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  • Copernicus
  • American Meteorological Society
  • Annual Reviews
  • 2005-2009  (24,798)
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Year
  • 101
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    NOVEL RENAL AMINO ACID TRANSPORTERS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 67 (2005), S. 557-572 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Reabsorption of amino acids, similar to that of glucose, is a major task of the proximal kidney tubule. Various amino acids are actively transported across the luminal brush border membrane into proximal tubule epithelial cells, most of which by cotransport. An important player is the newly identified cotransporter (symporter) B0AT1 (SLC6A19), which imports a broad range of neutral amino acids together with Na+ across the luminal membrane and which is defective in Hartnup disorder. In contrast, cationic amino acids and cystine are taken up in exchange for recycled neutral amino acids by the heterodimeric cystinuria transporter. The basolateral release of some neutral amino acids into the extracellular space is mediated by unidirectional efflux transporters, analogous to GLUT2, that have not yet been definitively identified. Additionally, cationic amino acids and some other neutral amino acids leave the cell basolaterally via heterodimeric obligatory exchangers.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.67.031103.153949
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  • 102
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    LUNG VASCULAR DEVELOPMENT: Implications for the Pathogenesis of Bronchopulmonary Dysplasia (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 67 (2005), S. 623-661 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Past studies have primarily focused on how altered lung vascular growth and development contribute to pulmonary hypertension. Recently, basic studies of vascular growth have led to novel insights into mechanisms underlying development of the normal pulmonary circulation and the essential relationship of vascular growth to lung alveolar development. These observations have led to new concepts underlying the pathobiology of developmental lung disease, especially the inhibition of lung growth that characterizes bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD). We speculate that understanding basic mechanisms that regulate and determine vascular growth will lead to new clinical strategies to improve the long-term outcome of premature babies with BPD.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.67.040403.102229
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  • 103
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    REGULATION OF NORMAL AND CYSTIC FIBROSIS AIRWAY SURFACE LIQUID VOLUME BY PHASIC SHEAR STRESS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 543-561 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: The physical removal of viruses and bacteria on the mucociliary escalator is an important aspect of the mammalian lung's innate defense mechanism. The volume of airway surface liquid (ASL) present in the respiratory tract is a critical determinant of both mucus hydration and the rate of mucus clearance from the lung. ASL volume is maintained by the predominantly ciliated epithelium via coordinated regulation of (a) absorption, by the epithelial Na+ channel, and (b) secretion, by the Ca2+ -activated Cl channel (CaCC) and CFTR. This review provides an update on our current understanding of how shear stress regulates ASL volume height in normal and cystic fibrosis (CF) airway epithelia through extracellular ATP- and adenosine (ADO)-mediated pathways that modulate ion transport and ASL volume homeostasis. We also discuss (a) how derangement of the ADO-CFTR pathway renders CF airways vulnerable to viral infections that deplete ASL volume and produce mucus stasis, and (b) potential shear stressĐ??dependent therapies for CF.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.072304.112754
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  • 104
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    STRESS TRANSMISSION IN THE LUNG: Pathways from Organ to Molecule (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 507-541 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Gas exchange, the primary function of the lung, can come about only with the application of physical forces on the macroscale and their transmission to the scale of small airway, small blood vessel, and alveolus, where they serve to distend and stabilize structures that would otherwise collapse. The pathway for force transmission then continues down to the level of cell, nucleus, and molecule; moreover, to lesser or greater degrees most cell types that are resident in the lung have the ability to generate contractile forces. At these smallest scales, physical forces serve to distend the cytoskeleton, drive cytoskeletal remodeling, expose cryptic binding domains, and ultimately modulate reaction rates and gene expression. Importantly, evidence has now accumulated suggesting that multiscale phenomena span these scales and govern integrative lung behavior.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.072304.114110
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  • 105
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    AN INTRODUCTION TO TRP CHANNELS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 619-647 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: The aim of this review is to provide a basic framework for understanding the function of mammalian transient receptor potential (TRP) channels, particularly as they have been elucidated in heterologous expression systems. Mammalian TRP channel proteins form six-transmembrane (6-TM) cation-permeable channels that may be grouped into six subfamilies on the basis of amino acid sequence homology (TRPC, TRPV, TRPM, TRPA, TRPP, and TRPML). Selected functional properties of TRP channels from each subfamily are summarized in this review. Although a single defining characteristic of TRP channel function has not yet emerged, TRP channels may be generally described as calcium-permeable cation channels with polymodal activation properties. By integrating multiple concomitant stimuli and coupling their activity to downstream cellular signal amplification via calcium permeation and membrane depolarization, TRP channels appear well adapted to function in cellular sensation. Our review of recent literature implicating TRP channels in neuronal growth cone steering suggests that TRPs may function more widely in cellular guidance and chemotaxis. The TRP channel gene family and its nomenclature, the encoded proteins and alternatively spliced variants, and the rapidly expanding pharmacology of TRP channels are summarized in online supplemental material.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.040204.100431
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  • 106
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    INTERSTITIAL CELLS OF CAJAL AS PACEMAKERS IN THE GASTROINTESTINAL TRACT (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 307-343 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: In the gastrointestinal tract, phasic contractions are caused by electrical activity termed slow waves. Slow waves are generated and actively propagated by interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC). The initiation of pacemaker activity in the ICC is caused by release of Ca2+ from inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP3) receptorĐ??operated stores, uptake of Ca2+ into mitochondria, and the development of unitary currents. Summation of unitary currents causes depolarization and activation of a dihydropyridine-resistant Ca2+ conductance that entrains pacemaker activity in a network of ICC, resulting in the active propagation of slow waves. Slow wave frequency is regulated by a variety of physiological agonists and conditions, and shifts in pacemaker dominance can occur in response to both neural and nonneural inputs. Loss of ICC in many human motility disorders suggests exciting new hypotheses for the etiology of these disorders.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.040504.094718
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  • 107
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    HUMAN RIGHTS, BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE, AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES AMONG SOUTH AMERICAN INDIGENOUS GROUPS * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 639-665 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Despite the efforts of international health agencies to reduce global health inequalities, indigenous populations around the world remain largely unaffected by such initiatives. This chapter reviews the biomedical literature indexed by the PubMed database published between 1963 and 2003 on South American indigenous populations, a total of 1864 studies that include 63,563 study participants. Some language family groupings are better represented than are others, and lowland groups are better represented than are highland groups. Very few studies focus on major health threats (e.g., tuberculosis, influenza), public health interventions, or mestizo-indigenous epidemiological comparisons. The prevalence rates of three frequently studied infectionsĐ??parasitism, human T-cell lymphotropic viral infection (HTLV), and hepatitisĐ??are extraordinarily high, but these facts have been overlooked by national and international health agencies. This review underscores the urgent need for interventions based on known disease prevalence rates to reduce the burden of infectious diseases in indigenous communities.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093406
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  • 108
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    WILL INDIGENOUS LANGUAGES SURVIVE? (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 293-315 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Much attention has been focused on the survival of Indigenous languages in recent years. Many, particularly anthropologists and linguists, anticipate the demise of the majority of Indigenous languages within this century and have called on the need to arrest the loss of languages. Opinions vary concerning the loss of language; some regard it as a hopeless cause, and others see language revitalization as a major responsibility of linguistics and kindred disciplines. To that end, this review explores efforts in language revitalization and documentation and the engagement with Indigenous peoples. It remains unclear why some attempts at language revitalization succeed, whereas others fail. What is clear is that the process is profoundly political.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120629
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  • 109
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    RACE AND ETHNICITY IN PUBLIC HEALTH RESEARCH: Models to Explain Health Disparities (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 231-252 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: The description and explanation of racial and ethnic health disparities are major initiatives of the public health research establishment. Black Americans suffer on nearly every measure of health in relation to white Americans. Five theoretical models have been proposed to explain these disparities: a racial-genetic model, a health-behavior model, a socioeconomic status model, a psychosocial stress model, and a structural-constructivist model. We selectively review literature on health disparities, emphasizing research on low birth weight and high blood pressure. The psychosocial stress model and the structural-constructivist model offer greatest promise to explain disparities. In future research, theoretical elaboration and operational specificity are needed to distinguish among three distinct factors: (a) genetic variants contributing to disease risk; (b) ethnoracial or folk racial categories masquerading as biology; and (c) ethnic group membership. Such elaboration is necessary to move beyond the conflation of these three distinct constructs that characterizes much of current research.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120505
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  • 110
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    THE EFFECT OF MARKET ECONOMIES ON THE WELL-BEING OF INDIGENOUS PEOPLES AND ON THEIR USE OF RENEWABLE NATURAL RESOURCES (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 121-138 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Assessing the effects of markets on the well-being of indigenous peoples and their conservation of natural resources matters to identify public policies to improve well-being and enhance conservation and to test hypotheses about sociocultural change. We review studies about how market economies affect the subsistence, health, nutritional status, social capital, and traditional ecological knowledge of indigenous peoples and their use of renewable natural resources. Market exposure produces mixed effects on well-being and conservation. Unclear effects arise from the small sample size of observations; reliance on cross-sectional data or short panels; lack of agreement on the measure of key variables, such as integration to the market or folk knowledge, or whether to rely on perceived or objective indicators of health; and endogeneity biases. Rigorous empirical studies linking market economies with the well-being of indigenous peoples or their use of renewable natural resources have yet to take off.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120412
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  • 111
    Electronic Resource
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    THROUGH WARY EYES: Indigenous Perspectives on Archaeology (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 429-449 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Archaeology has been linked to colonialist attitudes and scientific imperialism. But what are the perspectives of Indigenous groups concerning the practice of archaeology? Numerous organizations recognize the distinctive needs of Indigenous communities throughout the world and have adopted agreements and definitions that govern their relationships with those populations. The specific name by which Indigenous groups are known varies from country to country, as local governments are involved in determining the appropriateness of particular definitions to populations within their borders. This paper begins with an examination of the various aspects that have been used to determine whether or not a group of people might be considered "indigenous" under various definitions, and then uses the history of the relationships between North American archaeologists and Indigenous populations as a background for the examination of some of the political aspects of archaeology that have impacted Indigenous populations. It then proceeds to discuss perspectives on archaeology offered by members of various Indigenous populations throughout the World.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120540
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  • 112
    Electronic Resource
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    ENHANCEMENT TECHNOLOGIES AND THE BODY (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 695-716 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: The technological ability to alter biology, along with the social conditions and cultural expectations that enable such transformations, is spawning a variety of techniques that augment bodily forms and functions. These techniques, collectively known as enhancement technologies, aim to improve human characteristics, including appearance and mental or physical functioning, often beyond what is 'normal' or necessary for life and well-being. Humans have always modified their bodies. What distinguishes these techniques is that bodies and selves become the objects of improvement work, unlike previous efforts in modernity to achieve progress through social and political institutions. There are profound effects on sociality and subjectivity. This chapter reviews analytical approaches through which researchers have attempted to illuminate the practices, moral and economic reasoning, cultural assumptions and institutional contexts constituting enhancements, framing the discussion by examining the concept of the normal body. Examples from cosmetic, neurological and genetic enhancements will illustrate.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.144020
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  • 113
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    THE ECOLOGIES OF HUMAN IMMUNE FUNCTION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 495-521 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Immune function is notoriously complex, and current biomedical research elaborates this complexity by focusing on the cellular and molecular mechanisms that characterize immune defenses. However, the human immune system is a product of natural selection that develops and functions in whole organisms that are integral parts of their surrounding environments. A population-level, cross-cultural, adaptationist perspective is therefore a necessary complement to the micro levels of analysis currently favored by biomedical immunology. Prior field-based research on human immunity is reviewed to demonstrate the relevance of cultural ecological factors, with an emphasis on the ecologies of nutrition, infectious disease, reproduction, and psychosocial stress. Common themes and anthropological contributions are identified in an attempt to promote future research in human ecological immunology that integrates theory and method for a more contextualized understanding of this important physiological system.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120348
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  • 114
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    AUTOCHTHONY: Local or Global? New Modes in the Struggle over Citizenship and Belonging in Africa and Europe (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 385-407 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: The past 15 years have brought an upsurge of "autochthony." It has become an incendiary political slogan in many parts of the African continent as an unexpected corollary of democratization and the new style of development policies ("by-passing the state" and decentralization). The main agenda of the new autochthony movements is the exclusion of supposed "strangers" and the unmasking of "fake" autochthons, who are often citizens of the same nation-state. However, Africa is no exception in this respect. Intensified processes of globalization worldwide seem to go together with a true "conjuncture of belonging" (T.M. Li 2000 ) and increasingly violent attempts to exclude "allochthons." This article compares studies of the upsurge of autochthony in Africa with interpretations of the rallying power of a similar discourse in Western Europe. How can the same discourse appear "natural" in such disparate circumstances? Recent studies highlight the extreme malleability of the apparently self-evident claims of autochthony. These discourses promise the certainty of belonging, but in practice, they raise basic uncertainties because autochthony is subject to constant redefinition against new "others" and at ever-closer range.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120354
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  • 115
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    NEW DIRECTIONS IN PIDGIN AND CREOLE STUDIES (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 33-42 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: This chapter introduces the reader to the areas of previous investigation in creole studies, while outlining new directions the field is taking. The first section shows that, although the chief areas of interest have essentially remained the same for the past few decades, methodologies have changed toward a more comprehensive multilayered approach aimed at a better understanding of how individual creole languages emerge, evolve and function. The second section focuses particularly on cognitive processes involved in creole formation, such as restructuring, relexification, reanalysis, and dialectal leveling. In the third and last section, I critically evaluate the current state of affairs and point out potential obstacles and promising interdisciplinary trends.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120638
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  • 116
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    THE EVOLUTION OF HUMAN PHYSICAL ATTRACTIVENESS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 523-548 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Everywhere the issue has been examined, people make discriminations about others' physical attractiveness. Can human standards of physical attractiveness be understood through the lens of evolutionary biology? In the past decade, this question has guided much theoretical and empirical work. In this paper, we (a) outline the basic adaptationist approach that has guided the bulk of this work, (b) describe evolutionary models of signaling that have been applied to understand human physical attractiveness, and (c) discuss and evaluate specific lines of empirical research attempting to address the selective history of human standards of physical attractiveness. We also discuss ways evolutionary scientists have attempted to understand variability in standards of attractiveness across cultures as well as the ways current literature speaks to body modification in modern Western cultures. Though much work has been done, many fundamental questions remain unanswered.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143733
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  • 117
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    TOO MUCH FOR TOO FEW: Problems of Indigenous Land Rights in Latin America (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 85-104 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: In a number of countries in Latin America, recent changes in the constitutional and legislative environment under which indigenous people hold or claim land and natural resource rights have triggered a number of processes and projects to demarcate, legalize, or otherwise consolidate indigenous lands. This review begins with a look at Nicaragua and goes on to examine five of the South American processes, allegedly with the most favorable legal and policy environments, and concludes that they suffer from common problems related to (a) the amount of land and resources being claimed by relatively small numbers of people, (b) the contestation of the claims by non-indigenous sectors, and (c) the nature of indigenous organizations and the NGOs that support them. The confrontation between policy and reality yields some lessons for the future.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.143844
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  • 118
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    HUMAN RIGHTS, BIOMEDICAL SCIENCE, AND INFECTIOUS DISEASES AMONG SOUTH AMERICAN INDIGENOUS GROUPS * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 639-665 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Despite the efforts of international health agencies to reduce global health inequalities, indigenous populations around the world remain largely unaffected by such initiatives. This chapter reviews the biomedical literature indexed by the PubMed database published between 1963 and 2003 on South American indigenous populations, a total of 1864 studies that include 63,563 study participants. Some language family groupings are better represented than are others, and lowland groups are better represented than are highland groups. Very few studies focus on major health threats (e.g., tuberculosis, influenza), public health interventions, or mestizo-indigenous epidemiological comparisons. The prevalence rates of three frequently studied infectionsĐ??parasitism, human T-cell lymphotropic viral infection (HTLV), and hepatitisĐ??are extraordinarily high, but these facts have been overlooked by national and international health agencies. This review underscores the urgent need for interventions based on known disease prevalence rates to reduce the burden of infectious diseases in indigenous communities.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.32.061002.093406
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  • 119
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    ENHANCEMENT TECHNOLOGIES AND THE BODY (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 695-716 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: The technological ability to alter biology, along with the social conditions and cultural expectations that enable such transformations, is spawning a variety of techniques that augment bodily forms and functions. These techniques, collectively known as enhancement technologies, aim to improve human characteristics, including appearance and mental or physical functioning, often beyond what is 'normal' or necessary for life and well-being. Humans have always modified their bodies. What distinguishes these techniques is that bodies and selves become the objects of improvement work, unlike previous efforts in modernity to achieve progress through social and political institutions. There are profound effects on sociality and subjectivity. This chapter reviews analytical approaches through which researchers have attempted to illuminate the practices, moral and economic reasoning, cultural assumptions and institutional contexts constituting enhancements, framing the discussion by examining the concept of the normal body. Examples from cosmetic, neurological and genetic enhancements will illustrate.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.144020
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  • 120
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    SURFACING THE BODY INTERIOR (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 741-756 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: In the wake of critiques that have rendered problematic such familiar objects of study as culture and social structure, anthropologists seeking ways to engage ethnographically with the complexities of the contemporary world have fashioned new kinds of objects of study. These generally continue, however, to be framed as just thatĐ??as objects. Rather than pursue the "anthropology of" any particular object that preexists ethnography, anthropologists should find ways of bringing the openness and creativity of ethnographic work more boldly into the theoretical framing of what it is that they study. I propose here the notion of surfacing the body interior as one framing device that may help facilitate such ethnographic explorations into bodies, their interiors, and their surfaces as contingent configurations made and unmade through practices that are at once social, material, and representational.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.33.070203.144004
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  • 121
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    COMPARISONS: Possible and Impossible (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 1-11 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: In the twentieth century, many anthropological comparisons were mounted on the base of the synchronic societal ethnographies being produced at the time. That work produced a valuable inventory of the range of variations and differences. Now, following quite a different track, and defining the task anew, a remarkable number of ethnographies consist of observations of processes of change as they go along. The considerable obstacles to comparing such temporally oriented, processual case histories distinguishes them from earlier studies of tradition and custom. In this review, five abbreviated case histories of ongoing development projects illustrate the difference of approach. The process by which plans to control particular aspects of a social field are designed, implemented, altered, and diverted are the object of these ethnographic studies. The cultures of control employed by the planners are noted, but the dynamic of the societal context into which projects are introduced is shown to be equally important to the outcome. No less than a redefinition of the anthropological field of observation is involved in this approach.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120535
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  • 122
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    THE ECOLOGIES OF HUMAN IMMUNE FUNCTION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 495-521 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Immune function is notoriously complex, and current biomedical research elaborates this complexity by focusing on the cellular and molecular mechanisms that characterize immune defenses. However, the human immune system is a product of natural selection that develops and functions in whole organisms that are integral parts of their surrounding environments. A population-level, cross-cultural, adaptationist perspective is therefore a necessary complement to the micro levels of analysis currently favored by biomedical immunology. Prior field-based research on human immunity is reviewed to demonstrate the relevance of cultural ecological factors, with an emphasis on the ecologies of nutrition, infectious disease, reproduction, and psychosocial stress. Common themes and anthropological contributions are identified in an attempt to promote future research in human ecological immunology that integrates theory and method for a more contextualized understanding of this important physiological system.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120348
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    ARCHAEOLOGY, ECOLOGICAL HISTORY, AND CONSERVATION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 43-65 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Ecologists have increasingly turned to history, including human history, to explain and manage modern ecosystems and landscapes. The imprint of past land use can persist even in seemingly pristine areas. Archaeology provides a long-term perspective on human actions and their environmental consequences that can contribute to conservation and restoration efforts. Case studies illustrate examples of the human history of seemingly pristine landscapes, forest loss and recovery, and the creation or maintenance of places that today are valued habitats. Finally, as archaeologists become more involved in research directed at contemporary environmental issues, they need to consider the potential uses and abuses of their findings in management and policy debates.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120515
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    LOOTING AND THE WORLD'S ARCHAEOLOGICAL HERITAGE: The Inadequate Response (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 343-361 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: The world's archaeological heritage is under serious threat from illegal and destructive excavations that aim to recover antiquities for sale on the international market. These antiquities are sold without provenance, so that their true nature is hard to discern, and many are ultimately acquired by major museums in Europe and North America. The adoption in 1970 by UNESCO of the Convention on the Means of Prohibiting and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural Property created a new ethical environment in which museums and their representative associations adopted policies that were designed to guard against the acquisition of "unprovenanced," and therefore most probably looted, antiquities. Unfortunately, over the past decade, U.S. museum associations have been advocating a more relaxed disposition, and the broader archaeological and anthropological communities are in significant measure responsible since they have met this unwelcome development largely in silence.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120551
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    SOCIAL AND CULTURAL POLICIES TOWARD INDIGENOUS PEOPLES: Perspectives from Latin America * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 717-739 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Throughout the twentieth century, social and cultural policies toward indigenous peoples in Latin America have been closely related to indigenismo, an ideological movement that denounced the exploitation of aboriginal groups and strove for the cultural unity and the extension of citizenship through social integration and "acculturation." This review traces the colonial and nineteenth-century roots of indigenismo and places it in the context of the populist tendencies in most Latin American states from the 1920s to the 1970s, which favored economic protectionism and used agrarian reform and the provision of services as tools for governance and legitimacy. Also examined is the role of anthropological research in its relation to state hegemony as well as the denunciation of indigenista policies by ethnic intellectuals and organizations. In recent decades, the dismantling of populist policies has given rise to a new official "neoliberal" discourse that extols multiculturalism. However, the widespread demand for multicultural policies is also seen as the outcome of the fight by militant indigenous organizations for a new type of citizenship.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.anthro.34.081804.120343
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    EARLY CRUSTAL EVOLUTION OF MARS 1 (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 33 (2005), S. 133-161 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The bulk of the Đ♯50-km-thick Martian crust formed at Đ♯4.5 Gyr B.P., perhaps from a magma ocean. This crust is probably a basaltic andesite or andesite and is enriched in incompatible and heat-producing elements. Later additions of denser basalt to the crust were volumetrically minor, but resurfaced significant portions of the Northern hemisphere. A significant fraction of the total thickness of the crust was magnetized prior to 4 Gyr B.P., with the magnetization later selectively removed by large impacts. Early large impacts also modified the hemispheric contrast in crustal thickness (the dichotomy), which was possibly caused by long-wavelength mantle convection. Subsequent Noachian modification of the crust included further impacts, significant fluvial erosion, and volcanism associated with the formation of the Tharsis rise. Remaining outstanding questions include the origin of the dichotomy and the nature of the magnetic anomalies.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122637
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    REAL-TIME SEISMOLOGY AND EARTHQUAKE DAMAGE MITIGATION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 33 (2005), S. 195-214 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Real-time seismology refers to a practice in which seismic data are collected and analyzed quickly after a significant seismic event, so that the results can be effectively used for postearthquake emergency response and early warning. As the technology of seismic instrumentation, telemetry, computers, and data storage facility advances, the real-time seismology for rapid postearthquake notification is essentially established. Research for early warning is still underway. Two approaches are possible: (a) regional warning and (b) on-site (or site-specific) warning. In (a), the traditional seismological method is used to locate an earthquake, determine the magnitude, and estimate the ground motion at other sites. In (b), the beginning of the ground motion (mainly P wave) observed at a site is used to predict the ensuing ground motion at the same site. An effective approach to on-site warning is discussed in light of earthquake rupture physics.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122626
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    FEATHERED DINOSAURS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 33 (2005), S. 277-299 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Recent fossil discoveries from Early Cretaceous rocks of Liaoning Province, China, have provided a wealth of spectacular specimens. Included in these are the remains of several different kinds of small theropod dinosaurs, many of which are extremely closely related to modern birds. Unique preservation conditions allowed soft tissues of some of these specimens to be preserved. Many dinosaur specimens that preserve feathers and other types of integumentary coverings have been recovered. These fossils show a progression of integumentary types from simple fibers to feathers of modern aspect. The distribution of these features on the bodies of these animals is surprising in that some show large tail plumes, whereas others show the presence of wing-like structures on both fore and hind limbs. The phylogenetic distribution of feather types is highly congruent with models of feather evolution developed from developmental biology.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122511
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    EVOLUTION OF THE CONTINENTAL LITHOSPHERE (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 33 (2005), S. 369-393 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Stable cratons and stable continental platforms are salient features of the Earth. Mantle xenoliths provide detailed data on deep structure. Cratonal lithosphere is about 200 km thick. It formed in the Archean by processes analogous to modern tectonics and has been stable beneath the larger cratons since that time. Its high viscosity, high yield strength, and chemical buoyancy protected it from being entrained by underlying stagnant lid convection and by subduction. Chemically buoyant mantle does not underlie platforms. Platform lithosphere has gradually thickened with time as convection waned as the Earth's interior cooled. The thermal contraction associated with this thickening causes platforms to subside relative to cratons. At present, the thickness of platform lithosphere is comparable to that of cratonal lithosphere.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122643
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    Mathematical Modeling of Whole Landscape Evolution (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 33 (2005), S. 443-459 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: The mathematical modeling of landform evolution consists of two components: the processes represented (i.e., considered dominant) in the model and the (typically computer) model representation of these processes. This review discusses the current debates surrounding processes represented in landform evolution. The potential impact on both evolving landforms and computer model structure is discussed. Issues specifically discussed include (a) the fundamental nature of mass conservation and the role of detachment- and transport-limited processes in mass conservation equations, (b) the interaction between detachment- and transport-limitation in channels, (c) the role of hillslope erosion and soil properties and their interaction with channel processes, (d) the interactions with tectonics when applying these models at large scale, (e) depositional structures and implications for paleo-climatic interpretation, (f) engineering applications of these models, and (g) numerical issues in the computer implementations. This review is not a model comparison. However, many applications are at the boundaries of computer capabilities so a comparison of existing models is provided.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122610
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    ATMOSPHERIC MOIST CONVECTION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 33 (2005), S. 605-643 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Various forms of atmospheric moist convection are reviewed through a consideration of three prevalent regimes: stratocumulus; trade-wind; and deep, precipitating, maritime convection. These regimes are chosen because they are structural components of the general circulation of the atmosphere and because they highlight distinguishing features of this polymorphous phenomenon. In particular, the ways in which varied forms of moist convection communicate with remote parts of the flow through mechanisms other than the rearrangement of fluid parcels are emphasized. These include radiative, gravity wave, and/or microphysical (precipitation) processes. For each regime, basic aspects of its phenomenology are presented along with theoretical frameworks that have arisen to help rationalize the phenomenology. Recent developments suggest that the increased capacity for numerical simulation and increasingly refined remote sensing capabilities bodes well for major advances in the coming years.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.33.092203.122658
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    GENETICS OF BRAIN STRUCTURE AND INTELLIGENCE (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 28 (2005), S. 1-23 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Genetic influences on brain morphology and IQ are well studied. A variety of sophisticated brain-mapping approaches relating genetic influences on brain structure and intelligence establishes a regional distribution for this relationship that is consistent with behavioral studies. We highlight those studies that illustrate the complex cortical patterns associated with measures of cognitive ability. A measure of cognitive ability, known as g, has been shown highly heritable across many studies. We argue that these genetic links are partly mediated by brain structure that is likewise under strong genetic control. Other factors, such as the environment, obviously play a role, but the predominant determinant appears to genetic.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135655
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    NEURONAL SUBSTRATES OF COMPLEX BEHAVIORS IN C. ELEGANS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 28 (2005), S. 451-501 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: A current challenge in neuroscience is to bridge the gaps between genes, proteins, neurons, neural circuits, and behavior in a single animal model. The nematode Caenorhabditis elegans has unique features that facilitate this synthesis. Its nervous system includes exactly 302 neurons, and their pattern of synaptic connectivity is known. With only five olfactory neurons, C.??elegans can dynamically respond to dozens of attractive and repellant odors. Thermosensory neurons enable the nematode to remember its cultivation temperature and to track narrow isotherms. Polymodal sensory neurons detect a wide range of nociceptive cues and signal robust escape responses. Pairing of sensory stimuli leads to long-lived changes in behavior consistent with associative learning. Worms exhibit social behaviors and complex ultradian rhythms driven by Ca2+ oscillators with clock-like properties. Genetic analysis has identified gene products required for nervous system function and elucidated the molecular and neural bases of behaviors.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.27.070203.144259
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    NEURAL NETWORK DYNAMICS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 28 (2005), S. 357-376 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Neural network modeling is often concerned with stimulus-driven responses, but most of the activity in the brain is internally generated. Here, we review network models of internally generated activity, focusing on three types of network dynamics: (a) sustained responses to transient stimuli, which provide a model of working memory; (b) oscillatory network activity; and (c) chaotic activity, which models complex patterns of background spiking in cortical and other circuits. We also review propagation of stimulus-driven activity through spontaneously active networks. Exploring these aspects of neural network dynamics is critical for understanding how neural circuits produce cognitive function.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135637
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    AXON RETRACTION AND DEGENERATION IN DEVELOPMENT AND DISEASE (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 28 (2005), S. 127-156 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The selective elimination of axons, dendrites, axon and dendrite branches, and synapses, without loss of the parent neurons, occurs during normal development of the nervous system as well as in response to injury or disease in the adult. The widespread developmental phenomena of exuberant axonal projections and synaptic connections require both small-scale and large-scale axon pruning to generate precise adult connectivity, and they provide a mechanism for neural plasticity in the developing and adult nervous system, as well as a mechanism to evolve differences between species in a projection system. Such pruning is also required to remove axonal connections damaged in the adult, to stabilize the affected neural circuits, and to initiate their repair. Pruning occurs through either retraction or degeneration. Here we review examples of these phenomena and consider potential cellular and molecular mechanisms that underlie axon retraction and degeneration and how they might relate to each other in development and disease.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.neuro.28.061604.135632
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    MECHANISMS OF VERTEBRATE SYNAPTOGENESIS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Neuroscience 28 (2005), S. 251-274 
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    ISSN: 0147-006X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The formation of synapses in the vertebrate central nervous system is a complex process that occurs over a protracted period of development. Recent work has begun to unravel the mysteries of synaptogenesis, demonstrating the existence of multiple molecules that influence not only when and where synapses form but also synaptic specificity and stability. Some of these molecules act at a distance, steering axons to their correct receptive fields and promoting neuronal differentiation and maturation, whereas others act at the time of contact, providing positional information about the appropriateness of targets and/or inductive signals that trigger the cascade of events leading to synapse formation. In addition, correlated synaptic activity provides critical information about the appropriateness of synaptic connections, thereby influencing synapse stability and elimination. Although synapse formation and elimination are hallmarks of early development, these processes are also fundamental to learning, memory, and cognition in the mature brain.
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    HOW NEUTROPHILS KILL MICROBES (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 197-223 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Neutrophils provide the first line of defense of the innate immune system by phagocytosing, killing, and digesting bacteria and fungi. Killing was previously believed to be accomplished by oxygen free radicals and other reactive oxygen species generated by the NADPH oxidase, and by oxidized halides produced by myeloperoxidase. We now know this is incorrect. The oxidase pumps electrons into the phagocytic vacuole, thereby inducing a charge across the membrane that must be compensated. The movement of compensating ions produces conditions in the vacuole conducive to microbial killing and digestion by enzymes released into the vacuole from the cytoplasmic granules.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115653
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    ROLE OF C5A IN INFLAMMATORY RESPONSES (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 821-852 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The complement system not only represents an effective innate immune mechanism of host defense to eradicate microbial pathogens, but it is also widely involved in many forms of acute and chronic inflammatory diseases including sepsis, acute lung injury, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and asthma, to give just a few examples. The complement-activated product, C5a, displays powerful biological activities that lead to inflammatory sequelae. C5a is a strong chemoattractant and is involved in the recruitment of inflammatory cells such as neutrophils, eosinophils, monocytes, and T lymphocytes, in activation of phagocytic cells and release of granule-based enzymes and generation of oxidants, all of which may contribute to innate immune functions or tissue damage. Accumulating data suggest that C5a provides a vital bridge between innate and adaptive immune functions, extending the roles of C5a in inflammation. Herein, we review human and animal data describing the cellular and molecular mechanisms of C5a in the development of inflammatory disorders, sepsis, acute lung injury, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and asthma.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115835
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    CELL BIOLOGY OF ANTIGEN PROCESSING IN VITRO AND IN VIVO (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 975-1028 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The conversion of exogenous and endogenous proteins into immunogenic peptides recognized by T lymphocytes involves a series of proteolytic and other enzymatic events culminating in the formation of peptides bound to MHC class I or class II molecules. Although the biochemistry of these events has been studied in detail, only in the past few years has similar information begun to emerge describing the cellular context in which these events take place. This review thus concentrates on the properties of antigen-presenting cells, especially those aspects of their overall organization, regulation, and intracellular transport that both facilitate and modulate the processing of protein antigens. Emphasis is placed on dendritic cells and the specializations that help account for their marked efficiency at antigen processing and presentation both in vitro and, importantly, in vivo. How dendritic cells handle antigens is likely to be as important a determinant of immunogenicity and tolerance as is the nature of the antigens themselves.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.22.012703.104538
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    MAINTENANCE OF SERUM ANTIBODY LEVELS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 367-386 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: In vertebrates, serum antibodies are an essential component of innate and adaptive immunity and immunological memory. They also can contribute significantly to immunopathology. Their composition is the result of tightly regulated differentiation of B lymphocytes into antibody-secreting plasma blasts and plasma cells. The survival of antibody-secreting cells determines their contribution to the immune response in which they were generated and to long-lasting immunity, as provided by stable serum antibody levels. Short-lived plasma blasts and/or plasma cells secrete antibodies for a reactive immune response. Short-lived plasma blasts can become long-lived plasma cells, probably by competition with preexisting plasma cells for occupation of a limited number of survival niches in the body, in a process not yet fully understood. Limitation of the number of long-lived plasma cells allows the immune system to maintain a stable humoral immunological memory over long periods, to react to new pathogenic challenges, and to adapt the humoral memory in response to these antigens.
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    MARGINAL ZONE B CELLS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 161-196 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Our views regarding the origins and functions of splenic marginal zone B cells have changed considerably over the past few years. Perspectives regarding the development and function of these cells vary considerably between investigators studying human and rodent immunology. Marginal zone B cells are now recognized to constitute a distinct naive B lymphoid lineage. Considerable progress has been made regarding the mechanisms involved in marginal zone B cell development in the mouse. Many of the molecular events that participate in the retention of this lineage of B cells in the marginal zone have been identified. Here, we discuss the functions of these cells in both innate and adaptive immunity. We also attempt to reconcile differing viewpoints regarding the generation and function of marginal zone B cells in rodents and primates.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115728
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    IPC: Professional Type 1 Interferon-Producing Cells and Plasmacytoid Dendritic Cell Precursors (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 275-306 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Type 1 interferon-(ʼ̛, ?‚, ?)-producing cells (IPCs), also known as plasmacytoid dendritic cell precursors (pDCs), represent 0.2%Đ??0.8% of peripheral blood mononuclear cells in both humans and mice. IPCs display plasma cell morphology, selectively express Toll-like receptor (TLR)-7 and TLR9, and are specialized in rapidly secreting massive amounts of type 1 interferon following viral stimulation. IPCs can promote the function of natural killer cells, B cells, T cells, and myeloid DCs through type 1 interferons during an antiviral immune response. At a later stage of viral infection, IPCs differentiate into a unique type of mature dendritic cell, which directly regulates the function of T cells and thus links innate and adaptive immune responses. After more than two decades of effort by researchers, IPCs finally claim their place in the hematopoietic chart as the most important cell type in antiviral innate immunity. Understanding IPC biology holds future promise for developing cures for infectious diseases, cancer, and autoimmune diseases.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115633
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    THE B7 FAMILY REVISITED (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 515-548 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The discovery of new functions for the original B7 family members, together with the identification of additional B7 and CD28 family members, have revealed new ways in which the B7:CD28 family regulates T cell activation and tolerance. B7-1/B7-2:CD28 interactions not only promote initial T cell activation but also regulate self-tolerance by supporting CD4+CD25+ T regulatory cell homeostasis. CTLA-4 can exert its inhibitory effects in both B7-1/B7-2 dependent and independent fashions. B7-1 and B7-2 can signal bidirectionally by engaging CD28 and CTLA-4 on T cells and by delivering signals into B7-expressing cells. The five new B7 family members, ICOS ligand, PD-L1 (B7-H1), PD-L2 (B7-DC), B7-H3, and B7-H4 (B7x/B7-S1) are expressed on professional antigen-presenting cells as well as on cells within nonlymphoid organs, providing new means for regulating T cell activation and tolerance in peripheral tissues. The new CD28 families members, ICOS, PD-1, and BTLA, are inducibly expressed on T cells, and they have important roles in regulating previously activated T cells. PD-1 and BTLA also are expressed on B cells and may have broader immunoregulatory functions. The ICOS:ICOSL pathway appears to be particularly important for stimulating effector T cell responses and T cellĐ??dependent B cell responses, but it also has an important role in regulating T cell tolerance. In addition, the PD-1:PD-L1/PD-L2 pathway plays a critical role in regulating T cell activation and tolerance. In this review, we revisit the roles of the B7:CD28 family members in regulating immune responses, and we discuss their therapeutic potential.
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    ANTIGEN-SPECIFIC MEMORY B CELL DEVELOPMENT (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 487-513 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Helper T (Th) cellĐ??regulated B cell immunity progresses in an ordered cascade of cellular development that culminates in the production of antigen-specific memory B cells. The recognition of peptide MHC class II complexes on activated antigen-presenting cells is critical for effective Th cell selection, clonal expansion, and effector Th cell function development (Phase I). Cognate effector Th cellĐ??B cell interactions then promote the development of either short-lived plasma cells (PCs) or germinal centers (GCs) (Phase II). These GCs expand, diversify, and select high-affinity variants of antigen-specific B cells for entry into the long-lived memory B cell compartment (Phase III). Upon antigen rechallenge, memory B cells rapidly expand and differentiate into PCs under the cognate control of memory Th cells (Phase IV). We review the cellular and molecular regulators of this dynamic process with emphasis on the multiple memory B cell fates that develop in vivo.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115732
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    PENTRAXINS AT THE CROSSROADS BETWEEN INNATE IMMUNITY, INFLAMMATION, MATRIX DEPOSITION, AND FEMALE FERTILITY (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 337-366 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: C reactive protein, the first innate immunity receptor identified, and serum amyloid P component are classic short pentraxins produced in the liver. Long pentraxins, including the prototype PTX3, are expressed in a variety of tissues. Some long pentraxins are expressed in the brain and some are involved in neuronal plasticity and degeneration. PTX3 is produced by a variety of cells and tissues, most notably dendritic cells and macrophages, in response to Toll-like receptor (TLR) engagement and inflammatory cytokines. PTX3 acts as a functional ancestor of antibodies, recognizing microbes, activating complement, and facilitating pathogen recognition by phagocytes, hence playing a nonredundant role in resistance against selected pathogens. In addition, PTX3 is essential in female fertility because it acts as a nodal point for the assembly of the cumulus oophorus hyaluronan-rich extracellular matrix. Thus, the prototypic long pentraxin PTX3 is a multifunctional soluble pattern recognition receptor at the crossroads between innate immunity, inflammation, matrix deposition, and female fertility.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115756
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    TYPE I INTERFERONS (ʼ̛/?‚) IN IMMUNITY AND AUTOIMMUNITY (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 307-335 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The significance of type I interferons (IFN-ʼ̛/?‚) in biology and medicine renders research on their activities continuously relevant to our understanding of normal and abnormal (auto) immune responses. This relevance is bolstered by discoveries that unambiguously establish IFN-ʼ̛/?‚, among the multitude of cytokines, as dominant in defining qualitative and quantitative characteristics of innate and adaptive immune processes. Recent advances elucidating the biology of these key cytokines include better definition of their complex signaling pathways, determination of their importance in modifying the effects of other cytokines, the role of Toll-like receptors in their induction, their major cellular producers, and their broad and diverse impact on both cellular and humoral immune responses. Consequently, the role of IFN-ʼ̛/?‚ in the pathogenesis of autoimmunity remains at the forefront of scientific inquiry and has begun to illuminate the mechanisms by which these molecules promote or inhibit systemic and organ-specific autoimmune diseases.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115843
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    TOWARD AN UNDERSTANDING OF NKT CELL BIOLOGY: Progress and Paradoxes (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 26 (2005), S. 877-900 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Natural killer T (NKT) cells constitute a conserved T cell sublineage with unique properties, including reactivity for a synthetic glycolipid presented by CD1d, expression of an invariant T cell antigen receptor (TCR) ʼ̛ chain, and unusual requirements for thymic selection. They rapidly produce many cytokines after stimulation and thus influence diverse immune responses and pathogenic processes. Because of intensive research effort, we have learned much about factors promoting the development and survival of NKT cells, regulation of their cytokine production, and the means by which they influence dendritic cells and other cell types. Despite this progress, knowledge of the natural antigen(s) they recognize and their physiologic role remain incomplete. The activation of NKT cells paradoxically can lead either to suppression or stimulation of immune responses, and we cannot predict which will occur. Despite this uncertainty, many investigators are hopeful that immune therapies can be developed based on NKT cell stimulation.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115742
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    B CELL SIGNALING AND Tumorigenesis (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 415-445 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The proliferation and differentiation of lymphocytes are regulated by receptors localized on the cell surface. Engagement of these receptors induces the activation of intracellular signaling proteins that transmit the receptor signals to distinct targets and control the cellular responses. The first signaling proteins to be discovered in higher organisms were the products of oncogenes. For example, the kinases Src and Abelson (Abl) were originally identified as oncogenes and were later characterized as important proteins for signal transduction in various cell types, including lymphocytes. Now, as many cellular signaling molecules have been discovered and ordered into certain pathways, we can better understand why particular signaling proteins are associated with tumorigenesis. In this review, we discuss recent progress in unraveling the molecular mechanisms of signaling pathways that control the proliferation and differentiation of early B cells. We point out the concepts of auto-inhibition and subcellular localization as crucial aspects in the regulation of B cell signaling.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115606
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    NK CELL RECOGNITION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 225-274 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The integrated processing of signals transduced by activating and inhibitory cell surface receptors regulates NK cell effector functions. Here, I review the structure, function, and ligand specificity of the receptors responsible for NK cell recognition.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115526
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    CHEMOKINES, SPHINGOSINE-1-PHOSPHATE, AND CELL MIGRATION IN SECONDARY LYMPHOID ORGANS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 127-159 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Secondary lymphoid organs serve as hubs for the adaptive immune system, bringing together antigen, antigen-presenting cells, and lymphocytes. Two families of G proteinĐ??coupled receptors play essential roles in lymphocyte migration through these organs: chemokine receptors and sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) receptors. Chemokines expressed by lymphoid stromal cells guide lymphocyte and dendritic cell movements during antigen surveillance and the initiation of adaptive immune responses. S1P receptor-1 is required for lymphocyte egress from thymus and secondary lymphoid organs and is downregulated by the immunosuppressive drug FTY720. Here, we review the steps associated with the initiation of adaptive immune responses in secondary lymphoid organs, highlighting the roles of chemokines and S1P.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115628
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    TEC FAMILY KINASES IN T LYMPHOCYTE DEVELOPMENT AND FUNCTION * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 549-600 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The Tec family tyrosine kinases are now recognized as important mediators of antigen receptor signaling in lymphocytes. Three members of this family, Itk, Rlk, and Tec, are expressed in T cells and activated in response to T cell receptor (TCR) engagement. Although initial studies demonstrated a role for these proteins in TCR-mediated activation of phospholipase C-??, recent data indicate that Tec family kinases also regulate actin cytoskeletal reorganization and cellular adhesion following TCR stimulation. In addition, Tec family kinases are activated downstream of G proteinĐ??coupled chemokine receptors, where they play parallel roles in the regulation of Rho GTPases, cell polarization, adhesion, and migration. In all these systems, however, Tec family kinases are not essential signaling components, but instead function to modulate or amplify signaling pathways. Although they quantitatively reduce proximal signaling, mutations that eliminate Tec family kinases in T cells nonetheless qualitatively alter T cell development and differentiation.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.22.012703.104743
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    IMMUNOLOGY OF MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 683-747 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Multiple sclerosis (MS) develops in young adults with a complex predisposing genetic trait and probably requires an inciting environmental insult such as a viral infection to trigger the disease. The activation of CD4+ autoreactive T cells and their differentiation into a Th1 phenotype are a crucial events in the initial steps, and these cells are probably also important players in the long-term evolution of the disease. Damage of the target tissue, the central nervous system, is, however, most likely mediated by other components of the immune system, such as antibodies, complement, CD8+ T cells, and factors produced by innate immune cells. Perturbations in immunomodulatory networks that include Th2 cells, regulatory CD4+ T cells, NK cells, and others may in part be responsible for the relapsing-remitting or chronic progressive nature of the disease. However, an important paradigmatic shift in the study of MS has occurred in the past decade. It is now clear that MS is not just a disease of the immune system, but that factors contributed by the central nervous system are equally important and must be considered in the future.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115707
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    NETWORK COMMUNICATIONS: Lymphotoxins, LIGHT, and TNF (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 787-819 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Lymphotoxins (LT) provide essential communication links between lymphocytes and the surrounding stromal and parenchymal cells and together with the two related cytokines, tumor necrosis factor (TNF) and LIGHT (LT-related inducible ligand that competes for glycoprotein D binding to herpesvirus entry mediator on T cells), form an integrated signaling network necessary for efficient innate and adaptive immune responses. Recent studies have identified signaling pathways that regulate several genes, including chemokines and interferons, which participate in the development and function of microenvironments in lymphoid tissue and host defense. Disruption of the LT/TNF/LIGHT network alleviates inflammation in certain autoimmune disease models, but decreases resistance to selected pathogens. Pharmacological disruption of this network in human autoimmune diseases such as rheumatoid arthritis alleviates inflammation in a significant number of patients, but not in other diseases, a finding that challenges our molecular paradigms of autoimmunity and perhaps will reveal novel roles for this network in pathogenesis.
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    MAST CELLS AS "TUNABLE" EFFECTOR AND IMMUNOREGULATORY CELLS: Recent Advances (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 749-786 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: This review focuses on recent progress in our understanding of how mast cells can contribute to the initiation, development, expression, and regulation of acquired immune responses, both those associated with IgE and those that are apparently expressed independently of this class of Ig. We emphasize findings derived from in vivo studies in mice, particularly those employing genetic approaches to influence mast cell numbers and/or to alter or delete components of pathways that can regulate mast cell development, signaling, or function. We advance the hypothesis that mast cells not only can function as proinflammatory effector cells and drivers of tissue remodeling in established acquired immune responses, but also may contribute to the initiation and regulation of such responses. That is, we propose that mast cells can also function as immunoregulatory cells. Finally, we show that the notion that mast cells have primarily two functional configurations, off (or resting) or on (or activated for extensive mediator release), markedly oversimplifies reality. Instead, we propose that mast cells are "tunable," by both genetic and environmental factors, such that, depending on the circumstances, the cell can be positioned phenotypically to express a wide spectrum of variation in the types, kinetics, and/or magnitude of its secretory functions.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.21.120601.141025
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    DEVELOPMENT AND REGULATION OF CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNE RESPONSES TO THE BLOOD STAGES OF MALARIA: Implications for Vaccine Research (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 69-99 
    Details
    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The immune response to the malaria parasite is complex and poorly understood. Although antibodies and T cells can control parasite growth in model systems, natural immunity to malaria in regions of high endemicity takes several years to develop. Variation and polymorphism of antibody target antigens are known to impede immune responses, but these factors alone cannot account for the slow acquisition of immunity. In human and animal model systems, cell-mediated responses can control parasite growth effectively, but such responses are regulated by parasite load via direct effects on dendritic cells and possibly on T and B cells as well. Furthermore, high parasite load is associated with pathology, and cell-mediated responses may also harm the host. Inflammatory cytokines have been implicated in the pathogenesis of cerebral malaria, anemia, weight loss, and respiratory distress in malaria. Immunity without pathology requires rapid parasite clearance, effective regulation of the inflammatory antiparasite effects of cellular responses, and the eventual development of a repertoire of antibodies effective against multiple strains. Data suggest that this may be hastened by exposure to malaria antigens in low dose, leading to augmented cellular immunity and rapid parasite clearance.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115638
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    UNDERSTANDING PRESENTATION OF VIRAL ANTIGENS TO CD8+ T CELLS IN VIVO: The Key to Rational Vaccine Design * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 651-682 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: CD8+ T cells play a critical role in antiviral immunity by exerting direct antiviral activity against infected cells. Because of their ability to recognize all types of viral proteins, they offer the promise of providing broad immunity to viruses that evade humoral immunity by varying their surface proteins. Consequently, there is considerable interest in developing vaccines that elicit effective antiviral TCD8+ responses. Generating optimal vaccines ultimately requires rational design based on detailed knowledge of how TCD8+ are activated in vivo under natural circumstances. Here we review recent progress obtained largely by in vivo studies in mice to understand the mechanistic basis for activation of naive TCD8+ in virus infections. These studies point the way to detailed understanding and provide some key information for vaccine development, although much remains to be learned to enable truly rational vaccine design.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115702
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    CATERPILLER: A Novel Gene Family Important in Immunity, Cell Death, and Diseases (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Immunology 23 (2005), S. 387-414 
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    ISSN: 0732-0582
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The newly discovered CATERPILLER (CLR) gene family encodes proteins with a variable but limited number of N-terminal domains, followed by a nucleotide-binding domain (NBD) and leucine-rich repeats (LRR). The N-terminal domain consists of transactivation, CARD, Pyrin, or BIR domains, with a minority containing undefined domains. These proteins are remarkably similar in structure to the TIR-NBD-LRR and CC-NBD-LRR disease resistance (R) proteins that mediate immune responses in plants. The NBD-LRR architecture is conserved in plants and vertebrates, but only remnants are found in worms and flies. The CLRs regulate inflammatory and apoptotic responses, and some act as sensors that detect pathogen products. Several CLR genes have been genetically linked to susceptibility to immunologic disorders. We describe prominent family members, including CIITA, CARD4/NOD1, NOD2/CARD15, CIAS1, CARD7/NALP1, and NAIP, in more detail. We also discuss implied roles of these proteins in diversifying immune detection and in providing a check-and-balance during inflammation.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.immunol.23.021704.115616
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    A SCIENCE OF THE INDIVIDUAL: Implications for a Medical School Curriculum (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 6 (2005), S. 313-330 
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    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.6.080604.162345
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    THE GENETIC BASIS FOR CARDIAC REMODELING (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 6 (2005), S. 185-216 
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    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Cardiomyopathies are primary disorders of cardiac muscle associated with abnormalities of cardiac wall thickness, chamber size, contraction, relaxation, conduction, and rhythm. They are a major cause of morbidity and mortality at all ages and, like acquired forms of cardiovascular disease, often result in heart failure. Over the past two decades, molecular genetic studies of humans and analyses of model organisms have made remarkable progress in defining the pathogenesis of cardiomyopathies. Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy can result from mutations in 11 genes that encode sarcomere proteins, and dilated cardiomyopathy is caused by mutations at 25 chromosome loci where genes encoding contractile, cytoskeletal, and calcium regulatory proteins have been identified. Causes of cardiomyopathies associated with clinically important cardiac arrhythmias have also been discovered: Mutations in cardiac metabolic genes cause hypertrophy in association with ventricular pre-excitation and mutations causing arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia were recently discovered in protein constituents of desmosomes. This considerable genetic heterogeneity suggests that there are multiple pathways that lead to changes in heart structure and function. Defects in myocyte force generation, force transmission, and calcium homeostasis have emerged as particularly critical signals driving these pathologies. Delineation of the cell and molecular events triggered by cardiomyopathy gene mutations provide new fundamental knowledge about myocyte biology and organ physiology that accounts for cardiac remodeling and defines mechanistic pathways that lead to heart failure.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.6.080604.162132
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    MITOCHONDRIAL DNA AND HUMAN EVOLUTION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 6 (2005), S. 165-183 
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    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Several unique properties of human mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), including its high copy number, maternal inheritance, lack of recombination, and high mutation rate, have made it the molecule of choice for studies of human population history and evolution. Here we review the current state of knowledge concerning these properties, how mtDNA variation is studied, what we have learned, and what the future likely holds. We conclude that increasingly, mtDNA studies are (and should be) supplemented with analyses of the Y-chromosome and other nuclear DNA variation. Some serious issues need to be addressed concerning nuclear inserts, database quality, and the possible influence of selection on mtDNA variation. Nonetheless, mtDNA studies will continue to play an important role in such areas as examining socio-cultural influences on human genetic variation, ancient DNA, certain forensic DNA applications, and in tracing personal genetic history.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.6.080604.162249
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    TRADE-OFFS IN DETECTING EVOLUTIONARILY CONSTRAINED SEQUENCE BY COMPARATIVE GENOMICS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 6 (2005), S. 143-164 
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    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: As whole-genome sequencing efforts extend beyond more traditional model organisms to include a deep diversity of species, comparative genomic analyses will be further empowered to reveal insights into the human genome and its evolution. The discovery and annotation of functional genomic elements is a necessary step toward a detailed understanding of our biology, and sequence comparisons have proven to be an integral tool for that task. This review is structured to broadly reflect the statistical challenges in discriminating these functional elements from the bulk of the genome that has evolved neutrally. Specifically, we review the comparative genomics literature in terms of specificity, sensitivity, and phylogenetic scope, as well as the trade-offs that relate these factors in standard analyses. We consider the impact of an expanding diversity of orthologous sequences on our ability to resolve functional elements. This impact is assessed through both recent comparative analyses of deep alignments and mathematical modeling.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.6.080604.162146
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    BIG CAT GENOMICS * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 6 (2005), S. 407-429 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Advances in population and quantitative genomics, aided by the computational algorithms that employ genetic theory and practice, are now being applied to biological questions that surround free-ranging species not traditionally suitable for genetic enquiry. Here we review how applications of molecular genetic tools have been used to describe the natural history, present status, and future disposition of wild cat species. Insight into phylogenetic hierarchy, demographic contractions, geographic population substructure, behavioral ecology, and infectious diseases have revealed strategies for survival and adaptation of these fascinating predators. Conservation, stabilization, and management of the big cats are important areas that derive benefit from the genome resources expanded and applied to highly successful species, imperiled by an expanding human population.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.6.080604.162151
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    SULFATASES AND HUMAN DISEASE (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 6 (2005), S. 355-379 
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    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Sulfatases are a highly conserved family of proteins that cleave sulfate esters from a wide range of substrates. The importance of sulfatases in human metabolism is underscored by the presence of at least eight human monogenic diseases caused by the deficiency of individual sulfatases. Sulfatase activity requires a unique posttranslational modification, which is impaired in patients with multiple sulfatase deficiency (MSD) due to a mutation of the sulfatase modifying factor 1 (SUMF1). Here we review current knowledge and future perspectives on the evolution of the sulfatase gene family, on the role of these enzymes in human metabolism, and on new developments in the therapy of sulfatase deficiencies.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.6.080604.162334
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    COMPLEX GENETICS OF GLAUCOMA SUSCEPTIBILITY (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 6 (2005), S. 15-44 
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    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Glaucoma describes a group of diseases that kill retinal ganglion cells. There are different types of glaucoma, and each appears to be genetically heterogeneous. Different glaucoma genes have been identified, but these genes account for only a small proportion of glaucoma. Most glaucoma cases appear to be multifactorial, and are likely affected by multiple interacting loci. A number of genetic susceptibility factors have been suggested to contribute to glaucoma. These factors fit into two broad groups, those affecting intraocular pressure and those important in modulating retinal ganglion cell viability. Defining the complex genetics of glaucoma will require significant further study of the human disease and animal models. Genetic approaches are essential and will be enhanced by recently developed genomic and proteomic technologies. These technologies will provide valuable clues about pathogenesis for subsequent testing. In this review, we focus on endogenous genetic susceptibility factors and on how experimental studies will be valuable for dissecting the multifactorial complexity of their interactions.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.6.080604.162209
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    THE PATTERNS OF NATURAL VARIATION IN HUMAN GENES (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 6 (2005), S. 287-312 
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    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Currently, more than 10 million DNA sequence variations have been uncovered in the human genome. The most detailed variation discovery efforts have focused on candidate genes involved in cardiovascular disease or in susceptibilities associated with exposure to environmental agents. Here we provide an overview of natural genetic variation from the literature and in 510 human candidate genes resequenced for variation discovery. The average human gene contains 126 biallelic polymorphisms, 46 of which are common (Đ?5% minor allele frequency) and 5 of which are found in coding regions. Using this complete picture of genetic diversity, we explore conservation, signatures of selection, and historical recombination to mine information useful for candidate gene association studies. In general, we find that the patterns of human gene variation suggest that no one approach will be appropriate for genetic association studies across all genes. Therefore, many different approaches may be required to identify the elusive genotypes associated with common human phenotypes.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.6.080604.162309
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    NOONAN SYNDROME AND RELATED DISORDERS: Genetics and Pathogenesis (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 6 (2005), S. 45-68 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Noonan syndrome is a pleiomorphic autosomal dominant disorder with short stature, facial dysmorphia, webbed neck, and heart defects. In the past decade, progress has been made in elucidating the pathogenesis of this disorder using a positional cloning approach. Noonan syndrome is now known to be a genetically heterogeneous disorder with nearly one half of cases caused by gain-of-function mutations in PTPN11, the gene encoding the protein tyrosine phosphatase SHP-2. Similar germ line mutations cause two related genetic disorders, Noonan-like disorder with multiple giant cell lesion syndrome and LEOPARD syndrome, and somatic PTPN11 mutations can underlie certain pediatric hematopoietic malignancies, including juvenile myelomonocytic, acute lymphoblastic, and acute myelogenous leukemias. A mouse model of PTPN11-related Noonan syndrome was recently generated, providing a reagent for studying disease pathogenesis in greater depth as well as experimenting with novel therapeutic strategies.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.6.080604.162305
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    HUMAN TASTE GENETICS * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics 6 (2005), S. 217-235 
    Details
    ISSN: 1527-8204
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Humans show substantial differences in taste sensitivity to many different substances. Some of this variation is known to be genetic in origin, and many other inter-individual differences are likely to be partially or wholly determined by genetic mechanisms. Recent advances in the understanding of taste at the molecular level have provided candidate genes that can be evaluated for contributions to phenotypic differences in taste abilities. This approach has provided an understanding of variation in the ability to taste phenylthiocarbamide (PTC), and has resolved long-standing controversies about the genetics of this classic human genetic trait. Significant coding sequence variation exists in taste receptor genes, which suggests that PTC tasting may indicate more general taste sensory variation. However, many aspects of taste perception remain poorly characterized. Better understanding of the molecular components of salty and sour tastes is still needed, as is a more complete picture of second messenger and downstream signaling mechanisms for all taste modalities. More general studies of linkage and association between genetic markers and taste phenotypes may reveal genes encoding proteins that were previously unsuspected to be involved in this sensory process.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.genom.6.080604.162340
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    THE EVOLUTION OF POLYANDRY: Sperm Competition, Sperm Selection, and Offspring Viability (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36 (2005), S. 125-146 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-592X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: In contrast to Bateman's principle, there is now increasing evidence that female fitness can depend on the number of mates obtained. A number of genetic benefits have been proposed for the evolution of polyandry. A meta-analysis of available data suggests that polyandry, rather than multiple mating, can have a weak but significant general effect on embryo viability, as indicated by egg hatching success. Although this effect is generally regarded as evidence in favor of the genetic incompatibility hypothesis, appropriate data that test for intrinsic sire effects on embryo viability are generally unavailable. Moreover, maternal effects that could generate the result have not been adequately controlled, and there is little unequivocal evidence to suggest that fertilization is biased toward sperm bearing genotypes that would enhance offspring viability. Greater effort is required in these areas to elucidate the mechanisms underlying observed fitness effects of polyandry.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102403.112501
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    MODEL SELECTION IN PHYLOGENETICS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36 (2005), S. 445-466 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-592X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Investigation into model selection has a long history in the statistical literature. As model-based approaches begin dominating systematic biology, increased attention has focused on how models should be selected for distance-based, likelihood, and Bayesian phylogenetics. Here, we review issues that render model-based approaches necessary, briefly review nucleotide-based models that attempt to capture relevant features of evolutionary processes, and review methods that have been applied to model selection in phylogenetics: likelihood-ratio tests, AIC, BIC, and performance-based approaches.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152633
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    CONSEQUENCES OF THE CRETACEOUS/PALEOGENE MASS EXTINCTION FOR MARINE ECOSYSTEMS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36 (2005), S. 295-317 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-592X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: One of the greatest mass extinctions in Earth's history occurred at the end of the Cretaceous era, sixty-five million years (Myr) ago. Considerable evidence indicates that the impact of a large asteroid or comet was the ultimate cause of this extraordinary event. At the time of mass extinction, the organic flux to the deep sea collapsed, and production of calcium carbonate by marine plankton radically declined. These biogeochemical processes did not fully recover for a few million years. The drastic decline and long lag in final recovery of these processes are most simply explained as consequences of open-ocean ecosystem alteration by the mass extinction. If this explanation is correct, the extent and timing of marine biogeochemical recovery from the end-Cretaceous event was ultimately contingent on the extent and timing of open-ocean ecosystem recovery. The biogeochemical recovery may in turn have created new evolutionary opportunities for a diverse array of marine organisms.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.35.021103.105715
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    THE EVOLUTIONARY ECOLOGY OF GYNOGENESIS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36 (2005), S. 399-417 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-592X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Most metazoans engage in recombination every generation. In theory this is associated with considerable cost, such as the production of males, so that asexual organisms, which do not pay this cost, should be able to invade populations of sexuals. Some asexuals depend on sperm of sexual males to trigger embryogenesis, a reproductive mode called gynogenesis. The genetic information of males is typically not used. Theory predicts that such mating complexes are short-lived and highly unstable. Sperm dependency is not only the defining feature of the biology of gynogenetic metazoans, it is also a major puzzle in evolutionary biology. Organisms that apparently combine disadvantages of both sexuality and asexuality are a serious challenge to theory. A number of questions about these systems are still unresolved.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152629
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    BIODIVERSITY AND LITTER DECOMPOSITION IN TERRESTRIAL ECOSYSTEMS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36 (2005), S. 191-218 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-592X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: We explore empirical and theoretical evidence for the functional significance of plant-litter diversity and the extraordinary high diversity of decomposer organisms in the process of litter decomposition and the consequences for biogeochemical cycles. Potential mechanisms for the frequently observed litter-diversity effects on mass loss and nitrogen dynamics include fungi-driven nutrient transfer among litter species, inhibition or stimulation of microorganisms by specific litter compounds, and positive feedback of soil fauna due to greater habitat and food diversity. Theory predicts positive effects of microbial diversity that result from functional niche complementarity, but the few existing experiments provide conflicting results. Microbial succession with shifting enzymatic capabilities enhances decomposition, whereas antagonistic interactions among fungi that compete for similar resources slow litter decay. Soil-fauna diversity manipulations indicate that the number of trophic levels, species identity, and the presence of keystone species have a strong impact on decomposition, whereas the importance of diversity within functional groups is not clear at present. In conclusion, litter species and decomposer diversity can significantly influence carbon and nutrient turnover rates; however, no general or predictable pattern has emerged. Proposed mechanisms for diversity effects need confirmation and a link to functional traits for a comprehensive understanding of how biodiversity interacts with decomposition processes and the consequences of ongoing biodiversity loss for ecosystem functioning.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.112904.151932
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    THE GENETICS AND EVOLUTION OF FLUCTUATING ASYMMETRY (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36 (2005), S. 1-21 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-592X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Variation in the subtle differences between right and left sides of bilateral characters, or fluctuating asymmetry (FA), has long been considered to be primarily environmental in origin, and this has promoted its use as a measure of developmental instability (DI) in populations. There is little evidence for specific genes that govern FA per se. Numerous studies show that FA levels in various characters are influenced by dominance and especially epistatic interactions among genes. An epistatic genetic basis for FA may complicate its primary use in comparisons of DI levels in outbred or wild populations subjected or not subjected to various environmental stressors. Although the heritability of FA typically is very low or zero, epistasis can generate additive genetic variation for FA that may allow it to evolve especially in populations subjected to bottlenecks, hybridizations, or periods of rapid environmental changes caused by various stresses.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.102003.152640
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    MEASUREMENT OF INTERACTION STRENGTH IN NATURE (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36 (2005), S. 419-444 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-592X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Understanding and predicting the dynamics of multispecies systems generally require estimates of interaction strength among species. Measuring interaction strength is difficult because of the large number of interactions in any natural system, long-term feedback, multiple pathways of effects between species pairs, and possible nonlinearities in interaction-strength functions. Presently, the few studies that extensively estimate interaction strength suggest that distributions of interaction strength tend to be skewed toward few strong and many weak interactions. Modeling studies indicate that such skewed patterns tend to promote system stability and arise during assembly of persistent communities. Methods for estimating interaction strength efficiently from traits of organisms, such as allometric relationships, show some promise. Methods for estimating community response to environmental perturbations without an estimate of interaction strength may also be of use. Spatial and temporal scale may affect patterns of interaction strength, but these effects require further investigation and new multispecies modeling frameworks. Future progress will be aided by development of long-term multispecies time series of natural communities, by experimental tests of different methods for estimating interaction strength, and by increased understanding of nonlinear functional forms.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.091704.175535
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    MECHANISMS OF APOPTOSIS THROUGH STRUCTURAL BIOLOGY (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 21 (2005), S. 35-56 
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    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Apoptosis plays a central role in the development and homeostasis of metazoans. Research in the past two decades has led to the identification of hundreds of genes that govern the initiation, execution, and regulation of apoptosis. An earlier focus on the genetic and cell biological characterization has now been complemented by systematic biochemical and structural investigation, giving rise to an unprecedented level of clarity in many aspects of apoptosis. In this review, we focus on the molecular mechanisms of apoptosis by synthesizing available biochemical and structural information. We discuss the mechanisms of ligand binding to death receptors, actions of the Bcl-2 family of proteins, and caspase activation, inhibition, and removal of inhibition. Although an emphasis is given to the mammalian pathways, a comparative analysis is applied to related mechanistic information in Drosophila and Caenorhabditis elegans.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.21.012704.131040
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    INDIRECT INTERACTION WEBS: Herbivore-Induced Effects Through Trait Change in Plants (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics 36 (2005), S. 81-105 
    Details
    ISSN: 1543-592X
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Although predation has a lethal effect on prey, mature terrestrial plants are rarely killed by herbivores, but herbivory can change plant allelochemistry, cell structure and growth, physiology, morphology, and phenology. This review explores the herbivore-induced indirect effects mediated by such plant responses following herbivory in terrestrial systems. Herbivore-induced indirect effects are ubiquitous in many plantĐ??herbivore systems, and indirect interactions occur among temporally separated, spatially separated, and taxonomically distinct herbivore species. Unlike interspecific competition, herbivores can benefit each other through plant-mediated indirect effects. Herbivore-induced changes in plants occur at low levels of herbivory, which increases the likelihood of plant-mediated indirect interactions between herbivores. The herbivore-induced indirect effects result in interaction linkages, which alter species richness and abundance in arthropod communities. Such interaction linkages should be depicted using indirect interaction webs, which incorporate nontrophic, indirect links. The idea of interaction linkages by herbivore-induced indirect effects that shape community organization and biodiversity is an important revision of the traditional view of plant-based terrestrial food webs.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.36.091704.175523
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    SPECIFICITY AND VERSATILITY IN TGF-?‚ SIGNALING THROUGH SMADS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 21 (2005), S. 659-693 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: The TGF-?‚ family comprises many structurally related differentiation factors that act through a heteromeric receptor complex at the cell surface and an intracellular signal transducing Smad complex. The receptor complex consists of two type II and two type I transmembrane serine/threonine kinases. Upon phosphorylation by the receptors, Smad complexes translocate into the nucleus, where they cooperate with sequence-specific transcription factors to regulate gene expression. The vertebrate genome encodes many ligands, fewer type II and type I receptors, and only a few Smads. In contrast to the perceived simplicity of the signal transduction mechanism with few Smads, the cellular responses to TGF-?‚ ligands are complex and context dependent. This raises the question of how the specificity of the ligand-induced signaling is achieved. We review the molecular basis for the specificity and versatility of signaling by the many ligands through this conceptually simple signal transduction mechanism.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.21.022404.142018
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    CENTROSOMES IN CELLULAR REGULATION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology 21 (2005), S. 411-434 
    Details
    ISSN: 1081-0706
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology , Medicine
    Notes: Centrosomes, spindle pole bodies, and related structures in other organisms are a morphologically diverse group of organelles that share a common ability to nucleate and organize microtubules and are thus referred to as microtubule organizing centers or MTOCs. Features associated with MTOCs include organization of mitotic spindles, formation of primary cilia, progression through cytokinesis, and self-duplication once per cell cycle. Centrosomes bind more than 100 regulatory proteins, whose identities suggest roles in a multitude of cellular functions. In fact, recent work has shown that MTOCs are required for several regulatory functions including cell cycle transitions, cellular responses to stress, and organization of signal transduction pathways. These new liaisons between MTOCs and cellular regulation are the focus of this review. Elucidation of these and other previously unappreciated centrosome functions promises to yield exciting scientific discovery for some time to come.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.cellbio.21.122303.120418
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    NONTEMPLATE-DEPENDENT POLYMERIZATION PROCESSES: Polyhydroxyalkanoate Synthases as a Paradigm 1 (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Biochemistry 74 (2005), S. 433-480 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4154
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Chemistry and Pharmacology , Biology
    Notes: This review focuses on nontemplate-dependent polymerases that use water-soluble substrates and convert them into water-insoluble polymers that form granules or inclusions within the cell. The initial part of the review summarizes briefly the current knowledge of polymer formation catalyzed by starch and glycogen synthases, polyphosphate kinase (a polymerase), cyanophycin synthetases, and rubber synthases. Specifically, our current understanding of their mechanisms of initiation, elongation (including granule formation), termination, remodeling, and polymer reutilization will be presented. General underlying principles that govern these types of polymerization reactions will be enumerated as a paradigm for all nontemplate-dependent polymerizations. The bulk of the review then focuses on polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA) synthases that generate polyoxoesters. These enzymes are of interest as they generate biodegradable polymers. Our current knowledge of PHA production and utilization in vitro and in vivo as well as the contribution of many proteins to these processes will be reviewed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.biochem.74.082803.133013
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    BIOLOGY AND MANAGEMENT OF INSECT PESTS IN NORTH AMERICAN INTENSIVELY MANAGED HARDWOOD FOREST SYSTEMS * , 1 (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 50 (2005), S. 1-29 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Đ?“ Abstract?? Increasing demand for wood and wood products is putting stress on traditional forest production areas, leading to long-term economic and environmental concerns. Intensively managed hardwood forest systems (IMHFS), grown using conventional agricultural as well as forestry methods, can help alleviate potential problems in natural forest production areas. Although IMHFS can produce more biomass per hectare per year than natural forests, the ecologically simplified, monocultural systems may greatly increase the crop's susceptibility to pests. Species in the genera Populus and Salix comprise the greatest acreage in IMHFS in North America, but other species, including Liquidambar styraciflua and Platanus occidentalis, are also important. We discuss life histories, realized and potential damage, and management options for the most economically influential pests that affect these hardwood species. The substantial inherent challenges associated with pest management in the monocultural environments created by IMHFS are reviewed. Finally, we discuss ways to design IMHFS that may reduce their susceptibility to pests, increase their growth and productivity potential, and create a more sustainable environment.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130431
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    FECAL RESIDUES OF VETERINARY PARASITICIDES: Nontarget Effects in the Pasture Environment (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 50 (2005), S. 153-179 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Đ?“ Abstract?? Residues of veterinary parasiticides in dung of treated livestock have nontarget effects on dung-breeding insects and dung degradation. Here, we review the nature and extent of these effects, examine the potential risks associated with different classes of chemicals, and describe how greater awareness of these nontarget effects has resulted in regulatory changes in the registration of veterinary products.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130341
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    TSETSE GENETICS: Contributions to Biology, Systematics, and Control of Tsetse Flies (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 50 (2005), S. 101-123 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Tsetse flies (Diptera: Glossinidae) constitute a small, ancient taxon of exclusively hematophagous insects that reproduce slowly and viviparously. Because tsetse flies are the only vectors of pathogenic African trypanosomes, they are a potent and constant threat to humans and livestock over much of sub-Saharan Africa. Despite their low fecundity, tsetse flies demonstrate great resilience, which makes population suppression expensive, transient, and beyond the capacities of private and public sectors to accomplish, except over small areas. Nevertheless, control measures that include genetic methods are under consideration at national and supranational levels. There is a pressing need for sufficient laboratory cultures of tsetse flies and financial support to carry out genetic research. Here we review tsetse genetics from organismal and population points of view and identify some research needs.
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    CHEMICAL ECOLOGY OF LOCUSTS AND RELATED ACRIDIDS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 50 (2005), S. 223-245 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Đ?“ Abstract?? The results and insights from recent research on the chemical ecology of polymorphic acridids are reviewed. Many of the new findings come from studies on the desert locust, Schistocerca gregaria, which has continued to be the primary research insect in most laboratories. Earlier confusion between stimuli associated with phase change and social cohesion has been resolved. The roles of chemotactile and olfactory cues together with tactile and visual stimuli in key locust processes, comprising gregarization, social cohesion, synchronous maturation, mating, oviposition, and maternal transfer of gregarious character, are better understood. Some of the key pheromones of the gregarious phase have been characterized. Chemical communication is also shown to be important in the life style of the solitarious phase. The behavioral pattern and responses of this phase reflect a strong propensity of the species to exploit opportunities under appropriate conditions to form or join the crowd and to gregarize. Outstanding questions are highlighted.
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    FOLSOMIA CANDIDA (COLLEMBOLA): A "Standard" Soil Arthropod * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 50 (2005), S. 201-222 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Đ?“ Abstract?? Folsomia candida Willem 1902, a member of the order Collembola (colloquially called springtails), is a common and widespread arthropod that occurs in soils throughout the world. The species is parthenogenetic and is easy to maintain in the laboratory on a diet of granulated dry yeast. F. candida has been used as a "standard" test organism for more than 40 years for estimating the effects of pesticides and environmental pollutants on nontarget soil arthropods. However, it has also been employed as a model for the investigation of numerous other phenomena such as cold tolerance, quality as a prey item, and effects of microarthropod grazing on pathogenic fungi and mycorrhizae of plant roots. In this comprehensive review, aspects of the life history, ecology, and ecotoxicology of F. candida are covered. We focus on the recent literature, especially studies that have examined the effects of soil pollutants on reproduction in F. candida using the protocol published by the International Standards Organization in 1999.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130331
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    ECOLOGICAL, BEHAVIORAL, AND BIOCHEMICAL ASPECTS OF INSECT HYDROCARBONS * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 50 (2005), S. 371-393 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Đ?“ Abstract?? This review covers selected literature from 1982 to the present on some of the ecological, behavioral, and biochemical aspects of hydrocarbon use by insects and other arthropods. Major ecological and behavioral topics are species- and gender-recognition, nestmate recognition, task-specific cues, dominance and fertility cues, chemical mimicry, and primer pheromones. Major biochemical topics include chain length regulation, mechanism of hydrocarbon formation, timing of hydrocarbon synthesis and transport, and biosynthesis of volatile hydrocarbon pheromones of Lepidoptera and Coleoptera. In addition, a section is devoted to future research needs in this rapidly growing area of science.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130359
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    TYRAMINE AND OCTOPAMINE: Ruling Behavior and Metabolism (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 50 (2005), S. 447-477 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Đ?“ Abstract?? Octopamine (OA) and tyramine (TA) are the invertebrate counterparts of the vertebrate adrenergic transmitters. They are decarboxylation products of the amino acid tyrosine, with TA as the biological precursor of OA. Nevertheless, both compounds are independent neurotransmitters that act through G proteinĐ??coupled receptors. OA modulates a plethora of behaviors and peripheral and sense organs, enabling the insect to respond correctly to external stimuli. Because these two phenolamines are the only biogenic amines whose physiological significance is presumably restricted to invertebrates, pharmacologists have focused their attention on the corresponding receptors, which are still believed to represent promising targets for new insecticides. Recent progress made on all levels of OA and TA research has enabled researchers to understand better the molecular events underlying the control of complex behaviors.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130404
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    SYSTEMATICS, EVOLUTION, AND BIOLOGY OF SCELIONID AND PLATYGASTRID WASPS (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 50 (2005), S. 553-582 
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    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Đ?“ Abstract?? The Platygastroidea comprises two families of parasitoids, Scelionidae and Platygastridae, and nearly 4500 described species. They parasitize a diverse array of insects as well as spiders. Idiobiont endoparasitism of eggs is the putative ground plan biology, as reflected by all scelionids, but most Platygastridae are koinobiont endoparasitoids of immature Auchenorrhyncha, Sternorrhyncha, and Cecidomyiidae. The superfamily is demonstrably monophyletic but its phylogenetic position remains uncertain. Relationships within the Platygastroidea are also poorly known and the group is in need of comprehensive phylogenetic study. Significant information is available on host relationships and biology, although much of this is biased to a few genera of Telenominae that are employed as biocontrol agents. Hosts for many genera are unknown, in particular those that inhabit leaf litter or parasitize solitary host eggs. The Trissolcus basalisĐ??Nezara viridula parasitoid-host association has become a favored model system in ecological, behavioral, and physiological research on insects.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.50.071803.130500
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    INSECT ODOR AND TASTE RECEPTORS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 51 (2006), S. 113-135 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Insect odor and taste receptors are highly sensitive detectors of food, mates, and oviposition sites. Following the identification of the first insect odor and taste receptors in Drosophila melanogaster, these receptors were identified in a number of other insects, including the malaria vector mosquito Anopheles gambiae; the silk moth, Bombyx mori; and the tobacco budworm, Heliothis virescens. The chemical specificities of many of the D. melanogaster receptors, as well as a few of the A. gambiae and B. mori receptors, have now been determined either by analysis of deletion mutants or by ectopic expression in in vivo or heterologous expression systems. Here we discuss recent advances in our understanding of the molecular and cellular basis of odor and taste coding in insects.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.051705.113646
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    BIZARRE INTERACTIONS AND ENDGAMES: Entomopathogenic Fungi and Their Arthropod Hosts (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 51 (2006), S. 331-357 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Invertebrate pathogens and their hosts are taxonomically diverse. Despite this, there is one unifying concept relevant to all such parasitic associations: Both pathogen and host adapt to maximize their own reproductive output and ultimate fitness. The strategies adopted by pathogens and hosts to achieve this goal are almost as diverse as the organisms themselves, but studies examining such relationships have traditionally concentrated only on aspects of host physiology. Here we review examples of host-altered behavior and consider these within a broad ecological and evolutionary context. Research on pathogen-induced and host-mediated behavioral changes demonstrates the range of altered behaviors exhibited by invertebrates including behaviorally induced fever, elevation seeking, reduced or increased activity, reduced response to semiochemicals, and changes in reproductive behavior. These interactions are sometimes quite bizarre, intricate, and of great scientific interest.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.150941
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    SIGNALING AND FUNCTION OF INSULIN-LIKE PEPTIDES IN INSECTS (2006)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Entomology 51 (2006), S. 1-24 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4170
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Biology
    Notes: Insulin-like peptides (ILPs) exist in insects and are encoded by multigene families that are expressed in the brain and other tissues. Upon secretion, these peptides likely serve as hormones, neurotransmitters, and growth factors, but to date, few direct functions have been demonstrated. In Drosophila melanogaster, molecular genetic studies have revealed elements of a conserved insulin signaling pathway, and as in other animal models, it appears to play a key role in metabolism, growth, reproduction, and aging. This review offers (a) an integrated summary of the efforts to characterize the distribution of ILPs in insects and to define this pathway and its functions in Drosophila and (b) a few considerations for future studies of ILP endocrinology in insects.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.ento.51.110104.151011
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    BEING AT THE RIGHT PLACE, AT THE RIGHT TIME, FOR THE RIGHT REASONSĐ??PLANT PATHOLOGY (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 1-24 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: This article relates some personal history and influences leading to becoming a plant pathologist. Next a summary of my research experiences on rice and barley diseases and the effect of regulatory changes on efforts to manage rice diseases in California. I conclude with an invitation to consider the opportunities and obligations of plant pathologists to return to the field and for individual introspection regarding attitudes and behavior toward colleagues and factors affecting our profession.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.140209
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    PLANT DISEASE: A Threat to Global Food Security (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 83-116 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: A vast number of plant pathogens from viroids of a few hundred nucleotides to higher plants cause diseases in our crops. Their effects range from mild symptoms to catastrophes in which large areas planted to food crops are destroyed. Catastrophic plant disease exacerbates the current deficit of food supply in which at least 800 million people are inadequately fed. Plant pathogens are difficult to control because their populations are variable in time, space, and genotype. Most insidiously, they evolve, often overcoming the resistance that may have been the hard-won achievement of the plant breeder. In order to combat the losses they cause, it is necessary to define the problem and seek remedies. At the biological level, the requirements are for the speedy and accurate identification of the causal organism, accurate estimates of the severity of disease and its effect on yield, and identification of its virulence mechanisms. Disease may then be minimized by the reduction of the pathogen's inoculum, inhibition of its virulence mechanisms, and promotion of genetic diversity in the crop. Conventional plant breeding for resistance has an important role to play that can now be facilitated by marker-assisted selection. There is also a role for transgenic modification with genes that confer resistance. At the political level, there is a need to acknowledge that plant diseases threaten our food supplies and to devote adequate resources to their control.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.113004.133839
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    PLANT PATHOLOGY AND RNAi: A Brief History (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 191-204 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: This article describes the discovery of RNA-activated sequence-specific RNA degradation, a phenomenon now referred to as RNA silencing or RNA interference (RNAi). From 1992 to 1996, a series of articles were published on virus resistant transgenic plants expressing either translatable or nontranslatable versions of the coat protein gene of Tobacco etch virus (TEV). Certain transgenic plant lines were resistant to TEV but not to closely related viruses. In these plants a surprising correlation was observed: Transgenic plant lines with the highest degree of TEV resistance had actively transcribed transgenes but low steady-state levels of transgene RNA. Molecular analysis of these transgenic plants demonstrated the existence of a cellular-based, sequence-specific, posttranscriptional RNA-degradation system that was programmed by the transgene-encoded RNA sequence. This RNA-degradation activity specifically targeted both the transgene RNA and TEV (viral) RNA for degradation and was the first description of RNA-mediated gene silencing.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.140228
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    MECHANISMS OF FUNGAL SPECIATION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Phytopathology 43 (2005), S. 279-308 
    Details
    ISSN: 0066-4286
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition , Biology
    Notes: The objective of this review is to provide a synthesis of speciation theory, of what is known about mechanisms of speciation in fungi and from this, what is expected, and of ideas on how speciation can be elucidated in more fungal systems. The emphasis is on process rather than pattern. Phylogeographic studies in some groups, such as the agarics, demonstrate predominantly allopatric speciation, often through vicariance, as seen in many plants and animals. The variety of life history factors in fungi suggests, however, a diversity in speciation mechanisms that is borne out in comparison of some key examples. Life history features in fungi with a bearing on speciation include genetic mechanisms for intra- and interspecies interactions, haploidy as monokaryons, dikaryons, or coenocytes, distinctive types of propagules with distinctive modes of dispersal, as well as characteristic relationships to the substrate or host as specialized or generalist saprotrophs, parasites or mutualists with associated opportunities and selective pressures for hybridization. Approaches are proposed for both retrospective, phylogeographic determination of speciation mechanisms, and experimental studies with the potential for genomic applications, particularly in examining the relationship between adaptation and reproductive isolation.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.phyto.43.040204.135958
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    LITTLE HIGGS THEORIES (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 55 (2005), S. 229-270 
    Details
    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Recently there has been renewed interest in the possibility that the Higgs particle of the Standard Model is a pseudo-Nambu-Goldstone boson. This development was spurred by the observation that if certain global symmetries are broken only by the interplay between two or more coupling constants, then the Higgs mass-squared is free from quadratic divergences at one loop. This collective symmetry breaking is the essential ingredient in little Higgs theories, which are weakly coupled extensions of the Standard Model with little or no fine tuning, describing physics up to an energy scale Đ♯10 TeV. Here we give a pedagogical introduction to little Higgs theories. We review their structure and phenomenology, focusing mainly on the SU(3) theory, the Minimal Moose, and the littlest Higgs as concrete examples.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.55.090704.151502
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    SMALL-?? PHYSICS: From HERA to LHC and Beyond (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 55 (2005), S. 403-465 
    Details
    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: We summarize the lessons learned from studies of hard scattering processes in high-energy electron-proton collisions at HERA and antiproton-proton collisions at the Tevatron, with the aim of predicting new strong interaction phenomena observable in next-generation experiments at the Large Hadron Collider (LHC). Processes reviewed include inclusive deep-inelastic scattering (DIS) at small x, exclusive and diffractive processes in DIS and hadron-hadron scattering, as well as color transparency and nuclear shadowing effects. A unified treatment of these processes is outlined on the basis of factorization theorems of quantum chromodynamics, and using the correspondence between the "parton" picture in the infinite-momentum frame and the "dipole" picture of high-energy processes in the target rest frame. The crucial role of the three dimensional quark and gluon structure of the nucleon is emphasized. A new dynamical effect predicted at high energies is the unitarity, or black disk, limit (BDL) in the interaction of small dipoles with hadronic matter, owing to the increase of the gluon density at small x. This effect is marginally visible in diffractive DIS at HERA and will lead to the complete disappearance of Bjorken scaling at higher energies. In hadron-hadron scattering at LHC energies and beyond (cosmic ray physics), the BDL will be a standard feature of the dynamics, with implications for (a) hadron production at forward and central rapidities in central proton-proton and proton-nucleus collisions, in particular events with heavy particle production (Higgs), (b) proton-proton elastic scattering, and (c) heavy-ion collisions. We also outline the possibilities for studies of diffractive processes and photon-induced reactions (ultraperipheral collisions) at LHC, as well as possible measurements with a future electron-ion collider.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.53.041002.110615
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    THE INSULIN RESISTANCE SYNDROME: Definition and Dietary Approaches to Treatment (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 391-406 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The ability of insulin to stimulate glucose disposal varies at least sixfold in apparently healthy individuals, and approximately one-third of the population that is most resistant to this action of insulin is at greatly increased risk to develop a number of adverse clinical outcomes. Type 2 diabetes occurs when insulin resistant individuals are unable to secrete enough insulin to compensate for the defect in insulin action, and this was the first clinical syndrome identified as being related to insulin resistance. Although the majority of insulin-resistant individuals are able to maintain the level of compensatory hyperinsulinemia needed to prevent the development of a significant degree of hyperglycemia, the combination of insulin resistance and hyperinsulinemia greatly increases the likelihood of developing a cluster of closely related abnormalities and the resultant clinical diagnoses that can be considered to make up the insulin resistance syndrome (IRS). Since being overweight/obese and sedentary decreases insulin sensitivity, it is not surprising that the prevalence of the manifestations of the IRS is increasing at a rapid rate. From a dietary standpoint, there are two approaches to attenuating the manifestations of the IRS: (a) weight loss to enhance insulin sensitivity in those overweight/obese individuals who are insulin resistant/hyperinsulinemic; and (b) changes in macronutrient content of diets to avoid the adverse effects of the compensatory hyperinsulinemia. This chapter will focus on defining the abnormalities and clinical syndromes that compose the IRS and evaluating the dietary changes that can ameliorate its adverse consequences.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132155
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    NUTRITIONAL CONTROL OF GENE EXPRESSION: How Mammalian Cells Respond to Amino Acid Limitation * (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 59-85 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The amino acid response (AAR) pathway in mammalian cells is designed to detect and respond to amino acid deficiency. Limiting any essential amino acid initiates this signaling cascade, which leads to increased translation of a "master regulator," activating transcription factor (ATF) 4, and ultimately, to regulation of many steps along the pathway of DNA to RNA to protein. These regulated events include chromatin remodeling, RNA splicing, nuclear RNA export, mRNA stabilization, and translational control. Proteins that are increased in their expression as targets of the AAR pathway include membrane transporters, transcription factors from the basic region/leucine zipper (bZIP) superfamily, growth factors, and metabolic enzymes. Significant progress has been achieved in understanding the molecular mechanisms by which amino acids control the synthesis and turnover of mRNA and protein. Beyond gaining additional knowledge of these important regulatory pathways, further characterization of how these processes contribute to the pathology of various disease states represents an interesting aspect of future research in molecular nutrition.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132145
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    VITAMIN E, OXIDATIVE STRESS, AND INFLAMMATION (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 151-174 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in the Western world. Its incidence has also been increasing lately in developing countries. Several lines of evidence support a role for oxidative stress and inflammation in atherogenesis. Oxidation of lipoproteins is a hallmark in atherosclerosis. Oxidized low-density lipoprotein induces inflammation as it induces adhesion and influx of monocytes and influences cytokine release by monocytes. A number of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-1?‚ (IL-1?‚), IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor-ʼ̛ (TNF-ʼ̛) modulate monocyte adhesion to endothelium. C-reactive protein (CRP), a prototypic marker of inflammation, is a risk marker for CVD and it could contribute to atherosclerosis. Hence, dietary micronutrients having anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties may have a potential beneficial effect with regard to cardiovascular disease. Vitamin E is a potent antioxidant with anti-inflammatory properties. Several lines of evidence suggest that among different forms of vitamin E, ʼ̛-tocopherol (AT) has potential beneficial effects with regard to cardiovascular disease. AT supplementation in human subjects and animal models has been shown to decrease lipid peroxidation, superoxide (O2 -) production by impairing the assembly of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (reduced form) oxidase as well as by decreasing the expression of scavenger receptors (SR-A and CD36), particularly important in the formation of foam cells. AT therapy, especially at high doses, has been shown to decrease the release of proinflammatory cytokines, the chemokine IL-8 and plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) levels as well as decrease adhesion of monocytes to endothelium. In addition, AT has been shown to decrease CRP levels, in patients with CVD and in those with risk factors for CVD. The mechanisms that account for nonantioxidant effects of AT include the inhibition of protein kinase C, 5-lipoxygenase, tyrosineĐ??kinase as well as cyclooxygenase-2. Based on its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities, AT (at the appropriate dose and form) could have beneficial effects on cardiovascular disease in a high-risk population.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132446
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    THE ROLE OF ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS IN DEVELOPMENT (2005)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nutrition 25 (2005), S. 549-571 
    Details
    ISSN: 0199-9885
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Agriculture, Forestry, Horticulture, Fishery, Domestic Science, Nutrition
    Notes: The presence of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (ARA) in human milk but not in infant formula, coupled with lower plasma and brain lipid contents of DHA in formula-fed than in breast-fed infants and reports of higher IQ in individuals who were breast-fed versus formula-fed as infants, suggest that exogenous DHA (and ARA) may be essential for optimal development. Thus, since 1990, several studies have examined the impact of formulas containing DHA or DHA plus ARA on visual function and neurodevelopmental outcome. Some of these studies have shown benefits but others have not. These results leave largely unanswered the question of whether these fatty acids are beneficial for either the term or preterm infant. However, evidence that preterm infants might benefit is somewhat more convincing than that for term infants. Despite the limited evidence for efficacy, formulas supplemented with DHA and ARA are now available and appear to be safe.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nutr.24.012003.132254
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