 136
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1293-1309 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Theoretical seismograms ; Solid-liquid interface ; Core-mantle boundary ; Diffraction and scattering
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The paper discusses basic ideas and principles underlying methods, which have proved useful in the interpretation of diffraction and scattering phenomena by a smooth or slightly rough solid-liquid interface. Generally, the wave interaction may be formulated as an excitation problem; it involves (1) finding an equivalent dislocation or source distribution on the interface, and (2) evaluating the excited wave field. These steps are taken through perturbation theory and/or adopting the appropriate generalization of ray theory. In this context an explicit form of Green's function is also given. The methods have been applied to the core-mantle boundary, with a view toward the interpretation of recent data: (a) diffracted P and S waves around the core (in particular, their attenuation); (b) scattered short-period core phases (in particular, precursors to PKP and PKKP). Other types of wave interaction, and implications for models of the core-mantle boundary structure, are briefly mentioned.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1272-1292 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Theoretical seismograms ; Diffracted waves ; Ray parameters ; Core-mantle boundary
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    Notes: Abstract The derivation of P and S velocities at the core-mantle boundary (CMB) from long-period diffracted waves by the use of the simple ray-theoretical formulav CMB=r c /p (v CMB=velocity at the CMB;r c =core radius;p=ray parameter) yields apparent velocity values which differ from the true velocities. Using a dominant period of about 20 sec for calculating theoretical seismograms, we found a linear relation between the apparent velocity and the average velocity in a transition zone at the base of the mantle with fixed velocity on top. The ray parameters determined from long-period earthquake data are found to be 4.540±0.035 and 8.427±0.072 sec/deg for Pdiff and Sdiff, respectively. These values yield apparent velocities of 13.378±0.103 for P and 7.207±0.062 km/sec for S waves. By means of the theoretical relation between apparent and average velocity and under the assumption of linear variation of velocity with depth, one can invert the apparent velocities into true CMB velocities of 13.736±0.170 and 7.320±0.124 km/sec. These results imply positive velocity gradients at the base of the mantle and hence no significant departures from adiabaticity and homogeneity.
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  • 138
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1310-1325 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Seismic refraction profile ; Caledonides ; Norway ; Low-velocity zone
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Data from a reversed seismic crustal profile crossing the Caledonides of southern Norway suggest a continuously increasing P-wave velocity followed by a low-velocity zone extending from a depth of about 14 km downwards. Interpretation of observed travel time and amplitude characteristics leads to a thickness of 4 km and velocity of 6.0 km/s for this layer, the velocity above and below it being about 6.6 km/s. The role of such a velocity inversion is discussed in the tectonic framework of the Caledonian orogeny and other relevant geophysical information, and it is suggested that the low-velocity zone materializes deep-seated sediments under Precambrian crystalline rocks. The structure of the lower crust is more tentatively established, but still in reasonable agreement with other seismic investigations in the general profiling area.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1329-1329 
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 1329-1329 
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  • 141
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 695-705 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Ozone ; Photochemistry ; System modelling ; Transport
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract A scheme of a system of physical and chemical processes controlling the production, transport and destruction of ozone and its gaseous catalysts, as well as other related gases in the low and high stratosphere is presented. An account is made of temperature variations of the stratospheric layer resulting from changes in ozone content; also included is the effect of temperature variations on photochemical reaction rates and ozone and other gases transport between atmospheric layers. Parameters describing major relations of the system are inferred from the analysis of ozone and trace gas data and from the results of model calculations of interdependence between variations in temperature and ozone content of the layer. An analysis of minor fluctuations of the linearized system shows that photochemical processes are responsible for its aperiodic stability and that gas transport between atmospheric layers destabilizes the system.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 706-719 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Waves ; Baroclinic ; Influence of static stability on
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    Notes: Abstract The effect of the time change of static stability and wind shear on a two-level quasigeostrophic baroclinic wave is considered. First, by keeping the wind shear as a constant the effect of the increase of static stability is that the amplitude of the temperature wave reaches a maximum first while that of the stream field is still amplifying and, as that of temperature wave reaches a minimum, that of the stream field becomes a maximum, and both are in phase. Next, by keeping the static stability as a constant, a life cycle of disturbance associated with the time change of wind shear is obtained. In this case the maximum amplitude of the wave appears at about 6 days and the life cycle is about 11 days for reasonable values of the model parameters. Finally, both effects are considered. The results show that as the wind shear decreases, the static stability increases, and the percentage change of wind shear is larger than that of static stability. This paper is not an entirely convincing analysis of the finite amplitude dynamics of an unstable wave in the two-level model, but rather a pedagogically useful approximate theory in which the retention of some terms rather than others is justified in view of the plausibility of the results.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 118 (1980), S. 720-742 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Condensation ; Effect of entrainment on ; Cloud drops, condensation of
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    Notes: Abstract This paper examines the effects of the mixing of dry air into a cloud top from the point of view of the droplet spectra. It is shown theoretically that the resulting cycling of the air up and down in the cloud, as seems to be the essential mechanism by which cumuli have been diluted to their observed liquid water mixing ratio, can double the largest drop radius and generate cloud parcels containing drops of all sizes up to this maximum. These changes in the droplet distribution with size occur by a process which is not greatly influenced by the cloud condensation nuclei or the details of droplet growth since ‘maritime’ like spectra can develop in ‘continental’ type cumuli. It shows that large numbers of cloud condensation nuclei should not have much effect in inhibiting the rainforming process by reducing coalescence growth. On the contrary, the controlling parameters which determine precipitation efficiency and times seem to be those which control the mixing.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 54-66 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Atmospheric radioactivity ; Wind erosion ; Resuspension rate ; Vegetation contamination
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract A method for the determination of resuspension parameters of radioactive fall-out from nuclear explosions, deposited on soil from the stratospheric reservoir, is presented. The seasonal variation ofk α-137Cs resuspension parameter, the trend ofk α with time in 1963–1978, the trend over this period of time of the wind component fraction of the concentration of global137Cs in the surface boundary layer over arable and natural soils are given. An estimate of radioactive contamination of vegetation by the effect considered is given as an example of practical use of this work.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 108-116 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Atmospheric electricity ; Fair weather electric field ; Effect of pollution on potential gradient in atmosphere
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    Notes: Abstract The measurement and monitoring of atmospheric pollutants is an important aspect of pollution studies. A novel method of assessment of the level of pollution in the atmosphere is conceived using point discharge and potential gradients. The present paper is an attempt to show that measurement of the point discharge current (PDC) and potential gradient (PG) can be used to provide information regarding the nature of charges and level of pollution in the atmosphere. The measurement of the PDC and PG in different localities is presented and discussed.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 151-166 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Source mechanisms ; Rock mechanics ; Microcracks
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    Notes: Abstract Focal mechanisms for 116 acoustic emission events associated with uniaxial cyclic loading of Westerly granite have been investigated using P-wave first-motions. Polarities were observed at eight transducers positioned on the sample to provide good azimuthal coverage. The P-wave radiation patterns can be fit by a quadrupole source but not by a simple pure tensional source. The predominant orientations of the two nodal planes for the quadrupole fit were subparallel to and perpendicular to the σ1 direction. Events with ‘close’ hypocenters, i.e., within a radius of 3 mm, display a remarkable similarity in focal mechanisms irrespective of the cycle or time within a cycle at which they occur. The polarity observations of 48 of 116 acoustic emission events could be fit with the simple quadrupole indicating that the microfracturing processes even in uniaxial compression often simplistically portrayed as propagating axial cracks are indeed quite complex.
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  • 147
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 167-185 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Corsica ; Historical seismicity ; Macroseismic study
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Description / Table of Contents: Abstract The documents that we have compiled (archives, newspaper reports and seismic catalogues) enabled us to go back to the end of the 18th century in the seismic history of Corsica. The number of felt earthquakes (epicentres off shore or on the island) which were documented during the two and a half centuries is relatively low. Maximum intensities have reached VI or rarely VII. The seismic activity is mainly located in the North-East of Corsica, near faults which have recently been active between the ‘Corse schisteuse’ (Alpine domain) and the ‘Plaine Orientale’ (Quaternary, Neogene). A seismic crisis happened recently (1978–1979) in this area where present activity of some of these faults has been suggested. Macroseismic studies have been conducted for the main shocks (I max=VI and V) in order to locate them accurately. Two among them (April 3, 1978 and March 27, 1979) are studied here in detail. Using the Kövesligethy formula hypocenters are respectively found at 4.5±0.5 km and around 5 km, whereas the corresponding absorption factors are 0.020 and 0.031. Such depths show that the two events affected the upper crust of Corsica (30 km).
    Notes: Résumé L'étude des documents (archives, presse et catalogues sismiques) que nous avons consultés, nous a permis de remonter jusqu'à la fin du XVIIIe siècle dans l'histoire sismologique corse. Le nombre des séismes ressentis (épicentres en mer ou sur l'île) recensés pendant ces deux siècles et demi est relativement faible. Les intensités maximales ont parfois atteint le degré VI, plus rarement VII. L'activité sismique touche principalement une région située au Nord-Est de la Corse, au voisinage de failles au rejeu récènt et séparent le domaine de la Corse schisteuse (alpin) du domaine de la Plaine Orientale (Quaternaire, Néogène). Une crise sismique récente (1978–1979) a de nouveau secoué cette même région où on a suggéré l'activité actuelle de certaines de ces failles. Les plus importants de ces séismes (I max=VI et V) ontifait l'objet d'enquêtes macrosismiques qui permettent d'en préciser les épicentres. Deux d'entre-eux ont été étudiés en détail (3 avril 1978 et 27 mars 1979); en utilisant la relation de Kövesligethy, les hypocentres se situent respectivement à 4,5±0.5 km et vers 5 km, pour des coefficients d'absorption de 0,020 et 0,031. Ces profondeurs indiquent que ces deux séismes ont mis en jeu des éléments superficiels de la croûte corse (30 km).
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 229-248 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Meridional transport ; Monsoon ; Sensible heat
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Spherical harmonic analysis is made of the grid point values of geopotential heights at 700 mb and 300 mb levels for the months April to August for the years 1967 and 1972. The year 1967 is a good monsoon year and 1972 is a bad monsoon year in India. Meridional transport of sensible heat is obtained in wave number domain using spherical harmonic coefficients at 500 mb level form=1 to 10 andn−m=0 to 10, wherem represents the wave number round the globe andn−m gives the numbers of zero points from north pole to south pole excluding the poles themselves. Large northward transports of sensible heat in the month of May and in the monsoon months at the subtropics are characteristic of bad monsoon. Wave 1 transports sensible heat southward (forn−m=0) and wave 2 transports sensible heat northward (forn−m=4). Strengthening of wave 1 is conducive to good monsoon year and strengthening of wave 2 is conducive to bad monsoon year. These are the same features obtained in Fourier analysis. The contrasting features exist in waves 1 and 2 both in good and in bad monsoon and are better defined in the present analysis than in the Fourier analysis of the earlier study. However, waves 1 and 2 reveal clearer contrast in the present analysis than in the Fourier analysis. Bad monsoon activity is associated with large divergence of heart at subtropics and large convergence of heat at extra tropics.
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  • 150
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    Keywords: Fourier transform method ; Self-potential anomalies
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    Notes: Abstract The self-potential anomaly due to a two-dimensional inclined sheets of finite depth extent has been analysed in the frequency domain using the Fourier transform. Expression for the Fourier amplitude and phase spectra are derived. The Fourier amplitude and phase spectra are analysed so as to evaluate the parameters of the sheet. Application of this method on two anomalies (synthetic and field data) has given good results.
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  • 151
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 422-436 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Monex-79 ; Objective analysis ; Wind field
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    Notes: Abstract The monsoon sub-programme of FGGE deployed a variety of observing systems such as research aircraft, research vessels, floating ballooms, and a geostationary satellite, etc. during the special observational period of Monex-79, with a view to making the best possible data set available for studies on various aspects of the monsoon circulation. Whether the data obtained from the various observational platorms improve the representation of the monsson systems, flow patterns, etc. in the analysis is the basis of this study. For this, the objective analyses of the wind field were made with different data sets, first using only the data from conventional observation platforms, subsequently including the data from aircraft and ships and then finally including the data from the satellite. These analyses were compared with carefully made subjective analyses. It is inferred that the addition of data has a positive impact on the objective analysis and the improvement in the analysis is more marked in the data-void region like the Arabian Sea compared to the region where observational stations are distributed fairly stisfactorily. It is also inferred that the impact of the aircraft/ship data on the analysis is more consistent than the data from the satellite.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 483-494 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Flood ; Precipitation ; Tropical meteorology
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    Notes: Abstract The rainstorm of 17 to 21 July 1981 which caused exceptionally heavy rains and floods in arid Rajasthan, was analysed. It was observed that 7 stations in the rainstorm area broke their previous 80-year record of one-day rainfall, and two of these stations equalled their respective estimates of probable maximum precipitation (PMP). A comparison of areal raindepths of this rainstorm with the similar raindepths of past severe-most rainstorms of this region showed that this rainstorm gave unprecedented raindepths up to about 38 850 sq. km (i.e. 15 000 sq. miles) for a 3-day duration.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 495-502 
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    Keywords: Cloudiness ; Sunshine ; Tropical meteorology
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    Notes: Abstract The relationship between point cloudiness and sunshine derived cloud cover in India is investigated using data collected from 33 stations. It has been found that point cloudiness, in general, overestimates sunshine derived cloud cover. The latitudinal dependence of the overestimation is discussed. The significance of the precise quantification of cloudiness in radiation budget studies is briefly mentioned.
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  • 154
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    Keywords: Wave scattering ; Elastic heterogeneity ; Three-dimensional modeling
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    Notes: Abstract The formal solutions of displacement field to the problem of elastic wave scattering and diffraction due to an infinitely long rigid cylinder embedded in an infinite elastic medium by an impulsive point source have been obtained in the integral form. The integrals for the reflected and the diffracted waves both in the shadow zone and in the illuminated zone are evaluated asymptotically for the early time motion by the Reisdue-Cagniard method and the Saddle-point-Cagniard method. Numerical results of the diffractedP, S andPS waves at a fixed circum-distance from the surface of the rigid cylinder show noticeably that (1) the energy partition for the diffractedS wave is small in comparison with that for the diffractedP wave, (2) the wave form of the diffractedS wave is broader and more diffused than that of the diffractedP wave, (3) the direction of the radial motions of the diffractedP andS waves varies as a function of the observational point, and (4) the energy partition for the diffractedP wave is much smaller than that for the direct or the reflectedP waves.
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  • 155
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 642-647 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Atmospheric kinetic energy ; Climate models
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The winter simulations of the GLAS climate model and the NCAR community climate model are used to examine the maintenance of the atmospheric kinetic energy. It is found that the kinetic energy is generated in the lower latitudes south of the maximum westerlies, transported northward and then, destroyed in the midlatitudes north of the maximum westerlies. Therefore, the atmospheric kinetic energy is maintained by the counterbalance between the divergence (convergence) of kinetic energy flux and generation (destruction) of kinetic energy in lower (middle) latitudes.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 682-690 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Atmospheric electricity ; Atmospheric electric potential gradient
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    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Atmospheric electric potential gradient measurments were made near the ground at Vishakapatnam (17°42′N, 83°18′E). The diurnal variation of potential gradient during fair weather has been studied. The characteristic pattern of potential gradient in different months, different seasons and its annual variation are examined.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 721-757 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Edge waves ; shelf waves ; Kelvin waves
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    Notes: Abstract Free and forced oscillations of shallow water in an infinitely long rotating channel of parabolic cross-section are analyzed. The pure cross-channel oscillations ofChrystal (1905) and solutions for zero rotation first discussed byProudman (1925) andHidaka (1932) are special asymptotic solutions for the free modes of this model. However, for increasingly large, along-shore wave number, our solutions donot uniformly approach those ofReid (1958) andBall (1967) for a single shore-line and semi-infinite ocean. A method of computing eigen frequencies and eigen functions for the general problem is described, and a sufficient number of these are exhibited graphically to permit visualization of the transitions between the asymptotic regions. The forced problem consists of an incoming wave-train or surge generated at the center of the channel. Amplitude and transports near the shore are computed for a wide range of dimensionless incoming-wave frequencies and rotational frequencies.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 784-794 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Depth estimation ; magnetized layers ; long-wavelength anomalies ; spectral analysis ; reduction to the pole
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    Notes: Abstract A large extent aeromagnetic survey, covering a 9°×9° degree of a Precambrian shield area in SE Brazil, was used to analyse long wavelength magnetic anomalies with the purpose of determining the magnetic structure of the lithosphere. Data analysis based on a novel approach to the estimation of the parameters in the statistical model ofSpector andGrant (1970), reveals a highly magnetized lower crust, bounded by an essentially non-magnetic upper mantle. The highly magnetized layer can be associated with a higher density lower crust model, derived from gravity and seismic data available in the area, suggesting a compositional transition from upper to lower crust. It was also verified that the operation of reduction to the pole, which is singular at the geomagnetic equator, performs quite satisfactorily at the low geomagnetic inclination of the area, bringing into accordance the long wavelength anomalies with the structural trends.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 122 (1984), S. 831-847 
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    Notes: Abstract Between 1 January 1980 and 28 July 1981, a series of large earthquakes with body-wave magnitudes around 7, took place along the western segment of the Alpide belt. The sequence started in the Azores and migrated eastward along the belt at a rate of about 4400 km/yr with consecutive large events in northern Algeria, southern Italy, southern Greece and Iran. Two different methods are employed to identify similar series and corresponding migration velocities during earlier time periods of this century. The data set used contains all earthquakes with body-wave magnitudes larger than 6.3 and covers the time interval 1901–81. The concept of linear migration is tested for eastward and/or westward propagation, considering high migration velocities from 1600 to 11 000 km/yr. Results obtained are not homogeneous with respect to the two opposite migration directions, west-east and east-west, and we interpret this as a net drift of earthquake activity from the west to the east. Our efforts here are concentrated on analysis of observational data and on estabilishing the uniqueness of migration patterns. Because of the complexity of the tectonic system in question, we did not attempt to establish a mechanism explaining the migration of the observed earthquake sequences.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 120 (1982), S. 840-849 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Earthquake magnitude ; Magnitude-frequency relationships
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    Notes: Abstract The relationship between frequency and magnitude in homogeneous series of earthquakes is studied. The linear relation of Gutenberg and Richter between the logarithm of frequency and the magnitude is found to be applicable only in a restricted range of magnitudes. The plots of the cumulative number of earthquakes versus magnitude for 20 different series (the total number of events in a single series ranging from about 50 to more than 3000) clearly indicate the presence of vertical asymptotes. This fact suggests that upper and lower limits could exist for the magnitude of a single event, i.e. for the energy that can be released in an earthquake. From the position of the vertical asymptotes it is possible to obtain the upper and lower bounds of magnitude for each series of earthquakes. The empirical shape of the cumulative number-magnitude distribution can be well represented by equilateral hyperbolas. A ‘least χ2’ method has been used to obtain the best-fitting hyperbolas and corresponding the minimum and maximum magnitudes for each series. The shape of the frequency-magnitude relationship is discussed in lesser detail. It is found, however, that after suitable rescaling the earthquakes in each series follow much the same law, with a comparatively small scatter.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 122 (1984), S. 1-9 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Q factor ; Attenuation ; Coda ; Scattering ; Seismic wave
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    Notes: Abstract When the quality factorQ is taken into account in attenuation studies, it is necessary to know the relative losses of wave energy due to scattering and to anelastic absorption. The coda is the most important phenomenon now known which is related to elastic scattering of seismic waves. Utilizing coda, this study presents relationships which give theQ factors of the medium around the recording station and discriminate between attenuations arising from elastic scattering (under the assumption of isotropic scattering) and those arising from anelastic absorption. This work proposes a technique for separately determining the attenuation due to isotropic scattering and that due to absorption from the observed envelope of coda waves.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 122 (1984), S. 86-88 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Atmospheric electric potential gradients ; orographic effect
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    Notes: Abstract Potential gradients were measured in the valley of the Simhachalam hills and near the top. They were found to be higher at the top than in the valley, where they increased in the forenoon. It was the reverse at the top of the hills. The valley winds were found to play an important role in the variation of potential gradient.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 122 (1984), S. 110-123 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: ageotrophic flow ; vertical redistribution of momentum
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    Notes: Abstract Data from the SESAME storm-scale network are used in computing the momentum budget of the prestorm, storm, and poststorm environment of a severe storm complex. In the prestorm period geostrophic flow dominates the environment. With progression into the storm period all terms in the momentum equation become important, as a significant ageostrophic component in the momentum field develops. Turbulent effects are estimated as a residual, and the results indicate that they are comparable in magnitude to the other terms. Their effect is to decrease the positive momentum, particularly at levels above 500 mbar, where the vertical motion is the strongest. Vertical profiles of area means ofu andv indicate that the storm is apparently redistributing momentum downwards, thus reducing the mean shear. In the poststorm period the flow once again becomes largely geostrophic, and a maximum in wind speed reappears at upper levels.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 122 (1984), S. 143-156 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Earthquake prediction ; Hydrogeochemical ; Hydrogeodynamic
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    Notes: Abstract The paper reviews the chief results of the hydrogeochemical and hydrogeodynamic investigations conducted for earthquake prediction in all seismic regions of the USSR. An extensive amount of data on the variations of approximately 40 hydrogeochemical and hydrogeodynamic parameters were collected with a broad network of 83 stations. These data are analysed in connection with regional seismic activities. The hydrogeochemical precursors are classified on the basis of statistical treatment of the regular observations. Several features of the hydrogeochemical anomalies that depend on the physicochemical nature of the precursor, geological conditions in a given region, and features of the expected seismic event are pointed out. Some sophisticated statistical methods of data analysis and several examples of actual earthquake predictions based on hydrogeochemical methods are given. Hydrogeochemical and hydrogeodynamic precursors are found to be highly effective for shortterm predictions. Possible mechanisms that may cause hydrogeochemical precursors are discussed. Sophisticated automatic equipment developed in the Soviet Union for hydrogeochemical and hydrogeodynamic observations are briefly mentioned.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 122 (1984), S. 175-184 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Hydrogen emission ; Seismic activity ; Earthquake prediction
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    Notes: Abstract Measurements of chemical composition of bubbles from a mineral spring at Yuya Spa situated close to the Median Tectonic Line, the longest active fault in Japan, showed that the periods of increased H2 emission coincided with occurrences of the Ohno earthquake swarm nearby. Four cases of the coincidence without exception were observed in the last three years. The fluctuation of H2 concentration ranges between 〈0.5 and 200 ppm, whereas other gases such as He, Ar, N2, and CH4 do not fluctuate much. The H2 concentration is correlated with the energy released by the seismic activity. This field evidence, together with the results of laboratory experiments conducted bySugisaki et al. (1983), leads to the conclusion that H2 observed at the mineral spring was produced by the reaction between groundwater and rock fractured in the seismic activities. The observation that H2 in the mineral spring tends to appear prior to an earthquake suggests that microcracks may occur in rocks prior to earthquakes. The precursory emission of H2 may be useful for earthquake prediction.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 122 (1984), S. 218-230 
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    Notes: Abstract Several kinds of geochemical anomaly before strong earthquakes have been observed in China since 1966. They include changes in groundwater radon levels, ion content of water (Ca+2, Mg+2, Cl−, SO 4 −2 , F−), dissolved gases (H2, CO2), and gases escaping from the aeration zone through abandoned dry wells (Ar, N2, CO2). The radon anomalies may be grouped as long-term and short-term anomalies. Most of the geochemical anomalies observed are characterized by a pattern of increase. The largest amplitude recorded was 37 times the base level. Preliminary study indicates that the types of seismogeochemical anomaly observed prior to strong earthquakes depend on tectonic, geologic, lithologic, and hydrogeological conditions at the monitoring station. Results obtained from modelling experiments on the mechanisms of some anomalies are given.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 122 (1984), S. 340-352 
    ISSN: 1420-9136
    Keywords: Earthquake prediction ; Radon emanation ; Fault creep
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    Notes: Abstract Radon emanation was continuously monitored for several months at two locations along a creeping segment of the San Andreas fault in central California. The recorded emanations showed several impulsive increases that lasted as much as five hours with amplitudes considerably larger than meteorologically induced diurnal variations. Some of the radon increases were accompanied or followed by earthquakes or fault-creep events. They were possibly the result of some sudden outbursts of relatively radon-rich ground gas, sometimes triggered by crustal deformation or vibration.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 24 (1953), S. 5-10 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary Here is explained, through the solution of two problems, a procedure for the determination of the cartographic projections of the sphere, according to the principle that lines of a forfixed equation on paper correspond to determined lines on the sphere. Here are the problems in question: 1) To determine the equation of a rectilineal and convergent meridian lined paper in which the loxodromies are represented by straight lines. 2) To point out if there are other projections, besides the perspective centrographic one, turning maximum circles into straight lines.
    Notes: Riassunto Si espone, attraverso la risoluzione di due problemi, un procedimento di carattere generale per la determinazione di proiezioni cartografiche della sfera, secondo il principio che a determinate linee sulla sfera corrispondano linee di prefissata equazione sulla carta. I problemi trattati sono i seguenti: 1) Determinare l'equazione di una carta a meridiani rettilinei e convergenti in cui le lossodromie siano rappresentate con linee rette. 2) Ricercare se esistono altre proiezioni, oltre la centrografica prospettica, che trasformano i cerchi massimi in rette.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 24 (1953), S. 37-53 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary After a comparative consideration of the generally used methods of measurements ofD, H, I andZ, emphasizing the characteristic differences between the measure of angles and intensities, the new methods of the absoluteZ-determination are examined, in particular those basing upon electronic principles. The description of a new magnetic apparatus, simular to another instrument for determining the atm.-electric potential, called “magnetische Feldmfihle” is as follows: The principle is based upon the interrupted covering of coils, the central part of which consists of Mu-metall with laminas of the same material. On account of the position of the coils the frequency is 4-times as much as that of an earth-inductor, for which reason a normal amplifier may be used. The totalZ-field induces in the Feldmfihle an effective voltage of more than 2 Volts, whereas the great station-inductor ofSchulze produces only 75 inV. The Feldmfihle is used as a zeroinstrument for the absoluteZ-determination. The compensation ofZ is effected by a solenoid which bears more windings in according toHelmholtz-style for the finer calculation. The inhomogenity of the field within the solenoid is computed. This method permits to measure the field-intensity up to ±0.6 ψ.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Nach einer vergleichenden Betrachtung der gebräuchlichen Meßmethoden yonD, H, I undZ unter Hervorhebung der charakteristischen Unterschiede zwischen Winkel- und Intensitätsmessungen, werden die neuen Methoden der absolutenZ-Messung, besonders auf elektronischer Grundlage untersucht. Eines neues magnetisches Meßgerät, entsprechend einem ähnlichen Gerät zur Messungen des luftelektrischen Potentials “magnetische Feldmiihle” bezeichuet, wird beschrieben. Das Prinzip beruht auf der intermittierten Abdeckung yon Spulen, deren Kerne aus Mu-Metallamellen bestehen, mit entsprechenden Lamellen und Kernen. Infolge der Anordnung der Spulen ist die Frequenz viermal so groß wie beim Erdinduktor, so daß ein normalcr Röhreuverstärker verwendet werden kann. Das totaleZ-Feld induziert in der Feldmühle eine effektive Spannung von über 2 Volt, wäihrend der große Stations-Induktor yonSchulze nur 75 mV gibt. Die Feldmühle wird als Nullinstrument für die absoluteZ-Messung verwendet. Die Kompensation vonZ erfolgt durch ein Solenoid, auf welchem sich noch weitere Wicklungen inHelmholt zanordnung zur Feinabstimmung desZ-Feldes befinden. Die Inhomogenitiit des Feldes im Solenoid wird berechnet. Bei 30–50-facher Verstärkung kann das Feldminimum mit einer Genauigkeit von +-0.6 ψ bestimmt werden.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 24 (1953), S. 83-94 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary The mean ozone distribution for various geographical latitudes is derived from ozone distributions measured by means of balloon ascents, eclipses of the moon and the «Umkehreffekt» and compared with the theoretically calculated photochemical distributions, whereby the full scope of the latter is considerably limited. —The discrepancy between the calculated and the measured ozone distribution below the ozone maximum at 23 km altitude is a sign of a considerable effect of mass exchange in the troposphere and lower stratosphere which increases towards the equator. In the mean and higher latitudes we find — especially in spring — a second lower ozone maximum at 16 km altitude which cannot be explained photochemically but is probably due to advection, to ozone transported down from polar latitudes.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Aus den bei Ballonaufstiegen, bei Mondfinsternissen und durch den Umkehreffekt gemessenen Ozonverteilungen werden für verschiedene geographische Breiten gemittelte Ozonverteilungen abgeleitet und mit den theoretisch photochemisch berechneten Verteilungen verglichen, wodurch der Spielraum der letzten erheblich eingeengt wird. — Die Diskrepanz zwischen der berechneten und der gemessenen Ozonverteilung unterhalb des Ozonmaximums in 23 km Höhe lässt auf eine bedeutende Wirkung des Massenaustausches in der Troposphäre und in der unteren Stratosphäre schliessen, der nach den Aequator hin stark zunimmt. — In mittleren und höheren Breiten tritt — vornehmlich im Frühjahr — ein zweites tieferes Ozonmaximum in 16 km Höhe auf, das photochemisch nicht zu erklären ist, sondern advektiv, durch aus polaren Breiten herzugeführtes Ozon bedingt wird.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 24 (1953), S. 107-114 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary A radiation measuring instrument with windshelter transmitting infrared waves is described, it fulfills our demands for continuous records of the atmospheric radiation, of the long-wave outgoing radiation of the ground, of the effective outgoing radiation (nocturnal radiation), and of the radiation balance (during the days) on the conditions of protection against wind, of reception of radiation from the hemisphere (2 π), and of following the Cosinelaw; the instrument has proved well without interruption. The radiation is received by twoMoll thermopiles (one of which points towards the sky and the other one towards the earth's surface) which are protected against wind by means of a thin leave of Lupolen-H transmitting the infrared waves. The thermopiles are connected with three galvanometers in such a way that we are able to record continuously the atmospheric radiation for itself, the long-wave outgoing radiation of the ground for itself, and in the night additionally the effective outgoing radiation, as well as the whole day long the radiation balance.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird ein Strahlungsmessgerät mit ultrarotdurchlässigen Windschutzhauben beschrieben, das die von uns gestellten Forderungen nach laufender Registrierung der atmosphärischen Gegenstrahlung, der langwelligen Ausstrahlung des Erdbodens, der effektiven Ausstrahlung (bei Nacht) und der Strahlungsbilanz (bei Tag) unter den Bedingungen des Windschutzes, des Strahlungsempfangs aus dem Halbraum 2 π und der Befolgung des Cos-Gesetzes erfüllt und sich im Dauerbetrieb bewährt hat. Als Strahlungsempfänger werden zweiMoll'sche Thermosäulen (eine nach oben und eine nach unten gerichtet) verwendet, die gegen den Windeinfluss durch eine ultrarotdurchlässige Lupolen-H-Folie geschützt sind. Die Thermosäulen sind elektrisch derart an drei Galvanometer geschaltet, dass die atmosphärische Gegenstrahlung für sich allein, die langwellige Ausstrahlung des Erdbodens für sich allein und bei Nacht zusätzlich die effektive Ausstrahlung sowie am Tage die Strahlungsbilanz laufend registriert werden können.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 24 (1953), S. 207-213 
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    Notes: Summary The observations of ten Aprils (1941–50) at Blue Hill have been analyzed, and it has been found that frost (night minimum temperature ≦32° F) (T) can be predicted on the basis of the 19h wet-bulb temperature (ti) by the formula:T=ti−k, in whichk is found to be 1.8 F deg. in clear weather and 2.1 F deg. in cloudy. The results of a test on an independent set of Aprils (1936–40), are satisfactory especially with clear skies at 19h.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 24 (1953), S. 214-215 
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    Pure and applied geophysics 16 (1950), S. 1-6 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Résumé Les conditions géométriques de l'observation de fusées verticales ou horizontales sont examinées par rapport aux applications geodésiques et géophysiques. Les figures démontrent l'existance de quelques districts stationnaires, particulièrement destinés à l'observation par principes différents.
    Notes: Summary The most suitable geometrical conditions of observation of vertically or horizontally moved rockets are inquired, with respect to geodetical and geophysical applications. Some diagrams show, that there exist several regions of stationary state, apt for different principles of observation.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 16 (1950), S. 7-12 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary This article contains the development of the theory of the adoption of the ellipsoid of revolution in the gravimetric method, for the determination of the earth's shape, presented by the author in a former work. The conclusion completly justifies the actual practical methods for the calculation of the ellipsoidic gravity.
    Notes: Résumé On Cherche le développement de la théorie de l'adoption de l'ellipsoöde de révolution dans la méthode gravimétrique pour la détermination de la figure de la Terre, exposée par l'auteur dans un ouvrage antérieur. La conclusion justifie complètement les actuels méthodes pratiques pour le calcul de la pésanteur ellipsoïdique.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 16 (1950), S. 13-15 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary Measuring the deflections of the plumb-line the attainable precision is determined, in particular to investigations for geophysical prospecting.
    Abstract: Zusammenfassung Es wird für die Bestimmung der Lotabweichungen der erreichbare Genauigkeitsgrad untersucht, besonders im Hinblick auf Messungen zur Erforschung des Untergrundes.
    Notes: Riassunto Si determinano le precisioni con le quali possono venire osservate le deviazioni della verticale e si richiama l'attenzione su ciò quando si debbono interpretare le misure predette per prospezioni del sottosuolo.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 16 (1950), S. 16-18 
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    Pure and applied geophysics 16 (1950), S. 38-46 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary The research deals with the hydrographic observations of the East-Europe's plain. The monthly means of the water level have been elaborated after the method of Mr. and Mrs.Labrouste with the aim to determine the phase of the yearly component. The map of the phase distribution and the profiles along the streams shows that this distribution is governed by the physiography, as well as by the seasonal course of the temperatures, what can permit to explain the observed particularities.
    Notes: Résumé L'étude publiée intéresse l'ensemble des échelles hydrométriques de la plaine de l'Est européen. Les moyennes mensuelles des niveaux ont été élaborées par la méthode d'analyse par combinaisons linéaires d'ordonnées, due à M. et MmeLabrouste, afin de définir la phase de la composante annuelle. La carte de la répartition de la phase et les profils de celle-ci le long des cours d'eau, montrent que cette répartition est commandée par le relief, ainsi que par la marche saisonnière des températures, ce qui permet d'expliquer les particularités constatées par les causes naturelles: altitudes, forme et extension du bassin, etc.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 16 (1950), S. 47-75 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary A detailed description of an electrical method is given, developped by the author, concerning the application of two pairs of electrodes rectangular to each other, the one of which is creating an electrical field, whilst the other is measuring the disturbing function when turning the electrode arrangement. The disturbing function has been calculated for spherical and ellipsoidal bodies, taking into account the decrease of the current with increasing distance. It is shown, that it is possible to localize disturbing bodies when turning the electrode arrangement at one or a few places only and without any measuring equipotential lines and their distortions. It is proved that the determination of the direction of disturbing bodies is possible without the knowledge of their distance. It is emphasized that this theory is an other modification may also be applied on corresponding induction methods, based on the application of twe coils rectangular to each other and supplied by low frequency currents.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird die vom Verfasser entwickelte elektrische Drehkreuzmethode beschrieben. Die Messanordnung besteht aus zwei Elektrodenpaaren, von denen das eine zur Erzeugung eines elektrischen Feldes dient, während das andere zur Messung des elektrischen Störfeldes verwandt wird. Die Störfunktion beim Drehen der Elektrodenanordnung wird für elliptische Störkörper quantitativ berechnet, und es werden die Bedingungen für die Ortnung von Störkörpern quantitativ diskutiert
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    Pure and applied geophysics 16 (1950), S. 19-37 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary In the present paper there is a description of a very strange kind of thunderstorm with fog and only one thunder-clap. It is analysed with regard to synoptic aerology and atmospheric electricity. It belonged to a cold-front-thunderstorm, but the characteristic frontal phenomenons occurred hours before. By a combination of the theories ofWilson andSimpson we try to explain the distribution of the charge and the single discharge. The quantity of the charge can grow enormously by ground fog and this fact stands for the intensity of the clap. The form of the discharge can be explained by the theory ofSchonland-Walter. We found gliding phenomenons in the fog and disruptige discharges from cloud to earth, but it is very difficult to say whether there is an uniform direction of the different branches of the single lightning. The different partial discharges of the single lightning are analogous to the discharge of a rapidly and strongly charged condenser, the plates of which are at a small distance.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird ein eigenartiges Gewitter beschrieben und aerologischsynoptisch sowie luftelektrisch analysiert. Es trat nur ein einziger, allerdings sehr heftiger Donner auf. Während des Gewitters herrschte Nebel, es ergab sich, dass es sich um ein «maskiertes Kaltfrontgewitter» handelte, bei dem die Kaltfronterscheinungen aber bereits Stunden vorher aufgetreten waren. Die Erklärung der Ladungsverteilung und in ihrer Folge der einzigen kräftigen Entladung als gesamte wahrnehmbare elektrische Gewittererscheinung wird durch eine Kombination der scheinbar gegensätzlichen Gewittertheorien vonWilson undSimpson versucht. Die Ladungsmenge kann durch den herrschenden Bodennebel ungeheuer anwachsen und erklärt damit die Stärke des Schlages. Die Entladungsform wird nach derSchonland-Walterschen Theorie zu deuten versucht. Es ergeben sich Gleitvorgänge im Nebel und Funkenentladungen von der Wolke zur Erde, wobei eine endgültige Entscheidung über die einheitliche Richtung der Verästelung nicht getroffen werden kann. Die mehrfachen Teilentladungen des einzigen Blitzes werden erklärt als Analogie zu den Funkenentladungen zwischen den Platten eines Kondensators mit geringem Abstand, der plötzlich stark aufgeladen wird.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 16 (1950), S. 76-80 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Fussend auf theoretischen Ergebnissen vonR. M. Foster undS. S. Stefanescu wird ein neuartiges Verfahren zur elektrischen Tiefensondierung bei horizontaler Schichtung vorgeschlagen. Dieses Verfahren arbeitet im Gegensatz zum bekanntenWenner-Verfahren und zum «Zentralinduktions-Verfahren» nachKoenigsberger nicht mit der Veränderung eines Längenparameters (Elektrodenabstand, Schleifenradius), sondern mit veränderlicher Frequenz bei unveränderter Position der Elektroden und Sonden. Einige Vorzüge werden genannt, die diese Methode in praktischer Hinsicht haben dürfte.
    Notes: Summary Taking reference of theoretical results ofR. M. Foster andS. S. Stefanescu, a new method of electrical depth-sounding refering to horizontal strata is proposed. This new way works contrary to the wellknown princip ofWenner and also to the «Zentral-Induktions-Verfahren» afterKoenigsberger not with a change of a length-parameter (electrode-distance and coilradius), but with changeable frequency at unchanged position of electrodes and sondes. A few advantages are described, which this method may have in practice.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 16 (1950), S. 98-99 
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    Pure and applied geophysics 16 (1950), S. 81-86 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Es wird untersucht, mit welcher Verzögerung und Verformung eine in einem Induktions-Seismometer erzeugte elektrische Spannungsschwankung die Registriervorrichtung erreicht, wenn die Uebertragung durch eine Leitung erfolgt. Es werden «Verformungszahlen» definiert, mittels deren sich Leitungen verschiedenen Typs hinsichtlich der Formtreue der Uebertragung vergleichen lassen. Einige Beispiele hierfür werden behandelt. Die erforderliche Selbstinduktivität (Pupinisierung) eine freischwebenden Doppelleitung für grösstmögliche Formtreue wird angegeben. Hierbei ergibt sich z.B. für 20 km Kabellänge eine Laufzeit von der Grössenordnung einer hundertstel Sekunde.
    Notes: Summary It is beeing investigated, with which retarding and deforming one in an induction-seismometer generated electrical tension-oscillation the recorderapparatus arrives, presuming the transformation has been taken by means of wire. Numbers of deforming are given, which allowes the comparison by different types of wires, regarding the true shape of the transmission. A few examples will be described. The necessary selfinduction («Pupinisierung») of a freehanging doublewire for the greatest possible true shape is named. Thereby results for instance by a cablelength of 20 km a traveltime of about 1/100 of a second.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 17 (1950), S. 54-63 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary An induction pulse method is described, based upon the measurement of a dielectric dispersion phenomenon. This method opens the possibility of a direct and selective reaction of the petroleum at a depth of more than 6000 feet. Hereby the selective reaction is based upon the variation of the exciting conditions.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird eine Induktionsimpulsmethode beschrieben, welche sich auf die Messung dielektrischer Dispersionsphänomene gründet, und welche einen direkten Nachweis des Petroleums auf Tiefen von über 2000 m ermöglicht. Durch Variation der Anfachungsbedingungen kann man selektive Reaktionswirkungen erzielen.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 17 (1950), S. 64-67 
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    Pure and applied geophysics 17 (1950), S. 70-72 
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    Pure and applied geophysics 17 (1950), S. 73-76 
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    Pure and applied geophysics 17 (1950), S. 77-80 
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    Pure and applied geophysics 17 (1950), S. 46-53 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary 1. There are discussed individual proceedings which shall explain the characteristic behaviour of pressure, and temperature instability in their vertical distribution. When there exists equalization of pressure on a lower level near the ground, and again on a higher level, changes of temperature on one level will be compensated by such on another level. It is shown that the compensating influence of middle and upper troposphere is opposed by the compensating influence of cold, and heat waves from the ground layer, ultimately resulting in the removal of the level of pressure equalization from the ground to an altitude roughly corresponding to the height of ground layer. — 2. The influence of friction and convection on the formation of ground layer is discussed. While friction is acting slowly and by layers, convection is acting more rapidly, but only locally at first. In the long run however, also convection can produce homogeneity of the lower layers of the atmosphere, i. e. an atmospheric layer of uniform character. This process is being intensified when convection is associated with condensation. Then, another increase in height of the ground layer will be possible. However, as this process will not be of similar intensity over wide stages, the increase in height will vary locally. Therefore, generally the ground layer of the squally weather type will not possess a uniform surface extending over wide areas. — 3. Another important factor in the formation of ground layer is radiation. Since the share taken by each of the three factors (friction, convection, radiation) cannot be computed, one must be satisfied with qualitative valuation of the influence of the factors participating in the formation of ground layer. An appropriate scheme is submitted and discussed.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung 1. Es werden die einzelnen Vorgänge besprochen, die das eigentümliche Verhalten der Veränderlichkeit von Druck und Temperatur in ihrer vertikalen Verteilung erklären sollen. Wenn ein unteres an der Erdoberfläche vorhandenes Druckausgleichsniveau vorhanden ist und ein weiteres in grösserer Höhe, so müssen Temperaturänderungen in dem einen Niveau durch solche eines anderen ausgeglichen, kompensiert werden. Es wird gezeigt, dass dem kompensierenden Einfluss der mittleren und oberen Troposphäre ein kompensierender Einfluss der Kälte- und Wärmewellen aus dem Bereiche der Grundschicht entgegenwirkt, sodass letzten Endes das Druckausgleichsniveau nicht mehr am Erdboden liegt, sondern in eine Höhe verschoben wird, die der ungefähren Höhe der Grundschicht entspricht. — 2. Der Einfluss von Reibung und Konvektion auf die Bildung der Grundschicht wird besprochen. Die Reibung wirkt langsam und immer schichtweise. Die Konvektion wirkt rascher, aber zunächst immer nur lokal. Im Verlaufe längerer Zeit kann aber auch die Konvektion eine Homogenisierung der unteren Luftschichten bewirken, also eine Luftschicht von einem einheitlichen Charakter schaffen. Dieser Prozess wird noch verstärkt, wenn die Konvektion mit Kondensation verbunden ist. Jetzt ist eine weitere Ueberhöhung der Grundschicht möglich. Da dieser Prozess aber über weite Räume nicht von gleicher Grösse ist, wird diese Ueberhöhung vielfach gebietsweise verschieden sein. Die Grundschicht vom Böenwettertyp hat daher gewöhnlich keine einheitliche Oberfläche über weite Gebiete hinweg. — 3. Ein weiterer Faktor, der für die Bildung der Grundschicht von Bedeutung ist, ist die Strahlung. Da der Beitrag, den jeder der drei Faktoren (Reibung, Konvektion, Strahlung) zur Bildung der Grundschicht beisteuert, nicht errechnet werden kann, muss man sich zunächst mit einer qualititativen Abschätzung der Einflüsse der einzelnen an der Bildung der Grundschicht beteiligten Faktoren begnügen. Ein entsprechendes Schema wird vorgelegt und besprochen.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 17 (1950), S. 81-87 
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    Pure and applied geophysics 17 (1950), S. 88-93 
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    Notes: Summary Laboratory-scale experiments on a small cylindrical barrier capable of being moved zonally with respect to a rotating hemispherical shell of liquid are described. When the cylinder is moved west relative to the shell at rates approximating 1/10 of the basic rotation a strong anticyclonic circulation developes around the cylinder and pronounced wave motions appear in the remainder of the liquid. When the cylinder is moved eastward at the same relative rates there is no net circulation around it and rapid motions toward the east occur in the latitude zone that it occupies. Velocity discontinuity surfaces on which occasional vortices develop divide this zone from the remainder of the liquid on both sides where much less developed motions occur. General implications of these and certain other types of experiments for problems of flow over large mountain masses are pointed out.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 17 (1950), S. 121-126 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Résumé On a procédé à des mesures simultanées de la radiation en deux stations d'altitude différente (400 et 1100 m/m) sur le versant sud des Alpes. On peut tirer de ces recherches les conclusions suivantes: Aux deux endroits l'intensité est la plus forte par situation de foehn. Les différences d'insolation sont minimum aux jours de foehn, maximum par temps brumeux; dans le rapport des deux radiations on remarque une courbe journalière prononcée.
    Abstract: Zusammenfassung An zwei Stationen auf der Südseite der Alpen wurden in verschiedenen Meereshöhen (400 und 1100 m/M) zu gleicher Zeit Messungen der direkten Sonnenstrahlung vorgenommen. Aus diesen Untersuchungen geht folgendes hervor: Die grössten Intensitäten werden an beiden Orten bei Föhnlagen gefunden. Die Unterschiede zwischen den Strahlungen an beiden Stationen sind am kleinsten an Föhntagen, am grössten an dunstigen Tagen. Auch zeigt sich in dem Verhältnis beider Strahlungen ein ausgeprägter Tagesgang.
    Notes: Summary Measurements of direct sun radiation were taken contemporaneously by two stations on the south side of the Alps at two different altitudes above sea level, viz. 400 and 1100 meters. From these observations the following results were obtained: The greatest intensities are found in both places when Föhn prevails. The differences between the two stations are smallest on days of Föhn, largest on dusty and damp days. Furthermore, a marked daily march is found in the relation between both radiations.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 17 (1950), S. 130-135 
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    Notes: Summary The position of the very important climatic limit, definited byBenevent, which separates the humid climate of north Alps and the dry climate of south Alps, is first described. The method used for synoptic study of alpine precipitations is then exposed: it consists in plotting for every day on a great scale chart the amounts of rain measured in the alpine rain-jauge stations and in comparing this result with the isohypses charts at the 700, 500 and 300 mb levels.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 17 (1950), S. 167-182 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary The heavy «Foehn» of the 18 th of December 1945 is described in detail and considered in connection with a theory about the «Foehn» formerly published. Based on this theorie the essential problems of the development of the «Foehn» can well be explained.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Die Dimmerföhnlage vom 18. Dez. 1945 wird in ihrer Entwicklung eingehend beschrieben und im Zusammenhang mit einer früher veröffentlichten Föhntheorie betrachtet.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 17 (1950), S. 210-213 
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    Notes: Summary Experiments to determine the thickness of glaciers by high frequency prospecting were carried out on the Austrian glacier Hintereisferner in 1938. After the war electrohydrographical measurements on glacier rivulets were carried out in the Kaprun Valley. The resistance of the glacier water fluctuates according to the time of season. It depends on the respective composition of these waters (Fig. 2). Therefore the geologic and mineralogic properties of the glacier-water may be deducted from the electric resistance. Especially the amount of surface water may be deducted (Fig. 3). An example is shown in Fig. 4.
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary The articledeals with a preliminary evaluation of observations of snow depth at the Grossglockner highway during a period of ten years. The numerous observations show clearly the variation of the depth of a snow cover in between a small area in high mountains. The stations were located 100 meters and less apart from each other. 800 observation stations have been established extending 46 km along the highway. Observations were made once a week. Mean values obtained from 6 measurements in a 120 m broad profile rectangular to the road give a representative annual average of snow depth for different elevation and different orographic areas. Two types of annual variations can be distinguished according to the exposure of the considered area. The great variation of the mean snow depth at each of the six stations of one profile—there are variations of several meters-and variations of the same order of magnitude for stations of the same profile for different years show that the observations of a single station in high mountains are by no means representative. Therefore the evaluation of mean values over a certain small area must be recommended in order to obtain accurate results. In general a derivation of the amount of precipitation from the snow depth for a single station cannot be justified. The variation of snow depth can also be recognized from the average snow profile along the highway and from the difference of this quantity between the center and the border of the road. The results of frequent measurements of snow depth at the Grossglockner highway can be also used with success for considerations on the economy of glaciers and for an estimation of the water contents of a snow cover in winter which may be of particular interest for hydrology.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird über eine vorläufige Bearbeitung zehnjähriger Beobachtungen der Schneehöhen auf der Grossglockner-Hochalpenstrasse berichtet, die durch die Häufung von Beobachtungsstellen vor allem einen Einblick in die Veränderlichkeit der Mächtigkeit der Schneedecke auf kleinem Raum im Hochgebirge gewähren. Die Messtellen lagen in Entfernungen von 100m und weniger. Aus je sechs Messungen in 120m breiten Profilen quer zur Strasse berechnete Mittelwerte erlauben, repräsentative durchschnittliche Jahresgänge der Mächtigkeit der Schneedecke für verschiedene Höhen und orographische Lagen abzuleiten. Es lassen sich zwei Typen der Jahresgänge unterscheiden, die durch den Grad der Exposition des Messgebietes bestimmt werden. Die grossen Unterschiede der mittleren Schneehöhen an jeder der sechs Messtellen der einzelnen Profile, die mehrere Meter übersteigen können, und die ähnlich grossen Unterschiede in der Verteilung der Schneehöhen auf die einzelnen Messtellen der Profile in den verschiedenen Jahren lassen erkennen, wie wenig repräsentativ für ein weiteres Gebiet im allgemeinen eine einzelne Schneehöhenmesstelle im unebenen Gelände des Hochgebirges ist. Zur Gewinnung repräsentativer Werte der Schneehöhen ist im Hochgebirge die Bildung von Gebietsmittel aus mehreren über einen kleinen Raum verteilten Messtellen zweckmässig. Ein Rückschluss auf die Niederschlagsmengen aus den Schneehöhen einer Messtelle ist im allgemeinen im Hochgebirge nicht gerechtfertigt. Die grosse Veränderlichkeit der Schneehöhe im Hochgebirge wird auch aus durchschnittlichen Schneeprofilen entlang der Hochalpenstrasse und aus den Unterschieden der durchschnittlichen Schneehöhen zwischen Strassenmitte und Strassenrand ersichtlich. Die Ergebnisse der gehäuften Schneehöhenmessungen auf der Grossglocknerstrasse erscheinen für die Beurteilung der Nährgebiete der Gletscher und für die Abschätzung des Wasserwertes der winterlichen Schneedecke des Hochgebirges für die Zwecke der Wasserwirtschaft von grosser Bedeutung.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 18 (1950), S. 128-131 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary Recent experiments on the radioactivity of potassium 40 give as result: $$\lambda = (0.60 \pm 0.05)10^{ - 9} a^{ - 1} ,\lambda _K /\lambda = 0.10 \pm 0.05,$$ λ K being the constant of decay byK-electron capture, λ=λβ+λ K the total decay constant. If we make following assumptions: 1st) the atmospheric argon is the decay product of potassium 40 in the earth, which has undergoneK-capture; 2nd) the potassium existing in the earth is practically all contained in the external crust, 10 miles thick; 3rd) the age of the solid crust does not exceed ∼3.109 years: we come to the conclusion that the earth as a whole must have remained in a fluid state for ∼ 109 years at least.
    Notes: Riassunto Da esperienze recenti risultano per le costanti radioattive del potassio 40 i valori seguenti: $$\lambda = (0.60 \pm 0.05)10^{ - 9} a^{ - 1} ,\lambda _K /\lambda = 0.10 \pm 0.05,$$ dove λ=λβ+λ K è la costante di disintegrazione totale λ K la costante di catturaK. Se si ammette che: 1°) l'argon atmosferico abbia origine dal potassio 40 contenuto nella terra, che ha subìto la catturaK; 2°) la massa di potassio disponibile nella terra sia praticamente quella contenuta nella crosta, di 16 km di spessore; 3°) la crosta si sia solidificata da non più di ∼ 3.109 a: si conclude che la terra deve essere rimasta allo stato fluido per un tempo dell'ordine di 109 anni almeno.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 18 (1950), S. 113-119 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary Geodesy is at present faced with tremendous tasks of world-wide scope. Main triangulations constituting the basis for a reliable determination of the earth's figure, the establishment of absolute coordinates and consistent large-scale mapping have, in the course of the past 150 years, been completed only to a very limited extent. In order to speed up efforts the customary methods and instruments of observation should be revised on the grounds of recent experiences made in the field of physics. Numerous nations have already made valuable contributions and an appreciable increase of results has been reached by means of the optical micrometer, theodolites with photographic registration, steel towers etc. In order to overcome obstacles due to unfavorable atmospheric conditions, the electric eye has been designed, replacing visual observation by photo-electric indication. The present note is in particular a report on the present stage of experiments made by the Institut für angewandte Geodäsie. These experiments have proved that generally speaking the new device is well suited for the purpose on hand. However, further efforts will be required for creating an apparatus thoroughly reliable also in the field.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Die internationale Geodäsie steht noch heute vor gewaltigen Aufgaben. Das Hauptdreiecksnetz, das die Grundlage der sicheren Bestimmung der Erdfigur, der Schaffung absoluter Koordinaten für die gesamte Erdoberfläche und klaffungsfreier grossmasstäblicher Karten dient, ist in den letzten 150 Jahren nur zu einem geringen Bruchteil fertiggestellt. Moderne physikalische Erkenntnisse müssen die klassischen Beobachtungsmethoden und-instrumente reformieren, um die Leistungen zu beschleunigen. Viele Nationen haben hier wertvolle Beiträge geliefert. Optisches Mikrometer, photographisch registrierende. Theodolitc, stählerne Beobachtungstürme usw. haben schon bedeutende Leistungssteigerungen erzielt. Zur Ueberwindung der Hindernisse, die durch ungünstige atmosphärische Verhältnisse erzeugt werden, ist das elektrische Auge konstruiert worden, das die visuelle Beobachtung durch elektrische Anzeigegeräte ersetzt. Es wird über den neuesten Stand der im Institut für angewandte Geodäsie durchgeführten Versuche berichtet, die bereits die grundsätzliche Eignung des Gerätes im erstrebten Sinne beweisen liessen. Fernere Versuche und Vervollkommnungen werden notwendig sein, um das Gerät zu einem nie versagenden, feldmässig einsatzfähigen Gerät zu gestalten.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 18 (1950), S. 120-127 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary The oscillation of the sight point picture in telescope and simultaneously the difference of the air temperatures between the hights of 0.5 and 2.5 meters have been observed every two hours through two clear days and nights. Hereby the following results have been obtained. Short after the sunrise the sight point picture is quite immovable. Soon after it beginns to vibrate, at first slightly and slowly (one time in second) and then more violently and quickly (five times in second). The vibration attains its maximum short after the noon, then it decreases and becomes zero not long before the sunset. From now till the sunrise the sight point picture is swaying very slowly (in periods of several minutes). The vibration is proportional to the 1.68-power of the sight length. It correlates the vertical temperature gradient, and the vibration is e. g. for the sight of 75 m:F 75=0.66–1.42 ϱ mm, where ϱ means the temperature increase from 0.5 to 2.5 m (here negative). The swaying is proportional to the 2.05-power of the sight length. It correlates the gradient, and the swaying is e. g. for the sight of 125 m:S 125=1.3+4.02 ϱ mm, where ϱ has the same meaning as above. Between the sight errorZ and the vibrationF a relation:Z=0.11+0.029F mm is to be seen. Thus the accuracy of the sighting is not very sensitive to the vibration.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung In zwei Beobachtungsserien von 24 Stunden ist jede zweite Stunde die Schwankung des Zielbildes beobachtet und gleichzeitig die Temperaturdifferenz zwischen den Höhen 0.5 und 2.5 m gemessen worden. Aus diesen Beobachtungen gehen folgende Resultate hervor. Kurz nach Sonnenaufgang ist das Zielbild unbeweglich. Bald beginnt es zu flimmern, zuerst schwach und langsam (einmal in der Sek.) später stärker und schneller (5 mal in der Sek.). Das Flimmern erreicht sein Maximum etwas nach Mittag, vermindert sich dann und wird Null kurz vor Sonnenuntergang. Von hier an beginnt das Zielbild sehr langsam (in Perioden von Minuten) zu schweben. Der Betrag des Flimmerns ist proportional der 1.68-Potenz der Zielweite. Sie hängt von dem Temperaturgradienten ab, und z. B. bei der Zielweite 75 m beträgtF 75=0.66–1.42 ϱ mm, wo ϱ die Temperaturdifferenz zwischen den Höhen 0.5 und 2.5 m bezeichnet. Der Betrag des Schwebens ist proportional der 2.05-Potenz der Zielweite. Sie hängt von dem Temperaturgradienten ab, und z. B. bei der Zielweite 125 m beträgtS 125=1.3+4.02 ϱ mm, wo ϱ die obenangegebene Bedeutung hat. Zwischen dem ZielungsfehlerZ und dem FlimmernF besteht die BeziehungZ=0.11++0.029F mm. Das Schweben wirkt sehr stark auf die Zielungsgenauigkeit ein, obgleich beim Vorkommen des Schwebens das Zielbild nach dem Augenmass unbeweglich erscheint.
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    Pure and applied geophysics 19 (1951), S. 33-38 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary From 1941 to 1942 at Cologne ionospheric interferences have been observed, which showed a specially favoured flow from NNE in the E-layer. In the F-layer such favoured flow were not to recognize. If one interpret the movement of these ionospheric interferences as a motion of material particles, this direction distribution is incompatible with the direction distribution ofHoffmeister's «Leuchtstreifen» (glowing stripes) at 120 km. Of course it is to concede, that the «Leuchtstreifen» were observed at night, while the ionospheric interferences are day observations. An explanation of these differences and an unobjectionable interpretation of the mechanism of the ionospheric interferences are so much the more necessary as the synoptic meteorology is more and more interested in the ionosphere.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung In Köln wurden in den Jahren 1941 bis 1942 Ionosphärenstörungen beobachtet, die in der E-Schicht eine bevorzugte Zugrichtung aus NNE aufwiesen. In der F-Schicht liess sich eine solche Bevorzugung einer Zugrichtung nicht erkennen. Wenn man die Wanderung dieser Ionosphärenstörungen als Bewegung materieller Teile deutet, so steht die Richtungsverteilung in einem klaffenden Widerspruch zur Richtungsverteilung der vonHoffmeister beobachteten Leuchtstreifen in rund 120 km Höhe. Es muss allerdings eingeräumt werden, dass es sich bei Leuchtstreifen um Nacht-, bei den Ionosphärenstörungen um Tagesbeobachtungen handelt. Eine Aufklärung dieser Unterschiede und eine einwandfreie Deutung des Mechanismus dieser Ionosphärenstörungen ist umso notwendiger, als die Ionosphäre steigendes Interesse auch für die synoptische Meteorologie gewinnt.
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