ALBERT

Notes: Purpose - Construction labour productivity is of great interest to practitioners and researchers because it affects project cost and time overrun. This paper evaluates and ranks the importance, frequency and severity of project delay factors that affect the construction labour productivity for Malaysian residential projects. Design/methodology/approach - A total of 100 respondents consisting of 70 contractors, 11 developers and 19 consultants participated in this study. The respondents were asked to indicate how important each item of a list of 50 project related factors was to construction labour productivity. The data were then subjected to the calculation of importat indices which enabled the factors to be ranked. Findings - The five most important factors identified by them were: material shortage at site; non-payment to suppliers causing the stoppage of material delivery to site; change order by consultants; late issuance of construction drawing by consultants; and incapability of contractors' site management to organise site activities. On the other hand, the five most frequent factors were: material shortage at project site; non-payment to suppliers causing the stoppage of material delivery to site; late issuance of progress payment by the client to main contractor; lack of foreign and local workers in the market; and coordination problem between the main contractor and subcontractor. Originality/value - The inferences drawn from this study could be used by the project managers to take account of these factors at an early stage, hence minimising the time and cost overrun.

Notes: Purpose - The conservation management plan (CMP) for a heritage building establishes the nature of the work required to conserve, maintain and enhance the cultural heritage significance of the property. A missing element from many CMPs has been a realistic consideration of the cost of the work at this early stage. The paper aims to show how cost planning of works in a heritage building's conservation environment can be achieved. Design/methodology/approach - A background to the structure and preparation of CMPs from the literature in Australia and the UK is presented. Experience gained from the costing and budgeting in the CMP for several heritage projects in Australia and the process, are both described, summarised and discussed. Findings - The CMP provides a comprehensive working management guide for owners and other stakeholders to follow when carrying out works to the heritage property and includes components such as current condition, legal responsibilities and statutory obligations, sequencing and timing of proposed actions. The addition of significant financial information such as maintenance programmes, funding sources, long and short term costs, financial resources of owner, technical constraints, current owners needs and requirements and conflict resolution provides the possibility of making the CMP a more valuable document to the funding agencies and the building's users. Practical implications - Heritage clients and users increasingly need to know their likely financial commitment before work commences. This early stage cost advice (indicative costs) integrated into CMPs can establish realistic budgets for decision making. Originality/value - The addition of the cost of the works as proposed in a CMP can support client and community groups in making requests for funding from the various government and private agencies with an interest in, or responsibility for, the future care and use of these properties.

Notes: Purpose - There have been very few cost-and-benefit evaluations of rehabilitation. This paper is a triangulation attempt to evaluate directly the cost-and-benefit of rehabilitation works without relying on price-proxy and econometric assumptions. Design/methodology/approach - Chau et al., in their paper, "Estimating the value enhancement effects of refurbishment" (Facilities, Vol. 21 No. 1/2, 2003) have produced an empirical test by regression on the elevation of property price-differential after rehabilitation. However, property price is merely a proxy on the improvements of building conditions, and its efficiency in reflecting building quality is subject to some institutional constraints. The estimation is also subject to the validity of econometric assumptions. This paper investigates the improvements directly under 18 assessment criteria of the quality of seven housing blocks in Hong Kong. Findings - The results show that rehabilitation brings benefits to owners, but that these only marginally outweigh the benefits of redevelopment. Research limitations/implications - The sample size is small, yet it opens up a new framework for future studies on building performance assessment of rehabilitation. Practical implications - The study serves as a benchmark for future assessment of rehabilitation works. Originality/value - The study represents an attempt to evaluate the costs and benefits of rehabilitation using a direct performance assessment approach.

Notes: Purpose - To summarise research undertaken by the BRE into the identification and condition assessment, of non-traditional housing. During the 1980s, defects were discovered in the design and construction of a number of house types designed and built before 1960 and these were subsequently designated as inherently defective under the Housing Defects legislation. Design/methodology/approach - The research involved several years of investigation during which many different types of pre-cast concrete, in situ-concrete, steel- and timber-framed housing systems were investigated. This research has culminated in the publication of a major new book and CDROM. Findings - Overall the majority of non-traditional dwellings have provided levels of performance not very different from many traditionally built dwellings of the same age. However, there are inherent defects with several systems. Some dwellings may be beyond economic repair. Practical implications - The surveyor needs to be aware of the system of non-traditional dwelling under inspection and to understand the likely defects and necessary remedial work. Originality/value - This research will inform surveyors and home inspectors of the identification of non-traditional dwellings, modes of failure of various systems, whether economic repair is possible and what remedial action should be proposed.

Notes: Purpose - Seeks to examine the bond strength of a large range of structural polypropylene fibres, as used in concrete, to determine the most effective fibre capable of transmitting load (N/mm2) between fibre and cement within the concrete matrix. Design/methodology/approach - Following fibre selection characterised by the highest bond strength, determined from a series of pull out tests, BS flexural tests were carried out using high bond strength fibres (40?mm?×?0.9?mm diameter used at 6?kg/m3) to determine whether or not structural polypropylene fibres had any effect on the ultimate flexural strength of fibre-reinforced concrete, when compared with the plain control sample. Fibre orientation, type of rupture failure mode and post-crack performance were examined. Findings - Even structural fibre dispersion was found to be best achieved with the use of monofilament polypropylene fibres (19?mm?×?22 micron used at 0.9?×?kg/m3) in addition to the 6?kg/m3 structural fibre dose. Structural polypropylene fibres were found not to provide additional flexural strength however, they did provide post-crack control, limiting the crack width with subsequent enhanced durability that in turn will provide lower life cycle costs. Practical implications - In addition to increased durability the use of fibre reinforcement negates the need to place steel reinforcement bars. Originality/value - Investigates the ambiguity in literature between claims made by different investigators regarding the effects of polypropylene fibres on compressive and flexural strengths.

Notes: Purpose - Cracks in the roof parapet wall and damage to the waterproofing membrane are the common defects of roof construction that require frequent maintenance. This paper seeks to review the common defects of roof construction of medium-rise buildings in sub-tropical climates. Design/methodology/approach - The research reported was carried out by the survey and analysis of 20 case study buildings. The modes of rooftop parapet wall dislocation are studied and the effects of thermal expansion and end conditions of the parapet wall on the damage to the waterproofing membrane are analysed. Findings - Parapet wall dislocation failure is dependent on whether the ends are hinged or fixed. Failure usually leads to tearing of the waterproofing membrane. Practical implications - Modification to the roof parapet wall design and to the selection of construction materials is suggested. Originality/value - The modes of failure and proposed modification will be of interest to designers and those responsible for the maintenance of flat-roofed buildings in sub-tropical climates.

Notes: Purpose - The paper examines the origins of the so-called "grumble point" (a sky factor of 0.2 per cent) as the measure of daylight adequacy in rights to light disputes. It seeks to identify the rationale, and underlying scientific basis, for the adoption of this standard in the early twentieth century. Design/methodology/approach - Analysis of archive materials. Findings - The use of the 0.2 per cent standard does not appear to be based on empirical investigations involving human perceptions of adequate light. No evidence exists of the investigations reputedly undertaken by Percy Waldram during the early twentieth century. Waldram's own writings suggest that the standard began as a "rule of thumb" and was only later justified by reference to other independent reports. These generally do not support the use of the standard and, in any event, were soon superseded by other reports that concluded that it was too low. There is a lack of reliable evidence to justify the original adoption of the 0.2 per cent figure, and many of the assumptions underpinning modern rights to light practice are found to be based on inaccurate information. Research limitations/implications - Continues the debate, started in this journal in 2000, about the future of surveying practice in rights to light disputes. Practical implications - Places new information in the public domain which has implications for the professional liability of surveyors advising clients in rights to light cases. Originality/value - Presents the first investigation into the original scientific basis for modern rights to light practice since its introduction in the early part of the twentieth century.

Notes: Purpose - The drive for intelligent buildings continues unabated. An intelligent building (IB) is one that provides a responsive and supportive environment within which an organisation can attain a range of objectives, i.e. a building within which the building fabric, space, services and information systems can respond efficiently to the initial and changing demands of the owner, the occupier and the broader environment. This responsiveness requires the ability to collect data and initiate processes which effect changes. Application of radio frequency identification devices (RFID) to the components and processes undertaken within the building allows enhanced data management and process manipulation. The purpose of this paper is to outline how buildings and their management are being changed by the adoption of RFID. Design/methodology/approach - This paper discusses the characteristics of RFIDs and their application in one specific function: the evacuation of a building during a fire. The potential for RFIDs to aid surveyors/facilities managers in many facets of their working life is also highlighted, and a number of additional application areas are discussed in general terms with their impact reviewed in terms of responsiveness and support to the occupants. Findings - The core area of providing a responsive and supportive environment is where RFID begins to truly deliver on the drive for an IB. The range and size of the devices and their capabilities renders them suitable for inclusion within the basic building materials and components and also the processes that drive provision of the built environment. Originality/value - Discusses the possible applications of this new technology.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of the project was to develop a framework document and input tool for use in local government to enable quantity surveyors and others with enough knowledge to produce a life cycle costing analysis with the minimum of effort. The general perception in the surveying profession of the complex formulae associated with whole life costing (WLC) has led to it being described by local government as "a nebulous concept that falls on deaf ears". This paper seeks to describe research to develop a user-friendly approach using a generic software input tool accompanied by a framework document designed specially to assist in WLC analyses. An explanation of the mathematical formulae used is also given. Design/methodology/approach - The research project was commissioned by the Society of Construction Quantity Surveyors (SCQS) in mid-2004 and to date has involved the development of a framework document and WLC input tool which has been tested by local government. The project is in the final stages of completion and training on WLC and use of the developed input tool has commenced. Findings - The feedback from use of the developed tool by local government quantity surveyors has been positive and the benefits of using such a tool are evident amongst the surveying profession. Practical implications - The researchers have had to overcome a number of challenges to ensure the effective running of the tool to the satisfaction of the prospective users - quantity surveyors in local government. Originality/value - A framework document and software tool have been specifically developed for use by quantity surveyors in UK local government.

Notes: Purpose - This paper provides a comprehensive review of the literature concerning the various causes of failures of external wall tile finishes. Design/methodology/approach - A 4×3 matrix hierarchy framework is developed for a systematic analysis of the literature reviewed. Findings - The findings from this paper indicate the importance of environmental effects, movement joints, and adhesive on the performance of external wall tile finishes. Thermal and moisture effects induce movement of tiles, and the failure of the tiling system depends very much on the adhesive strength and the provision of movement joints. Workmanship is also a key factor affecting the performance of external wall tile finishes and should not be overlooked. Research limitations/implications - Various studies have been carried out on the causes of defects in external finishes in the past. However, many of them were case-oriented and were not supported by laboratory findings. The hierarchical framework developed in this paper serves as a basis for further laboratory and field studies on this issue. Practical implications - The framework is conducive to the diagnosis of external wall tile delamination. Originality/value - This paper reviews systematically and comprehensively the literature on the causes of external wall tile delamination.

Notes: Purpose - An investigation of the importance of the knowledge of the key individuals in organisations, knowledge within organisations as well as customer capital and knowledge; and how these might impact on sustainable competitive advantage of small and medium sized enterprises. The key challenges for knowledge-intensive SMEs are the identification, capture, storing, mapping, dissemination and creation of knowledge from different perspectives and for different purposes. Design/methodology/approach - Based on a thorough review of literature and field study, this paper presents and discusses the benefits of knowledge management (KM) for sustainable competitiveness in SMEs in surveying practices. A field study was conducted, involving 12 professionals from eleven organisations, of which 2 of the 11 organisations were surveying practices. Findings - The paper highlights the role of strategies, tools and techniques which might be of assistance. The paper concludes that managing knowledge assets in SME is not easy. It is an integrated and complex social process, which has culture, people, finance, technology and organisational structures at its core. The paper also notes that SMEs can benefit from effective KM practices for sustainable competitiveness. Research limitations/implications - Recommendations are offered to surveying practices that are already involved with formal KM initiatives and those SMEs that aspire to do so. Originality/value - An innovative study applying knowledge management principles to small and medium sized surveying practices.

Notes: Purpose - This paper describes an introduction to a simple modelling tool for designers of environmentally sensitive buildings. Design/methodology/approach - The theoretical basis of the program is explained with examples given of typical program output. Findings - The package can be used as an environmental simulator of a building's energy consumption and energy-related carbon dioxide emissions. It is specifically designed to help meet the more stringent requirements of the Building Regulations for Fuel and Power L2 Approved Document, April 2002. Practical implications - The designer can explore building size, shape, fenestration, orientation and fabric thermal properties to minimise a buildings' environmental effect. Aspects of heating, lighting, and natural and mechanical ventilation with heat recovery systems can also be investigated. The spreadsheet is best used to check that buildings will comply with the regulations or used as an early design aid rather than a detailed design simulator of building performance. The program should therefore be of particular interest to architects, building surveyors and building control officers rather than building service engineers. Originality/value - Describes an innovative approach to thermal design.

Notes: Purpose - Implementation of the concept of passive solar heating design in dwellings has the potential to reduce energy consumption and reduce carbon emissions at little or no cost to the developer but with real benefit to the occupier. The aim of this paper is to investigate the possible benefits to be gained by the application of passive solar heating concepts to the orientation and fenestration of domestic buildings. Design/methodology/approach - The approach used has been to select a simple domestic building designed to current building regulations and apply to it modifications which embody the principles of passive solar heating design. The anticipated performance of the modified building has then been compared with that of its counterpart of conventional configuration by application of a number of currently available simulation models. This study forms part of the Department of Trade and Industry sponsored Knowledge Transfer Partnership between Coventry University and Kenneth Holmes Associates, Chartered Architects. Findings - It is predicted that by careful selection of orientation of a domestic building and modification of its layout, in order that glazing is strategically located, it is possible to effect significant improvements in energy consumption. There is some variation in the output of the alternative techniques but they present a common overall result. Research implications/limitations - The solutions are purely predictive and it would be of great value if the outcomes could be evaluated by medium term measurement of the performance of dwellings constructed to the proposed design principles. Practical implications - The concept under analysis could, at little or no cost, result in reduced energy demand in domestic buildings. In the current environmental climate, even modest improvements should be of considerable interest to designers and developers. Originality/value - Draws upon alternative approaches to passive solar heating design in dwellings and reaches conclusions based on the application of these different approaches to a real live case study.

Notes: Purpose - The Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors (RICS) has implemented a policy to expand its influence around the world. Quantity or construction surveyors had an established presence and history of working overseas, offering their services particularly in the Middle- and Far-East. Property surveyors found the transition to working in European Union (EU) countries relatively straightforward and numerous UK property consultancies have European, Asian, North American and Oceanic offices. Furthermore UK-based firms establishing partnerships with overseas real estate firms expanded significantly over the past decade. Building surveying (BS) is a different case. Small numbers work in commonwealth countries but it is limited and in many countries professional and academic qualifications are not recognised. This paper aims to consider the extent of the barriers and opportunities facing RICS chartered building surveyors (CBS) in Oceania (taken as Australia, New Zealand, Papua New Guinea and Fiji) and whether the gap is closing. Design/methodology/approach - A desktop study reviewed the political, economic and sociological issues that affect the employment opportunities and professional services CBS offer throughout the world. Six opportunities and ten barriers were put to the RICS Oceania Building Surveying Faculty to ascertain their perceptions of these barriers and opportunities. No previous study had identified barriers and opportunities in Oceania for the BS and this research adopted a census survey of RICS practitioners currently employed in the region and the results form the most comprehensive picture of the current position. Findings - Many respondents felt that stronger links and/or mergers with the different Oceania professional property and surveying bodies would open a large field of opportunities to the CBS. Some provided comments on future business opportunities, for example "leaky buildings", "dilapidations/'make good' work", and seemed to be in general agreement that, as businesses came to know the benefits of protecting themselves from rogue tenants (and landlords) by using the services of a CBS, then opportunities would continue to rise. The principal barrier is communicating those skills and the value they add. Research limitations/implications - The limitations that affected this research were time constraints and communicating with surveyors in Oceania, to whom the authors were not permitted direct access. The research methodology methods were, with hindsight, not ideal for the type and range of data that the researchers sought. Originality/value - The research will be of use to building surveyors and providers of building-surveying education in Oceania.

Notes: Purpose - Building maintenance is not sexy - yet it is big business, arguably more than new-build. It is under-researched. Received wisdom from the 1960s and 1970s is that reactive maintenance is undesirable; planned preventive maintenance (PPM) is "the answer". That paradigm fails to put people at the centre. Times have moved on. The thinking here challenges the public-sector "think big' command economy based approach, and aims to examine new ways ahead. The purpose of this paper is to summarise a range of new approaches and identify common threads. People are an organisation's greatest asset; the maintenance and enhancement of their working and living environments and their wellbeing deserve serious attention. Design/methodology/approach - The research is based on semi-structured interviews with maintenance and facility managers in organisations noted for their tendencies to innovate in their core business. The paper aims to assist maintenance and facility managers to review their building maintenance priorities in relation to user wants and needs. Findings - While the study is insufficient at this stage to support wholesale change in practice to any one new approach, a professional approach to the expenditure of considerable sums on building maintenance suggests that appropriate time should be spent in developing and evaluating alternative approaches. Originality/value - Calls for a complete re-think on the approach taken to maintenance.

Notes: Purpose - This is an initial attempt to classify natural roofing slate quality using the new European Standard BS EN 12326 and suggest how such classification may be employed to predict in-service performance and identify potentially problematic materials. Design/methodology/approach - A wide range of natural roofing slates has been subjected to the new standard testing regime and additional tests carried out. Experience of known in-service performance and previous test results have also been taken into consideration. Findings - An initial classification of natural roofing slate quality has been proposed with the flexural strength, water absorption, potential for oxidation and carbonate content considered to be the key components. Research limitations/implications - There is considerable scope for refinement of the proposed classification by investigating the performance of the wide range of other natural roofing slates available and taking the results into consideration. Predicted in-service performance is based on practical experience and can be considered only a general guide. Practical implications - By classifying natural roofing slate quality users will be able to make better informed purchasing decisions based on cost versus quality. Slate producers, especially those with higher quality slates, will also be able to market their materials accordingly with less chance of losing out to lower quality, potentially problematic materials that still conform to the new standard. Originality/value - The concept of a quality classification for natural roofing slate is not new, but this has been omitted during the creation of the new standard. The proposed classification is broader and probably better defined than those in existence elsewhere or previously used within the European Union member states.

Notes: Purpose - The aims of the study are to analyze the features of a socially self-contained society; to analyze the features of an environmentally sustainable society; and to generate a discussion on an indigenous approach towards the sustainable design of communities, particularly through the study of the round village for its unique form and performance in terms of sustainable construction. Design/methodology/approach - Researchers from an international group undertook a field study of a number of specimen round and square shape Hakka villages in December 2004. They discussed their preliminary findings with local academics regarding significant attributes for sustainable design principles, and summarized lessons by means of spatial and construction studies that inform contemporary urban designers' knowledge and practice of sustainability through indigenous architecture. Findings - Through reinterpretation of Feng-shui theory, various observations made were easily and naturally correlated to basic laws of sustainability. The biggest message that comes from Fujian round architecture is that a genuine practitioner of environmental and social sustainability relies on a simplicity of approach - a respect for nature. Research limitations/implications - The study is confined primarily to observations by a team of architects and engineers. Practical implications - Field study of vernacular architecture provides useful information and first-hand data for researchers on rammed earth structures. Originality/value - The study of rammed earth structures in remote areas of China, in both coastal and earthquake active zones, offers fresh insight into the integrity and ingenuity of early settlers in sustainable construction. The research provides preliminary findings regarding environmental and construction practice in age-old Hakka round houses.

Notes: Purpose - Since the earliest days of mankind, fire has been both a friend and a foe. Restaurant facilities, characterized by the use of fire in their daily activities, pose unique fire risks as large numbers of people may gather at one time to consume food. The objective of this paper is to present the development of a fire safety evaluation tool whereby existing restaurant facilities can be evaluated for the purpose of identifying and eliminating fire hazards, and meeting the minimum requirements of current legislation. Design/methodology/approach - The evaluation tool has been developed by synthesizing information collected from an extensive literature review, principally of North American and UK based literature. The authors found it necessary to review causes of fire accidents in restaurants, and the materials and equipment involved in ignition. The paper also reviews restaurant requirements for fire detection and notification systems, fire suppression and extinguishing systems, and means of egress and evacuation systems. Findings - The evaluation tool consists of 66 items to assess fire hazards, detection and notification systems, suppression and extinguishing systems, means of escape and management, and maintenance measures. Originality/value - The paper provides a practical focus for property and/or facility managers responsible for day-to-day business operations of restaurant facilities and for surveyors inspecting such properties.

Notes: Purpose - It is of major concern to the surveying profession that the seven years between 1994 and 2001 witnessed a decline in the numbers of UK student surveyors of nearly 50 per cent. This was significant, especially when considered in the context of rising student numbers overall. The RICS decided to implement an education policy with the aim of increasing graduate quality. Changes were introduced in UK universities from September 2001. A number of universities saw their professionally accredited courses withdrawn as the RICS imposed academic entry standards and research output based on the UK Government's Research Assessment Exercise (RAE) criteria on which to base their "partnership" relationships. Figures released by the RICS in 2003 indicated that surveying student numbers increased by 17 per cent in all areas except building surveying, where they fell by just under 25 per cent to 445 in 2001. The paper seeks to answer a number of questions. Why were building surveying courses failing to recruit students whereas other surveying courses have increased their numbers? If the figures continue to decline or remain at these low levels, what is the future for the BS? In short, could building surveying become an endangered profession? Design/methodology/approach - All UK university BS course leaders were approached by questionnaire and approximately half responded. The study was partly funded by the RICS Education Trust. Findings - The small amount of quantitative data collected suggests that recruitment is static at a time when other built environment courses are recruiting well. Course leaders expressed strong views about the impact of the education reforms. Research limitations/implications - Failure by some BS course leaders to provide some statistical data prevented completion of the quantitative part of the study. Originality/value - Key recommendations have been made to the BS Faculty Board of the RICS about the future of BS education.

Notes: Purpose - To explain the serious social problem of unauthorised building works (UBWs) in Hong Kong and why this problem is difficult to overcome. Design/methodology/approach - An institutional economics approach is adopted. This paper concentrates on the governance zone of the institutional arrangement. Findings - The current institutional arrangement in Hong Kong encourages owners to build UBWs, and makes the identification of UBWs very complicated. This paper concludes that the existing framework of governance fails to take into account the conflict of interests in collective goods. The no-retrospective-approval stipulation also renders a no-alternative solution. Research limitations/implications - It is a case study of Hong Kong, but it has research implications on institutional economics under the current arrangement of co-ownership. Practical implications - An important element in structural surveys is to ensure the structural safety of a building. An understanding on the governance of UBWs has serious implications for the structural survey approach. Originality/value - This paper is the first paper on exploring UBWs from an institutional economics framework.

Notes: Purpose - This paper aims to examine the role and purpose of condition surveys used by heritage organisations. Design/methodology/approach - The study is based on the analysis of questionnaires and interviews with a range of leading heritage organisations in the UK. Findings - The research suggests that the management of maintenance, and specifically the implementation of condition surveys, lacked an explicit underlying strategic basis. The strategic opportunities implied by the development of conservation planning methodologies had not been translated into management practice and had not impacted on the implementation of condition surveys. Practical implications - Further investigation into the organisational and process barriers to utilising conservation plans in developing integrated management of the built cultural heritage is needed. Originality/value - This paper will be of use to practitioners and academics interested in appropriate and sustainable maintenance and management of the built cultural heritage.

Notes: Purpose - To consider the recent decision by the Court of Appeal in the case of Hurst Stores v. M L Europe Property Ltd (2004) and the possible important implications for building surveyors and other construction professionals. Design/methodology/approach - A review of literature and case law. Possible developments in this area of law are considered. Findings - A person described as a "project manager" does not necessarily have authority to make legally binding agreements. Where a building surveyor is acting as a project manager, the extent of authority ought to be clarified, preferably in writing. Where a building surveyor is dealing or negotiating with a project manager, he/she cannot take it for granted that any agreement reached will be legally binding. Furthermore, as a consequence of the decision in the Court of Appeal, a document with the heading "Final Account" might not be a final account at all! Research implications - Increasingly, building surveyors are involved in adjudication, either as witnesses or as adjudicators. In the latter case, the building surveyor ought to be aware that as a result of this case, the probability of a legal challenge to an adjudicator's decision is greatly increased. Another consequence of cases such as Hurst means that building surveyors are more likely rather than less likely to be involved in adjudication if they are operating in the UK. Originality/value - Applies recent case law to the work of building surveyors.

Notes: Purpose - To explore the potential and weaknesses of aluminium building products in practice and to consider the material's competitiveness and sustainable performance. Design/methodology/approach - The characteristics of aluminium are reviewed and data is collected from architects and materials' suppliers. These two groups are chosen because they have most influence on the builder's decision and consequently on the selection of the building material. Findings - Standards addressing sustainability are currently being developed and will soon be obligatory for building and construction activities. These changes are also likely to have an impact on the conditions for competition.. Aluminium possesses high potential for sustainable building applications mainly due to its light-weight, durability, formability, low maintenance need and excellent recycling properties. From the perspectives of architects and providers, these facts are not known sufficiently yet. In addition no correlations between sustainability and the current competitiveness of aluminium building products are observed. Research limitations/implications - The research has been carried out in Germany, which may limit the usefulness of the results elsewhere. Practical implications - A useful information source for architects, engineers and providers of aluminium building products. Originality/value - This paper identifies the current knowledge gap of architects and providers concerning the potential of aluminium in respect to the whole life-cycle as well as the use of sustainability to influence the competitiveness of aluminium products.

Notes: Purpose - Some lessons learned from post-earthquake damage survey of structures affected by the Bam earthquake of December 26, 2003 in Iran are encapsulated in this paper. The Bam earthquake caused catastrophic structural damage in the region. Design/methodology/approach - A method similar to that of rapid evaluation procedure (REP), recommended by the Applied Technology Council (ATC-20) in the USA, was used for damage survey. Findings - Bam represents a typical ancient city in many countries around the world. Most of the structures in the region are made of adobe, unreinforced masonry, steel, and unreinforced/reinforced concrete. Some of the main types of structural damage, their causes, and potential remedial measures are characterized with an emphasis on the very basic fundamental principles of earthquake-resistant design. Practical implications - The research reported has considerable implications for other seismic-affected regions of the world. Originality/value - A first hand-account of the catastrophic damage caused by this natural disaster and the implications for future design and construction in seismic-affected areas.

Notes: Purpose - Following the terrorist attack on the New York World Trade Center in 2001, this paper seeks to investigate the design features that would enhance the safety of tall buildings. Design/methodology/approach - Using a questionnaire, data have been collected via e-mails and by post from architects and civil engineers (AEs) in Singapore. Structured interviews were conducted with public authorities. Findings - The results show that AEs perceive tall buildings to be generally safe in terms of structural design, fire safety features and means of escape. The results also show that AEs confirm the need to improve the safety of tall buildings further, are making an effort to address the heightened safety concern, will give full support to initiatives to address heightened safety concerns, will agree to conduct risk assessment during the design phase and will welcome a performance-based design code. AEs do not agree that buildings should be designed to withstand hydrocarbon fires or aircraft attacks. The survey results further reveal that the four most effective methods to improve the safety of tall buildings are providing exit signs with lighting at floor levels, a separate design code for super tall buildings, providing fire refuge and rescue floors, and the decentralization of fire systems. Originality/value - The importance of this paper is that it investigates the safety features and measures that can shed some light on enhancing the safety of tall buildings. The findings may be used by building authorities to formulate future measures and codes to better enhance the safety of tall buildings. Based on the findings, further research on each feasible method of improving the safety of tall buildings may be undertaken.

Notes: Purpose - This paper aims at proposing a process of requirements engineering for the human centred, adaptive computer integrated construction systems development through industry wide information sharing. Design/methodology/approach - The research strategy is based on case study research methodology. The EU-funded DIVERCITY project was analysed. This project was undertaken by a European consortium of researchers and practitioners from the construction industry. They developed a virtual environment that enables the industry to undertake collaboratively the client briefing and design reviews and the construction stages. Findings - DIVERCITY's requirements engineering approach has the potential to provide opportunities for research to determine the appropriate requirements engineering techniques for the development of the systems and their effective implementation in the construction industry. Originality/value - The main contribution of the research is the construction of the requirements engineering process for the development of the computer integrated construction systems.

Notes: Purpose - The objectives of this paper are to discuss the constraints stemming from the unstructured nature of the cost estimation practice in Turkey and introduce a generic computer aided building cost estimation model based on a cost significant technique for Turkish construction sector public projects in its detailed design phase. Design/methodology/approach - The research design was based on the simplified version of the bill of quantities method and a cost significant estimating model works on a cost database was suggested to overcome the problems. Underlying principles and basic steps of cost estimation based on cost significant work packages was explained by means of manual calculations. Findings - In order to automate the manual building cost estimation process, the software based on cost significant work packages was developed. Research limitations/implications - The software is currently in the testing phase and is being used for educational purposes. Making use of both public sector and current market prices in the cost estimation process, increasing number of projects stored in the database for more accurate results, estimating costs of different types of projects and calculating the cost significant value factor more precisely by using statistical techniques, those being employed by global cost models are suggested for future research. Practical implications - As the number of the similar projects in database is increased, the accuracy of the cost estimation is also increased. Originality/value - Estimators and graduate students can use the software to estimate building cost of public housing projects in its detailed design phase.

Notes: Purpose - The successful implementation of an optimal online system for specification and procurement has been impeded by the existence of semi-structured or non-structured product information held in catalogues in various formats. Consequently, a significant amount of time is spent in gathering relevant information. Proposes introducing a successful optimal online specification and procurement system for construction products. Design/methodology/approach - The design and specification of the prototype were based on the analysis of closely related agent-based implementations in various domains. Findings - In the development phase it emerged that agent infrastructure is still maturing, even when a stable development environment is finally available. This is consistent with the latest research in this area which places the highest value on internet agents within the context of the semantic web. Originality/value - This research demonstrated how agent technology can be used alongside other paradigms such as web services and XML to make the specification and procurement of construction products more effective and more efficient.

Notes: Purpose - It was the aim of the analysis to draw an overall picture of the trends towards change in the construction industry, thereby forming a foundation for further analysis and appropriate future research. Design/methodology/approach - A multi-method approach was taken to the data collection exercise comprising data collection from published sources, interviews with knowledgeable representatives of the Danish construction industry and direct observation of what was happening on construction projects in Denmark. Findings - The work reported here has shown that there is some benefit in looking at the internal changes in the construction sector from the point of view of the various actors, an approach that has provided contrasting information to the government-sponsored reports. The understanding of the industry as being backward and locked-in does not provide an accurate description of the Danish construction sector. The research has shown a dynamic industry that is changing relatively quickly as it responds to competition and new opportunities. Originality/value - The results of this research are reported and comparisons made with the less positive reports. From this a number of questions are raised about the scope of reports and the focus of future research into the Danish construction sector.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to identify interdependent barriers to the search and selection of new technologies by design engineers at industry, organisation and individual levels. A "proof of concept" HyCon tool is presented to demonstrate the role of information technology design support tools in supporting designers to overcome these inhibitors, in this case for hybrid concrete, by providing immersive and interactive, information-rich environments to explore design solutions. Design/methodology/approach - The HyCon tool was developed through a prototyping methodology encompassing a testing, analysis, design and coding iterative cycle. This was supported by case studies and industry workshops. Findings - The results of a collaborative research project are presented, which describes the HyCon design support tool to promote the understanding and use of hybrid concrete in structural frames. This tool is built around a knowledge creation, application, storage, and retrieval cycle to envision and support the use of this new technology. Originality/value - This paper fulfils an identified need to integrate technology management and design process considerations within the context of an information technology design support tool, and offers a "proof of concept" HyCon tool to demonstrate key issues and potential utilities and applications.

Notes: Purpose - Popularity in knowledge management has, unfortunately, not been matched by parallel empirical research on the processes, challenges and benefits of knowledge capture in small and medium enterprises (SMEs) in the construction industry, given the fact that 99 per cent of firms in the UK construction industry can be classified as SMEs. This paper aims to discuss the output of a research study, which is focused on knowledge capture in SMEs in construction industry. The paper also aims to present and discuss a computer-based awareness tool on knowledge capture underpinned by Kolb's experiential learning theory. Design/methodology/approach - The empirical study involved a total of 51 professionals from 26 SMEs in the construction industry. Grounded theory approach was adopted. Also, a content analysis was considered. Findings - The results show that there is lack of awareness of complex issues associated with an effective knowledge capture process as well as ensuing benefits for SMEs in the construction industry. The effective implementation of knowledge capture in SMEs is partly dependent on the vision and flair of the owner/partners of the organisation. It is also determined by culture, structure, people, finance and technology, which warrants a coherent and structured approach. Originality/value - A computer-based awareness tool which is underpinned by Kolb's experiential learning theory.

Notes: Purpose - Housing Associations in the UK are being encouraged to change the way in which they procure their building projects. This work aims to provide a snapshot of current practice in relation to the use of partnering as a procurement approach. Design/methodology/approach - Accordingly a quantitative research design was used to capture data from a sample of 100 of the largest Housing Associations involved in the commissioning of new house building projects in 2003. Two administrations of the survey generated a 43 per cent response rate. Findings - The findings of the study revealed that two differing types of partnering alliance could be identified. The types of partnering alliance identified were considered to have either a "supply side" or "demand side" focus. The results show that partnering practice, open-book cost management, risk analysis and the use of standardised and pre-fabricated components are now widespread and believed to deliver benefits in project costs, delivery times and quality levels. Research limitations/implications - The work is limited due to the size of the sample frame and the measuring instrument used which could not uncover reasons for the current practices that were revealed. Practical implications - The outcomes of the work provide practice with benchmarks that can be used to evaluate organisational approach and if necessary develop alternative approaches to the delivery of partnered projects. Originality/value - The paper contributes to the body of knowledge available on partnering practice in a client group that has been identified as being key in driving forward the post-Egan agenda in the construction industry.

Notes: Purpose - This paper aims to investigate how Canadian engineering, procurement and construction (EPC) companies address lessons learned (LL) on their construction projects. Design/methodology/approach - This paper adopts a case study methodology. Findings - The exploitation of LL to improve performance on future projects is highly desirable for many construction organisations. The vision of an organisation that can readily recall what went well on a project and attempt to recreate those successes, as well as avoiding the repetition of past mistakes offers commercial sense. Originality/value - The paper provides a number of recommendations for UK companies regarding how the process may be improved in terms of encouraging LL to occur, the timing of LL sessions, identifying participants, the format for documenting LL and how these should be disseminated.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose is to report the results of research on ascertaining whether the various stakeholders in construction projects can adequately cope with the stresses they are confronting. Design/methodology/approach - Thirty-three stressors covering various aspects of project implementation, such as organisation policies, working relationships, communication and personal factors, are identified and the manageability of the common stressors faced by management of construction projects in Hong Kong is assessed by means of a questionnaire survey. The relationships among individual stressors are similarly examined. The extent to which stress effects combine and accumulate when related stressors coexist is also considered. Findings - It is shown that the most difficult stressors to manage are "bureaucracy", "lack of opportunity to learn new skills", "work-family conflicts" and "different view from superiors". The results also revealed that the patterns of stress manageability differ between clients, consultants and contractors. The relationships among individual stressors are similarly examined. The extent to which stress effects combine and accumulate when related stressors coexist is also considered. Originality/value - The research reported constitutes a significant step towards the understanding and management of potentially stressful situations and their influence on the efficiency and effectiveness of construction industry participants.

Notes: Purpose - This paper proposes assessing the context within which integrated logistic support (ILS) can be implemented for whole life performance of building services systems. Design/methodology/approach - The use of ILS within a through-life business model (TLBM) is a better framework to achieve a well-designed, constructed and managed product. However, for ILS to be implemented in a TLBM for building services systems, the practices, tools and techniques need certain contextual prerequisites tailored to suit the construction industry. These contextual prerequisites are discussed. Findings - The case studies conducted reinforced the contextual importance of prime contracting, partnering and team collaboration for the application of ILS techniques. The lack of data was a major hindrance to the full realisation of ILS techniques within the case studies. Originality/value - The paper concludes with the recognition of the value of these contextual prerequisites for the use of ILS techniques within the building industry.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose is to introduce a safety planning and control (SPC) model that has been integrated into the production planning and control process. The paper is concerned with the impact of this model on human error control, since both workers' and managers' errors are major contributing factors in accident causation. Design/methodology/approach - The analysis of this impact was based on two stages: the analysis of the main types of human errors detected in five sites in which the model has been implemented and a discussion on how the model contributes to the design of safe work systems from a cognitive engineering perspective. Findings - The main conclusion is that six elements of the model (safety planning, near miss reporting, training, percentage of safe work packages indicator, participatory cycle, and planning and control diffusion) contribute to make both the boundaries of safe work visible and respected. Safety planning also helps to make the production system error-tolerant to some extent. However, the analysis of causes of safety failures in the empirical studies pointed out a high incidence of violations of the boundaries (on average, 43.5 percent of the total safety failures), mostly by workers. Research limitations/implications - Although improvement in the existing mechanisms might make the model more behavior-oriented, a broader set of measures is necessary to achieve excellence in dealing with human errors. Also, additional empirical data are necessary to clarify the nature and frequency of the human errors that have impact in construction safety. Originality/value - The model may help in devising more effective tools to reduce errors in construction.

Notes: Purpose - This paper proposes introducing how to consider the break which cyclically happens and has nothing to do with resource availabilities in modeling of a construction process through an activity-based simulation. Design/methodology/approach - In consideration of the variable break-frequency and break-duration for different activities, concepts of time-cycle and time-window are discussed. Then an algorithm to determine the execution of the activities facing the cyclical break is proposed, in which pre-emption or non-pre-emption cases and overtime are taken into account together. This algorithm is incorporated into an activity-based simulation so that the improved construction simulation is able to consider the cyclical break and model the construction process more reasonably. Computational analyses are presented to address the effectiveness of the improved activity-based simulation. Findings - The computational analyses demonstrate that the improved activity-based simulation can consider the cyclical break in modeling a construction process, which cannot be achieved by the traditional simulation tools, especially when non-pre-emptive activities are concerned. It is also shown that the overtime use for the non-pre-emptive activities can lead to reduction of the project duration when the cyclical break is considered. Originality/value - The proposed simulation-based methodology is an alternative means to deal with the cyclical break that is destined for some activities and irrelevant to resource availabilities in modeling of a construction process.

Notes: Purpose - The paper proposes addressing the design and implementation of a web-based risk assessment system that enables remote project team members to assess the risks at the conceptual design stage. Design/methodology/approach - The prototype system is based on a client/server architecture and uses fuzzy logic and web-based technology. A risk assessment scenario is used to demonstrate the operation and benefits of the prototype system. Findings - The research found that the use of a web-based risk assessment system for distributed project team members has major benefits in terms of use of linguistic terms to express risk assessment, ease of communication, ease of maintenance, and greater consistency, among others. Research limitations/implications - There is scope for enhancing the system through the development of a risk management module, improving the user interface and making specific provisions for different project types. Practical implications - The move in industry towards collaborative working practices is supported by systems such as this. Risk assessment is an important area that requires the input of all team members, if evenly distributed. Originality/value - This paper has presented an innovative approach to risk assessment for distributed project teams. It will be of interest to all parties involved in construction projects, particularly those involved in risk assessment.

Notes: Purpose - Process mapping can lead to a more holistic understanding of how an organisation works. This paper seeks to discuss how an engineering design consultancy, which had developed a series of process maps on the design of steel frame buildings, developed a powerful management tool, the Management Briefing Sheet which has yielded numerous additional benefits enabling practice to be improved and quality procedures more easily accessed. Design/methodology/approach - To maximise the knowledge and expertise of its supply chain partners and to better understand how it designed steel-framed buildings, the engineering design consultancy undertook a process-mapping exercise. Various techniques for documenting the process were considered, but a modified IDEF notation was chosen for its ability to capture the iterative nature of the design process and its methodical approach for deconstructing complicated activities. Findings - Process-mapping exercises can change the way organisations work and make them more efficient, but to do this the changes that would lead to improvements need to be implemented successfully. Carrying out a process-mapping exercise in isolation from the end-user can lead to complications. Research limitations/implications - The key obstacle to implementing change identified by the engineering design consultancy, with whom the MBS was developed, was delivering the knowledge acquired from the process analysis in a format that end-users could understand easily and adopt effectively. Originality/value - This article will be of significant use to any organisation wishing to maximise the knowledge and expertise of its supply chain partners and identify inefficient working practices.

Notes: Purpose - The objectives of this paper are to: find out whether design-bid-build (DBB) or design-build (DB) procurement method gives better quality building; identify variables that significantly affect quality scores of DBB and DB projects; and construct models to predict quality scores of DB and DBB projects. Design/methodology/approach - The research design was based on a structured questionnaire and data on quality performance and factors that may affect quality of a building project were collected by postal survey and face-to-face interviews. Findings - There was no significant difference between the quality scores of DB and DBB projects. To ensure that buildings procured through DBB have high quality, owners should adopt the following practices: engage experienced consultants; short-list bidders and select contractors based on a combination of price and ability. To obtain high quality DB buildings, owners should engage architects to prepare the scheme design and not to set the budget too early. For both types of projects, owners should allow contractors to propose changes to the contract with a view to improving its quality. Research limitations/implications - As there is no significant difference in quality of DBB and DB projects, the argument that DB projects produce lower quality buildings is demolished. Practical implications - The practical implication is that owners play an important part in ensuring that they obtain buildings of high quality. Originality/value - Building owners and consultants can use the two models to predict quality scores of DBB and DB projects and take specific actions to improve the quality of their projects if necessary.

Notes: Purpose - To address the critical issue of how best to adopt and diffuse information and communication technology (ICT) into organisations. Design/methodology/approach - During April and May 2002, a survey of ICT diffusion of ICT users from three construction organisations was conducted. Findings - Results from an earlier phase of this study indicated that 11 factors influence ICT diffusion. The aim of this paper is to report on phase 2 study results within three construction organisations based on the 11 factors found to influence ICT diffusion. Semi-structured interviews were undertaken with five to six ICT users and an implementer for each of the case study companies. Originality/value - Three factors were found to have a weak influence on ICT diffusion, while eight have a strong influence. These influencing factors may be grouped into four interrelated categories: management, individual, technology, and work environment. Their inter-relationship should be coherently and comprehensively addressed.

Notes: Purpose - Ratios were constructed using bidding data for highway construction projects in Texas to study whether there are useful patterns in project bids that are indicators of the project completion cost. The use of the ratios to improve predictions of completed project cost was studied. Design/methodology/approach - Ratios were calculated relating the second lowest bid, mean bid, and maximum bid to the low bid for the highway construction projects. Regression and neural network models were developed to predict the completed cost of the highway projects using bidding data. Models including the bidding ratios, low bid, second lowest bid, mean bid and maximum bid were developed. Natural log transformations were applied to the data to improve model performance. Findings - Analysis of the bidding ratios indicates some relationship between high values of the bidding ratios and final project costs that deviate significantly from the low bid amount. Addition of the ratios to neural network and regression models to predict the completed project cost were not found to enhance the predictions. The best performing regression model used only the low bid as input. The best performing neural network model used the low bid and second lowest bid as inputs. Originality/value - The nature of bid ratios that can describe the pattern of bids submitted for a project and the relationship of the ratios to project outcomes were studied. The ratio values may be useful indicators of project outcome that can be used by construction managers.

Notes: Purpose - The aim of this paper is to examine and compare the performance of architects with respect to clients' rating of importance over a set of performance criteria in Nigerian public and private sector building projects. Design/methodology/approach - A survey involving clients from both public and private sectors of recently completed building projects in Nigeria was undertaken. Data analysis includes comparing similarities and differences using standardised ratio, Mann Whitney U and Wilcoxon tests. Findings - The results show that private sector clients are likely to be more concerned with cost, while public sector clients are more concerned with buildability of design. A total of 79 per cent of the criteria were similarly selected by both sectors with respect to importance of the criteria. Architects need to improve their performance significantly in about 82 per cent of the whole set of 28 criteria. The architects performed better in the public sector than the private sector and 14 per cent of the criteria were indicated as being statistically different in terms of architects' performance. Originality/value - The results provide feedback which can be incorporated in architects' future projects so as to ensure successful project implementation in the building delivery process.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to analyse the factors that drive changes to the construction project brief and the background to those factors. The founding argument, that incorporating these changes is paramount for achieving client satisfaction, introduces the concept of dynamic brief development (DBP), which permits changes throughout the project life cycle. The understanding and attitude of the major construction project stakeholders towards DBP are investigated along with identifying the originators of brief development and the value and risk sources. Design/methodology/approach - A threefold method was used comprising a comprehensive questionnaire survey followed by structured interviews. The results of these were further investigated though a brainstorming session with major construction project stakeholders. A total population of 266,434 units for the survey was identified, reduced to a random stratified sample of 530. The response rate was 49.2 per cent and the responses were analysed using a weighted relative importance index. A total of 88 interviews were carried out and 12 client organisations participated in the brainstorming session. Findings - The findings lead to the conclusion that there is a need to set out a detailed brief development management system that incorporates both value management and risk management. This system should enable the appropriate project participant to make informed decisions at the right time for the benefit of the client. The system must facilitate feedback to both client organisations and construction professionals to enable lessons to be learned. Understanding the relationship between the factors that drive brief development and the various project team members will facilitate managing brief development in a way that increases client satisfaction and enhances the performance of the project. Originality/value - The paper identifies deficiencies in current practices and techniques and presents a system which overcomes them.

Notes: Purpose - In this paper the predictive capabilities of the full job strain model (JSM) for construction project managers is examined. The principal aim of the work is to determine whether employees' psychological wellbeing in terms of worker health and job satisfaction can be reliably predicted. Design/methodology/approach - The full JSM is tested by investigating perceived work demands, job control and social support. The predictive capability of the full JSM (which encompasses job demands, job control and social support) is applied to a sample of construction project managers from the UK. Findings - The analysis of the results indicates that the JSM can significantly predict employees' psychological wellbeing in terms of worker health and job satisfaction among the construction project managers sampled. A key finding was that social support had significant (p〈0.0001) main effects on psychological wellbeing. Contrary to previous research, however, non-work-related support was found to be more significant than work support in alleviating psychological strain. Research limitations/implications - A model that incorporates a wider range of variables should be developed to account for the variance in strain between different roles that construction project managers adopt within an organisation and projects so they can be useful for job design. Originality/value - For the specific sample, the JSM captured the key characteristics that contributed to the job strain that they experienced. With the exception of non-work-related social support, the results support previous studies that examined the predictive capacity of the JSM.

Notes: Purpose - To assist contractors in Hong Kong to review their past financial performance and to formulate new strategies for their business survival in the coming years. Design/methodology/approach - The financial accounting ratios and distress scoring are very useful tools to measure the financial performance. These tools are also useful to compare the performance among themselves and over the years. The mathematical analysis together with a review of the current business environment and the characteristics of construction industry will assist contractors in Hong Kong to formulate new strategies for their own business survival in the coming years. Findings - The results have shown that the financial performance of most contractors in Hong Kong have been deteriorating very fast in the past few years. The results of all financial ratios, together with the prevailing situation of over competition, inelasticity of construction costs and reduced aggregate demand in Hong Kong, has revealed the extreme difficulty of reversing the financial performance in the coming years. Originality/value - Contractors in Hong Kong now understand that their own financial performance have been deteriorating to an alarming limit. There is an urgent need to review their business environment and to formulate new corporate strategies.

Notes: Purpose - The paper aims to report the findings of research into perceptions of what makes the Private Finance Initiative (PFI) attractive or unattractive as a procurement system for projects in the UK. Design/methodology/approach - The research uses a postal survey questionnaire technique for primary data collection. Literature review is used to identify relevant factors, which are then incorporated into the design of the survey instrument. Survey response data is subjected to descriptive statistical analysis and subsequently to rotated factor analysis. Findings - Public/private partnerships (PPP)/PFI project procurement is perceived as most attractive in terms of positive factors relating to better project technology and economy, greater public benefit, public sector avoidance of regulatory and financial constraints, and public sector saving in transaction costs. Negative aspects, relating to factors such as the inexperience of the participants, the over-commercialisation of projects, and high participation cost and time, make PPP/PFI procurement less attractive. Originality/value - The procurement of public facilities and services under arrangements involving partnerships between the public and private sectors is claimed to provide a wide variety of net benefits to the public sector and to the private sector participants. In the project development process, the parties have to make decisions based on suitable evaluation criteria. At the early stage of preparing a business case, a clear and common understanding of the positive and negative factors surrounding PPP/PFI procurement will provide a more informed basis for decision making.

Notes: Purpose - Construction conflict should not be simply defined as a functional or dysfunctional element in the management process. The second generation conflict management investigates the effect of various conflict types and conflict resolution strategies to project outcomes in detail. The paper aims at investigating the complicated construction conflict management within the goal setting process in construction projects. Design/methodology/approach - In order to collect the generalized data from the construction professionals in the industry, a questionnaire survey was considered suitable for establishing the component elements of research variables. Samples were randomly selected from membership records of various professional institutions in Hong Kong with direct experience in the project management processes involving the client, project manager and other project team members, and they must have experience in a (perceived) successful project. A total of 75 questionnaires were fully completed and returned finally. Findings - The findings in the questionnaire survey indicate that moderate level of conflict can improve satisfaction until a certain point whereby the satisfaction diminishes as conflict escalates. To yield an optimum level of satisfaction, conflicts have to be stimulated in the goal setting process and solved among the project participants by adopting the integrated style, neutral attitudes towards emotional-rational dimension and task-relationship dimension of conflict. Research limitations - This study cannot definitively state the causal direction of the hypothesized relationships. Further research such as case studies and qualitative data analyses are recommended in order to investigate these causal relationships as is relevant to construction projects. Practical implications - Integration is the most appropriate method for solving construction problems, as it concerns both self and others in the management process. Project participants have to balance their conflict resolution approach between the task and relationship and their subjective emotion with objective rational system for solving conflicts when using integration style. Originality/value - The study shows that both conflict and conflict resolution in the goal setting process are essential components influencing the final outcome (satisfaction) and that solving conflict using the integration style would mean arriving at the best value (goal) in the decision process as well as improving the level of participant satisfaction

Notes: Purpose - The selection and use of the most appropriate building project contract price forecasting model contribute to the provision of strategic advice that clients can use to make value-for-money business decisions. This work seeks to provide a snapshot of current practice in model selection by practitioners based in large-sized quantity surveying, project management and multi-disciplinary practices based in the UK. Design/methodology/approach - A quantitative research design was used to capture data from a sample of 300 such organisations in 2004. An initial and follow-up administration of the postal survey generated an overall response of 54 per cent. Findings - The findings of the study revealed that the traditional types of forecasting model continue to be in widespread use irrespective of organisational type. Lifecycle cost models and in-house knowledge-based systems were also found to be in use, but not on such a widespread scale. Newly developed models such as artificial neural nets, fuzzy logic nets, as well as environmental and sustainability cost models were found, as yet, to have only very limited application in practice. Practitioner assessment of model accuracy and value in-use provided statistically insignificant levels of variance between the organisational types and the models found to be in use. Research limitations/implications - The work is limited due to the size of the sample frame and the measuring instrument used which could not uncover reasons for the selection of particular types of models. Originality/value - The outcomes of the work provide benchmarks that can be used to evaluate organisational approach and future research. The paper contributes to the body of knowledge available on the process of building project contract price forecasting that is fundamental to the assessment of project value.

Notes: Purpose - Different process models have been developed by academia and industry to enhance the effectiveness and efficiency of the design and construction activity in response to the need for improving performance. However, the effective and widespread adoption and use of process models have been limited, and the benefits resulting from these endeavours have been ambiguous at best and non-existent at worst. This paper synthesises the key general and construction-specific literature related to process model implementation around a generic model, providing a systematic picture on the current knowledge on implementation. Design/methodology/approach - Secondary data sources were reviewed, criticised and synthesised. The books and academic papers identified focused on the areas of process management in construction and manufacturing, change management and knowledge/technology transfer. Findings - The paper concludes that the body of literature related to process model implementation lacks an integrated focus and cohesion, and the need to appropriately locate and operate the implementation strategy within a visible organisational context is not adequately addressed. Research limitations/implications - The paper review and synthesis are limited to relevant literature within the context of implementation of process models. Practical implications - Gaps in the literature are identified and discussed, and a set of questions proposed to stipulate future research. Originality/value - The paper originality relates to providing a broad, systemic perspective on the complexity of process models implementation, analysing it from different but interrelated conceptual lenses.

Notes: Purpose - It is a well-known fact that the construction industry always passes through two distinctive problems during the construction stage: slippages of project-schedules, i.e. time-frame, and overruns of project-costs, i.e. budget. However, limited literature is available to solve or dilute these two problems before they even occur. It is strongly believed that the bulk of the two mentioned problems can be mitigated to a great extent, if not eliminated, provided that proper attention is paid to the pre-construction phases of projects. Normally projects are implemented through traditionally old techniques which generally emphasize only solving "construction problems during the construction phase". The aim of this article is therefore to unveil a professional methodology known as Project Control System (PCS) focusing on pre-construction phases of construction projects. Design/methodology/approach - In this article, the authors share the lessons learned during implementation of Kuwait University projects worth approximately $400 million in a span of ten years. The task of the project management/construction management (PM/CM) is being provided to the university by a joint venture team of international and local specialists. Findings - The pre-construction methodology ensures smooth and successful implementation during construction phases of the projects as they are generally executed in a fast-pace, deadline-driven and cost-conscious environment. The intuitive proactive methods, if implemented during pre-construction stage, automatically answer the questions that are encountered during the execution periods of projects. Originality/value - In this article, the authors share the lessons learned during PM/CM during projects over a span of ten years, which could be of use to others.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to propose and test a framework to foster safe work behaviour among workers on construction sites. Design/methodology/approach - The proposed framework identifies two main reasons for unsafe behaviours: "don't know how", and "don't care". Technical and safety training is proposed to overcome the former problem, while for the latter it is proposed that organisations systematically apply operant conditioning techniques to promote safety, using organisational behaviour modification. A postal survey of contractors in Singapore was conducted to test the framework. The four tools of operant conditioning theory (positive reinforcements, negative reinforcements, extinction, and punishments) were evaluated. Findings - Close and strict supervision, sending workers for safety and health training, and imposing fines are found to be most effective methods. Positive reinforcements (both monetary and non-monetary) have also been found to be effective, while extinction did not receive much support. Other methods that may foster safe work behaviours are also discussed. Originality/value - Safety on site could be enhanced via training and application of operant conditioning theory.

Notes: Purpose - The research presented in this paper aims to investigate highway construction/maintenance professionals' perceptions of the effects of night-time construction conditions on worker visibility and of issues associated with safety vests in night-time activities. Design/methodology/approach - The research was conducted by administering a questionnaire survey to Illinois Department of Transportation operations personnel, resident engineers, contractors, and construction/maintenance professionals involved in night-time construction in the Departments of Transportation of states other than Illinois. Findings - It was found that most accidents in night-time construction work areas are caused by the condition of the vehicle operator, that accidents are caused by through-traffic and construction equipment operating inside the work area, and that the poor visibility of the workers plays an important role in accidents. Research limitations/implications - A national survey (rather than mostly Illinois personnel) would certainly increase the sample size and therefore allow researchers to validate the findings of this study and to conduct extensive statistical analyses. Practical implications - Night-time construction/maintenance operations on highways may be hazardous for both drivers and construction personnel because of poor visibility at night. It is recommended that the design of safety vests adhere to existing standards issued by the American National Standards Institute and the International Safety Equipment Association. It is particularly important to ensure adequate performance in wet weather conditions. Originality/value - If safety vests are perceived by workers to be effective, the frequency and severity of night-time accidents can be reduced and labor productivity can be enhanced.

Notes: Purpose - The UK Government has now adopted Private Finance Initiative (PFI) as a major vehicle for the delivery of additional resources to the health sector in order to achieve a greater investment in healthcare facilities. The purpose of this paper is to examine the trends and risk assessment of the PFI in the healthcare sector. Design/methodology/approach - The paper employed secondary data and interviews of key participants in two hospital PFI projects to highlight developments in healthcare PFI and the risk management of hospital projects. Findings - The results show that the use of PFI in the provision of healthcare is increasing in terms of number, capital value and size of projects. What emerged in the healthcare PFI project was a usage of a plethora of risk management techniques, albeit to varying degrees. Experience appeared to be the prime risk assessment technique employed, while risk avoidance was first explored before pricing and allocating any residual risks. "Risk prompts", such as using checklists and risk registers were also useful in the identification of risks. Among all participants, insurance cover and sub-contracting appear to be the most prominent strategies employed for managing out the risks. Originality/value - The negotiations that precede the signing of a healthcare PFI project contract had an impact on the final choice of facilities or their specifications. The two contracting parties sought a balance between an optimal allocation of risks, choice of facilities and project price. Although the risk management techniques being used are generic in nature, there is still no evidence at the moment to show that these are appropriate for PFI projects. It is important that further investigation is undertaken to assess the level of current skills in risk management techniques to deal with PFI projects and the extent to which these techniques are appropriate to tackle complex healthcare PFI projects.

Notes: Purpose - The attention on sustainability issues within value management (VM) practices is uncertain due to the scarcity of information on this subject in the available literature. As a value enhancement technique, VM should incorporate sustainability issues as they would affect the quality of the outcome. By exploring VM as a means to uplift sustainability issues at the early construction stages, it shall shed light to its potential and current practices and thus stimulating wider attention to this field in the future. Design/methodology/approach - This paper begins by presenting the underlying concept of integrating sustainability within VM. The potential of VM to uplift sustainability issues is highlighted and the relationships between these two are discussed. Field studies were conducted to investigate the existing practices of VM and its practitioners' attitudes towards sustainability. Findings - It is confirmed that sustainability consideration is already inherent in the VM workshops but the level of attention varies between workshops. There are gaps in current practices, indicating rooms for improvement. The identified barriers to integration are believed responsible for these gaps. Research implications - Any strategy to promote sustainability consideration in VM in the future must address the impediments to integration. Originality/value - The attention on sustainability issues in VM remains an untapped area due to scarcity of information. Theoretically, the intrinsic capabilities and the positive relationships between these two heighten VM position as an effective means for sustainability improvement. However, in practices, sustainability attention requires improvement to bridge the gaps and overcome the existing barriers that impede current integration.

Notes: Purpose - Web-based technologies such as project extranets have introduced a new concept for communication and collaboration during construction projects. Project extranets have been used in the industry for some time now to manage information and document flows throughout the lifecycle of construction projects. Very few end-user companies already using project extranets have documented and disseminated information about the implications of using this technology in terms of the impact on their businesses, benefits incurred and possible drawbacks. This paper aims to present findings from the UK. Design/methodology/approach - The methodology is case studies conducted with end-users of a leading project extranet application in the UK. Findings - Findings suggest that some of the perceived drawbacks of using project extranets are in fact not viewed as drawbacks by end-user companies. Also, the benefits incurred appear to outweigh some of the issues. The end-user organisations believe that an increasing number of organisations will be encouraged to use project extranets when they see "visionaries" and "market leaders" such as themselves, benefiting from the technology and leading the way to its wider adoption. Originality/value - Wider dissemination of this knowledge will encourage more construction companies to adopt the technology which has a proven record of success on projects for which it has been used. The paper highlights the drivers for the adoption of this technology and its impact on end-user business processes. It also documents the end-user viewpoint on the benefits and drawbacks of using project extranets.

Notes: Purpose - This paper aims to investigate how large UK construction organisations manage their knowledge assets. It then proposes STEPS, a mechanism for benchmarking organisation's knowledge management maturity. Design/methodology/approach - This paper adopts a case study methodology using four large UK construction organisations. Findings - The investigation shows that the UK-based companies with international operations are ahead of their national counterparts in their KM implementation efforts. The paper concludes that construction organisations are likely to be successful in implementing KM if appropriate considerations are given to strategy formulation, implementation issues addressed and the link between KM and business strategy is strengthened. Originality/value - The paper proposes a mechanism, entitled STEPS, for benchmarking the maturity of large construction organisations' knowledge management practices. It then uses case study organisations to demonstrate how the STEPS model should be used.

Notes: Purpose - As many construction clients now require their consultants to seek accreditation under ISO 9000:2000, demonstrating customer satisfaction and continual improvement as required by the latest standards will become an important aspect for consultant practices. However, consultants seldom attempt to uncover the expectations of their clients, and this may hinder the improvement when their quality management systems (QMSs) are implemented and hence affect the satisfaction of their clients. The purpose of this paper is to examine the satisfaction of clients to the overall quality performance of engineering consultants in Hong Kong. Design/methodology/approach - To assist engineering consultants to realise the clients' expectation, the expected benefits that construction clients would like to attain through the implementation of ISO 9000-based QMSs and the perceived actual benefits the clients had received are identified through a postal survey. Findings - The results indicate that the actual benefits were generally lower than that expected by the clients. Originality/value - This paper is of value to those wishing to obtain accreditation under ISO 9000:2000 and improve their QMSs with respect to improving the satisfaction of their clients.

Notes: Purpose - There is no automatic link between research and teaching in higher education institutions. Hence, in order to achieve a productive relationship, these two activities need to be linked through effective mechanisms. The research reported in this paper aims at identifying such strategies that are appropriate to a research-based department, in the built environment discipline. Design/methodology/approach - The paper identifies key issues related to this challenge through a literature review, and subsequently verifies those issues through an exploratory case study. Findings - The key finding from the study is that research-based departments are poor at transferring their research knowledge into teaching especially at undergraduate level. Even though there are informal strategies in existence, there is a strong need for formalising them. The paper utilises knowledge transfer and learning literature to fully understand the process. Originality/value - Drawing from the findings, the study develops a framework to enable the knowledge transfer from research into teaching. The framework provides useful guidance for research-based higher education departments in the built environment to transfer research knowledge into teaching in a formal and productive way.

Notes: Purpose - The construction industry is one of the largest employment providers in the developing world. It is also one of the least safe industries, with a high frequency of accidents resulting in financial losses, injuries, disabilities and deaths. Decent working conditions and resulting improved worker satisfaction are key to sustainable productivity in the industry. International standards safeguarding construction workers are abundant and ratified by most low-income countries. This paper aims to examine if these standards are adequately reflected in contracts for construction works; and if they not, how contract clauses can be improved and put into operation. Design/methodology/approach - Based on research undertaken in Ghana, India and Zambia from 2000 to 2003, this paper explores the aforementioned points. The paper comprises analysis of contract clauses from the International Federation of Consulting Engineers (FIDIC) and developing country contracts, along with case study findings. Findings - This paper finds that more legislation is not the urgent issue; incorporating existing legislation into construction contracts and making clauses operational is a priority. This paper identifies practical and cost-effective procedures for bringing stakeholders together to implement and monitor labour standards, with the aim of contributing to the overall goal of providing "decent work" for all workers in the construction industry. Originality/value - This paper explores issues around implementing labour standards in construction of minor infrastructure works in low income countries and concludes with suggestions on how best to put contract clauses into operation through a process approach.

Notes: Purpose - To enable facility management to define workplace strategy basing on organizations strategy and operations. Design/methodology/approach - In facility planning the workplace strategy process is subject to conditions of continuous change and uncertainty. The theory of workplace planning is constructed on the basis of production and commitment making concepts in order to link workplace to organization's general strategy. Workplace planning process includes computer-aided applications for practical work. They measure owner needs such as user functions, geometrical and temporal needs, spatial performance and associated costs, thereby enabling activity-based cost management. Findings - The customer workplace is linked to a complex social system. Achieving a final commitment of an organization is an iterative process of commitments, withdrawals and new approaches. The workplace planning process displays evidence of supporting group collaboration in terms of fostering stakeholder engagement, developing high quality information, supporting innovation in the owner's functions, and the appropriate sharing of facility spaces among owner groups operating with limited resources. In the project case, the need for space (and life cycle costs) decreased 20 percent. All the activities can still be supported because of improved utilization. Research limitations/implications - This research is concentrated on workplace needs, use and costs. It does not cover user operations efficiency or costs (like salaries, education etc.) Originality/value - Workplace planning process and applications have been in practical use for several years. The results have been in concordance with case project findings.

Notes: Purpose - As corporate real estate is increasingly being recognised as an important cost and production factor, senior management now pays considerable attention to this asset group. These assets are managed, inter alia, by using benchmarks. In addition to monetary benchmarks, building efficiency (e.g. m2 of usable floor area per m2 of gross external floor area) and capacity benchmarks in particular (e.g. m2 of usable floor area per existing workplace) must be highlighted. Previously, specific values and their drivers for the assessment of buildings or portfolios were not available. Design/methodology/approach - This study is based on a survey carried out in Switzerland, involving the collection of floor data (in accordance with DIN?277) of 116 owner-operated office buildings. In addition, their drivers were ascertained using regression analyses. Findings - The building efficiency may be assessed on the basis of the share of usable floor area or the share of office space in the gross external floor area. The main drivers are the shares of vehicle parking space, areas for residential and recreational purposes and areas for storage, distribution and retail. These drivers must be taken into consideration when assessing the building efficiency. It became apparent that capacity benchmarks are determined primarily by factors such as the space use management strategies, and only to a lesser degree by the building itself. Originality/value - The study provides space benchmarks and their drivers. The results therefore permit an objective evaluation of office buildings. However, further work transcending the influence of the building itself will be required with regard to the capacity benchmarks.

Notes: Purpose - Identifies major issues related to building management in the context of large and dense residential estates. Aims to understand the relationship between the owners and the building management company and determine the keys to success for building management in large and dense residential estates. Design/methodology/approach - Field interviews are conducted with the management committees of three residential estates. Semi-structured questions are asked. A model of service quality is applied in the context of building management. Findings - A framework of the context of building management is constructed. The relationship among the management committee and the building management company is a partnership. Guidelines for narrowing possible service gaps in the process of building management are proposed. Key success factors of building management are identified. Research limitations/implications - The sample size is small. This study reflects the field practice of outsourced building management of a few large and dense residential estates in Hong Kong. Further validation is necessary elsewhere. Practical implications - This is a useful source of information for building owners and service providers to effectively implement building management. Originality/value - The context of building management is graphically represented. The gap model of service quality is applied in the study of the process of service delivery of building management.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of the paper is to discuss the scope for improving the delivery of FM services through the use of wireless web-based communications infrastructure, delivered via an application service provider (ASP) business model. This paper discusses the findings from case studies of three organisations and their approach to the management of facilities. Design/methodology/approach - An investigation was undertaken to ascertain the current state of play in terms of managing and tracking processes within the facilities management department of three different organisations. These case studies were chosen from distinct sectors, namely health care, higher education, and banking. Emphasis is placed on analysing how the organisations currently operate with their existing FM systems and the degree of influence technology has on existing processes. This was considered mainly in terms of computer-aided facilities management (CAFM) and computer-integrated facilities management (CIFM). Findings - The study found that a new wireless web-based service for FM systems would be considered useful. Although notoriously slow adopters of new technology, there was an acceptance by the facilities managers interviewed that a wireless web-based approach would improve current practice, especially with respect to real-time job reporting and tracking and in the determination of FM operative working time utilisation. Practical implications - Further work by the author is focusing on the development of a suitable demonstrator to illustrate the key concepts of a wireless web-based FM service which will then be tested and evaluated. For further information, visit the research project web site at www.wirelessfm.org Originality/value - The paper hopefully stimulates discussion in the area of emerging wireless technologies that have the potential to streamline and improve current practices for the management of facilities, in particular that of real-time job reporting and tracking.

Notes: Purpose - This paper presents a set of step-wise regression models which can incorporate multiple factors in modelling the costs of office buildings. The models appeared to be more accurate than the traditional method. Design/methodology/approach - The data were collected from historical office building projects, which were then, adjusted using the construction price index. The step-wise regression was conducted to produce the linear cost models. Findings - Seven RC office buildings and 11 steel office buildings in Hong Kong completed in different years were selected randomly to verify the accuracy of the regression models developed. The data of these buildings were not used in the development of the cost models. The result shows that the variability of percentage difference is ranging from -4.11 per cent (4.11 per cent underestimate) to +2.74 per cent (2.74 per cent overestimate) for RC office buildings. For steel office buildings, it ranges from -6.65 per cent (6.65 per cent underestimate) to +2.78 per cent (2.78 per cent overestimate). Research limitations/implications - This study presents a methodology that can be used in cost estimation of office buildings in Hong Kong at early stage of construction project. The regression cost models developed above are based on, in total, historical data of 30 completed office buildings in Hong Kong. The reliability of the cost models can be further improved by including more office buildings to develop the cost models. Furthermore, the application of cost modelling by regression analysis is not limited to office buildings. The same approach can be applied to residential and other non-residential buildings as well. Regression cost modelling, with sufficient updating for new cost data available, can provide economic, quick and accurate cost estimation at early stage of construction projects. It will become rational guide supplementing judgmental forecast of cost advisors in near future. Originality/value - Step-wise regression procedure was applied to develop the cost models. Jackknife re-sampling was carried out and both of the models show stability. Cross-validation shows that the developed regression models performed satisfactorily. The paper considers that it can provide economic, quick and accurate cost estimation at the early stage of construction project. In addition, the approach of this study can be adopted to develop cost models of other types of buildings in other locations.

Notes: Purpose - The purpose of this research is to determine whether new intelligent classrooms will affect the behaviour of children in their new learning environments. Design/methodology/approach - A multi-method study approach was used to carry out the research. Behavioural mapping was used to observe and monitor the classroom environment and analyse usage. Two new classrooms designed by INTEGER (Intelligent and Green) in two different UK schools provided the case studies to determine whether intelligent buildings (learning environments) can enhance learning experiences. Findings - Several factors were observed in the learning environments: mobility, flexibility, use of technology, interactions. Relationships among them were found indicating that the new environments have positive impact on pupils' behaviour. Practical implications - A very useful feedback for the Classrooms of the Future initiative will be provided, which can be used as basis for the School of the Future initiative. Originality/value - The behavioural analysis method described in this study will enable an evaluation of the "Schools of the Future" concept, under children's perspective. Using a real life laboratory gives contribution to the education field by rethinking the classroom environment and the way of teaching.

Notes: Purpose - To provide information on a small-scale study that explores the impact on pupil performance of the recent significant government investment in school buildings in a single county of England. Design/methodology/approach - The design approach was to focus on the schools and those involved in teaching in order to explore their perspective of the link between investment and improved pupil performance. The methodology chosen was qualitative and consisted of questionnaires to a selected sample of state schools together with interviews with the Local Education Authority and a case study of a single school, all within Derbyshire. Findings - The results clearly indicate that although direct benefits are difficult to measure accurately, the schools perceive a benefit of investment which can be illustrated in pupil attainment, motivation and pupil behaviour, with an additional benefit to staff, who find that better environments improve teacher morale and motivation. Research limitations/implications - The study is of schools in one county only and includes a random sample of schools providing state education to pupils between 5 and 18 years. The data findings relate to schools that have benefited from investment by the local authority. Practical implications - The research provides a timely study incorporating useful information to all of those who have an interest in the school built environment and in particular provides support for the government investment taking place in schools. Originality/value - Research for this paper was carried out as part of an undergraduate dissertation, drawing from the direct placement work experience of the primary author and the professional experience of the co-author/supervisor.

Notes: Purpose - The aim of this paper is to report on a study that was undertaken into the practice and process of briefing within the UK. The purpose of the study was to assess the nature and extent to which accessible environments for new public buildings are considered at the briefing stage of the design process. Design/methodology/approach - A questionnaire was distributed to 2,017 design practices in the UK, resulting in a usable response rate of 961 questionnaires. Findings - The analysis of the questionnaires showed that, while designers are keen to ensure that buildings and their environments facilitate social inclusion, there are significant barriers to achieving this, particularly due to a lack of understanding of disability and how a person with a disability interacts with a building, and how the regulations and legislation can support this interaction rather than just providing minimum standards. Practical implications - The implications of the research are that designers and clients are procuring buildings that are not fully inclusive, thereby excluding people from fully participating in the activities that are undertaken in that building. Originality/value - The paper provides an insight into the relationship between designers and users by demonstrating that, while designers are keen to ensure that buildings and their environments facilitate social inclusion, there are significant barriers to achieving this.

Notes: Purpose - The aim of the paper is to investigate the architectural firm's role in the briefing process on international projects and to identify the strategies of successful firms to overcome barriers. Design/methodology/approach - A model is developed based on a critique of briefing models and international design management theory. The development of a reflexive capability model borrows cultural theory concepts of capital and reflexivity. The model is based on maximizing reflexive capability through the management of social, cultural and intellectual capital. Two case studies of architectural firms identify barriers during the briefing process and strategies to overcome these barriers. Data collection involved 16 interviews with senior management and design team staff. Findings - There are various barriers and strategies used to achieve success in the briefing process. However, the management of a firm's capital is key to successful briefing on international projects and is a characteristic of reflexive practice. Reflexivity is based in a positive interpretation of change, and a continual responsiveness to change by participants in a system. The study provides useful information on management of the design and briefing stages of international projects. Research limitations/implications - The study is limited by the number of case studies used and the difficulty of generalisability of findings. Practical implications - The research is that it provides useful information about how to approach constant change during briefing for the architects and clients who work on international projects. Originality/value - The model is original and has value as it assists in explaining why some firms are more successful than others. The case studies provide new knowledge on international projects and the briefing process. The value of the paper is for the academic community, professionals in the built environment and clients involved in international projects.

Notes: Purpose - To describe a research project which seeks to establish a value management framework for project briefing to systematically identify and clarify client requirements, and represent these requirements precisely and explicitly to facilitate the design process. Design/methodology/approach - Two research instruments are used: structured questionnaire survey to validate the theoretical framework established; and experiments to test the proposed value management framework with real-life projects, supported by case studies. Findings - The primary research findings of this project are the identification of 13 variables that have an impact on the briefing process, which form the basis of the theoretical framework. It is revealed that the theoretical foundation of the research supports the use of value management to the briefing process. Further validation will be completed by conducting questionnaire survey and real-life case studies. Originality/value - This paper improves comprehension of the nature, characteristics and problems of the briefing process. It also introduces the theoretical foundation of the research project and describes the process for the development of the value management framework for project briefing.

Notes: This paper examines the relationships between measurable watershed hydrologic features, base flow recession rates, and the Q7,10 low flow statistic (the annual minimum seven-day average streamflow occurring once every 10 years on average). Base flow recession constants were determined by analyzing hydrograph recession data from 24 small (〉130 km2), unregulated watersheds across five major physiographic provinces of Pennsylvania, providing a highly variable dataset. Geomorphic, hydrogeologic, and land use parameters were determined for each watershed. The base flow recession constant was found to be most strongly correlated to drainage density, geologic index, and ruggedness number (watershed slope); however, these three parameters are intercorrelated. Multiple regression models were developed for predicting the recession rate, and it was found that only two parameters, drainage density and hydrologic soil group, were required to obtain good estimates of the recession constant. Equations were also developed to relate the recession rates to Q7,10 per unit area, and to the Q7,10/Q50 ratio. Using these equations, estimates of base flow recession rates, Q7,10, and streamflow reduction under drought conditions can be made for small, ungaged basins across a wide range of physiography.

Notes: The need for scientifically defensible water quality standards for nonpoint source pollution control continues to be a pressing environmental issue. The probability of impact at differing levels of nonpoint source pollution was determined using the biological response of instream organisms empirically obtained from a statistical survey. A conditional probability analysis was used to calculate a biological threshold of impact as a function of the likelihood of exceeding a given value of pollution metric for a specified geographic area. Uncertainty and natural variability were inherently incorporated into the analysis through the use of data from a probabilistic survey. Data from wadable streams in the mid-Atlantic area of the U.S. were used to demonstrate the approach. Benthic macroinvertebrate community index values (EPT taxa richness) were used to identify impacted stream communities. Percent fines in substrate (silt/clay fraction, 〉 0.06 mm) were used as a surrogate indicator for sedimentation. Thresholds of impact due to sedimentation were identified by three different techniques, and were in the range of 12 to 15 percent fines. These values were consistent with existing literature from laboratory and field studies on the impact of sediments on aquatic life in freshwater streams. All results were different from values determined from current regulatory guidance. Finally, it was illustrated how these thresholds could be used to develop criterion for protection of aquatic life in streams.

Notes: Pebble counts have been used for a variety of monitoring projects and are an important component of stream evaluation efforts throughout the United States. The utility of pebble counts as a monitoring tool is, however, based on the monitoring objectives and the assumption that data are collected with sufficient precision to meet those objectives. Depending upon the objective, sources of variability that can limit the precision of pebble count data include substrate heterogeneity at a site, differences in substrate among sample locations within a stream reach, substrate variability among streams, differences in when the substrate sample is collected, differences in how and where technicians pick up substrate particles, and how consistently technicians measure the intermediate axis of a selected particle. This study found that each of these sources of variability is of sufficient magnitude to affect results of monitoring projects. Therefore, actions such as observer training, increasing the number of pebbles measured, evaluating several riffles within a reach, evaluating permanent sites, and narrowing the time window during which pebble counts are conducted should be considered in order to minimize variability. The failure to account for sources of variability associated with pebble counts within the study design may result in failing to meet monitoring objectives.

Notes: : Patterns of dry season surface flow in forested headwater channels of southwest Washington were observed during August to September 2001 and July to October 2002. In 2001, 17 channels were sampled once, and the uppermost points of continuous flow (CF) and surface water (SW) were located. In 2002, sampling was replicated three to five times at each of 21 channels. Annual and seasonal data suggested that the location of SW varied less than CF. In most channels, SW remained at or near the channel head year around. The pattern of surface flow between CF and the channel head was used to test alternative hypotheses describing dry season recession patterns: (A) surface flow consistently retreats in a downstream direction, and (B) flow comes from fixed sources along the channel, thus surface flow retreats up-channel towards these sources. The dominant surface flow spatial pattern in streams less than 30 percent slope was increased intermittency without a clear pattern of retreat, and thus inconsistent with either hypothesis. High gradient channels (〈 30 percent slope) exhibited a combination of increased intermittency, and extensive upward retreats of surface water consistent with Hypothesis B. Differences between 2001 and 2002 suggest late summer flows in small headwater basins were controlled by spring precipitation, rather than the typically greater winter precipitation.

Notes: : During the fall of 2000, the occurrence was examined of 16 herbicides and 13 herbicide degradates in samples from 55 wells in shallow aquifers underlying grain producing regions of Illinois. Herbicide compounds with concentrations above 0.05 μg/L were detected in 56 percent of the samples. No concentrations exceeded regulatory drinking water standards. The six most frequently detected compounds were degradates. Water age was an important factor in determining vulnerability of ground water to transport of herbicide compounds. Unconsolidated aquifers, which were indicated to generally contain younger ground water than bedrock aquifers, had a higher occurrence of herbicides (73 percent of samples) than bedrock aquifers (22 percent). Temporal analysis to determine if changes in concentrations of selected herbicides and degradates could be observed over a near decadal period indicated a decrease in detection frequency (25 to 18 percent) between samplings in 1991 and 2000. Over this period, significant differences in concentrations were observed for atrazine (decrease) and total acetochlor (increase). The increase in acetochlor compound concentrations corresponds to an increase in acetochlor use during the study period, while the decrease in atrazine concentrations corresponds to relatively consistent use of atrazine. Changes in frequency of herbicide detection and concentration do not appear related to changes in land use near sampled wells.

Notes: : Watersheds are widely accepted as a useful geography for organizing natural resource management in Australia and the United States. It is assumed that effective action needs to be underpinned by an understanding of the interactions between people and the environment. While there has been some social research as part of watershed planning, there have been few attempts to integrate socio-economic and biophysical data to improve the efficacy of watershed management. This paper explores that topic. With limited resources for social research, watershed partners in Australia chose to focus on gathering spatially referenced socio-economic data using a mail survey to private landholders that would enable them to identify and refine priority issues, develop and improve communication with private landholders, choose policy options to accomplish watershed targets, and evaluate the achievement of intermediate watershed plan objectives. Experience with seven large watershed projects provides considerable insight about the needs of watershed planners, how to effectively engage them, and how to collect and integrate social data as part of watershed management.

Notes: : Controlling agricultural nonpoint source pollution from livestock grazing is a necessary step to improving the water quality of the nation's streams. The goal of enhanced stream water quality will most likely result from the implementation of an integrated system of best management practices (BMPs) linked with stream hydraulic and geomorphic characteristics. However, a grazing BMP system is often developed with the concept that BMPs will function independently from interactions among controls, climatic regions, and the multifaceted functions exhibited by streams. This paper examines the peer reviewed literature pertaining to grazing BMPs commonly implemented in the southern humid region of the United States to ascertain effects of BMPs on stream water quality. Results indicate that the most extensive BMP research efforts occurred in the western and midwestern U.S. While numerous studies documented the negative impacts of grazing on stream health, few actually examined the success of BMPs for mitigating these effects. Even fewer studies provided the necessary information to enable the reader to determine the efficacy of a comprehensive systems approach integrating multiple BMPs with pre-BMP and post-BMP geomorphic conditions. Perhaps grazing BMP research should begin incorporating geomorphic information about the streams with the goal of achieving sustainable stream water quality.

Notes: : The purpose of this research was to examine through modeling and experimentation if seepage out of a pond through stratified soil can be predicted, and effectively collected and managed to augment streamflow during a low precipitation period extending three months or more. The 55 m2 experimental pond with sandy/loamy banks was excavated to hardpan, and its bottom was approximately 0.7 above the water table. Output from a mathematical model containing both bottom and bank seepage elements agreed with experimental data, and showed that as compared to bottom seepage, the bank seepage contributed approximately 25 percent of the total seepage. Seepage collection (as measured from a circumscribing ditch) linearly varied with stage (r2 〈 0.99). There was an 8 to 22 percent over-collection at the lower pond stages, and a 9 to 45 percent under-collection at the highest stage. As an example of its utility, the model was applied to estimate the pond size and shape needed to supply a hypothetical stream and maintain fish stocks during a three-month low-precipitation period. Future work will focus on nutrient transport and removal.

Notes: : Grouping of nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) leaching losses from agricultural fields into spatial clusters can help determine the cause/effect relationships for their occurrence. This study was designed to investigate the spatial relationships of low, medium, and high NO3-N leaching losses clusters with soil and landscape attributes using cluster and discriminant analysis and the map overlay capability of a geographical information system (GIS). Field measured data of a six-year (1993 through 1998) study on NO3-N leaching losses from 36 experimental fields at the Iowa State University's northeastern research center near Nashua, Iowa, were normalized on an annual basis to compare over the years. The cluster analysis resulted in the formation of three clusters based on the satisfactory evaluation criteria of pseudo-F statistic, cubic clustering criterion, and R2 values. The discriminant analysis, carried out on the basis of clusters, identified elevation and subsurface drainage as the factors that contributed significantly (p 〉 0.01) in discriminating among these clusters. The verification of discriminant functions developed on these factors predicted the cluster membership for all the groups with an overall accuracy of 86 percent. The map overlay analyses of GIS showed that spatial occurrence of the clusters transporting high NO3-N leaching losses was affected by the interaction of soil type and elevation levels.

Notes: : The use of glyphosate has increased rapidly, and there is limited understanding of its environmental fate. The objective of this study was to document the occurrence of glyphosate and the transformation product aminomethylphosphonic acid (AMPA) in Midwestern streams and to compare their occurrence with that of more commonly measured herbicides such as acetochlor, atrazine, and metolachlor. Water samples were collected at sites on 51 streams in nine Midwestern states in 2002 during three runoff events: after the application of pre-emergence herbicides, after the application of post-emergence herbicides, and during harvest season. All samples were analyzed for glyphosate and 20 other herbicides using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry or high performance liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry. The frequency of glyphosate and AMPA detection, range of concentrations in runoff samples, and ratios of AMPA to glyphosate concentrations did not vary throughout the growing season as substantially as for other herbicides like atrazine, probably because of different seasonal use patterns. Glyphosate was detected at or above 0.1 μg/1 in 35 percent of pre-emergence, 40 percent of post-emergence, and 31 percent of harvest season samples, with a maximum concentration of 8.7 μg/1. AMPA was detected at or above 0.1 μg/1 in 53 percent of pre-emergence, 83 percent of post-emergence, and 73 percent of harvest season samples, with a maximum concentration of 3.6 μg/1. Glyphosate was not detected at a concentration at or above the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's maximum contamination level (MCL) of 700 μg/1 in any sample. Atrazine was detected at or above 0.1 μg/1 in 94 percent of pre-emergence, 96 percent of post-emergence, and 57 percent of harvest season samples, with a maximum concentration of 55 μg/1. Atrazine was detected at or above its MCL (3 μg/1) in 57 percent of pre-emergence and 33 percent of post-emergence samples.

Notes: : The performance of two popular watershed scale simulation models — HSPF and SWAT — were evaluated for simulating the hydrology of the 5,568 km2 Iroquois River watershed in Illinois and Indiana. This large, tile drained agricultural watershed provides distinctly different conditions for model comparison in contrast to previous studies. Both models were calibrated for a nine-year period (1987 through 1995) and verified using an independent 15-year period (1972 through 1986) by comparing simulated and observed daily, monthly, and annual streamflow. The characteristics of simulated flows from both models are mostly similar to each other and to observed flows, particularly for the calibration results. SWAT predicts flows slightly better than HSPF for the verification period, with the primary advantage being better simulation of low flows. A noticeable difference in the models' hydrologic simulation relates to the estimation of potential evapotranspiration (PET). Comparatively low PET values provided as input to HSPF from the BASINS 3.0 database may be a factor in HSPF's overestimation of low flows. Another factor affecting baseflow simulation is the presence of tile drains in the watershed. HSPF parameters can be adjusted to indirectly account for the faster subsurface flow associated with tile drains, but there is no specific tile drainage component in HSPF as there is in SWAT. Continued comparative studies such as this, under a variety of hydrologic conditions and watershed scales, provide needed guidance to potential users in model selection and application.

Notes: : A curve number based model, Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT), and a physically based model, Soil Moisture Distribution and Routing (SMDR), were applied in a headwater watershed in Pennsylvania to identify runoff generation areas, as runoff areas have been shown to be critical for phosphorus management. SWAT performed better than SMDR in simulating daily streamflows over the four-year simulation period (Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient: SWAT, 0.62; SMDR, 0.33). Both models varied streamflow simulations seasonally as precipitation and watershed conditions varied. However, levels of agreement between simulated and observed flows were not consistent over seasons. SMDR, a variable source area based model, needs further improvement in model formulations to simulate large peak flows as observed. SWAT simulations matched the majority of observed peak flow events. SMDR overpredicted annual flow volumes, while SWAT underpredicted the same. Neither model routes runoff over the landscape to water bodies, which is critical to surface transport of phosphorus. SMDR representation of the watershed as grids may allow targeted management of phosphorus sources. SWAT representation of fields as hydrologic response units (HRUs) does not allow such targeted management.

Notes: : Although the curve number method of the Natural Resources Conservation Service has been used as the foundation of the hydrology algorithms in many nonpoint source water quality models, there are significant problematic issues with the way it has been implemented and interpreted that are not generally recognized. This usage is based on misconceptions about the meaning of the runoff value that the method computes, which is a likely fundamental cause of uncertainty in subsequent erosion and pollutant loading predictions dependent on this value. As a result, there are some major limitations on the conclusions and decisions about the effects of management practices on water quality that can be supported with current nonpoint source water quality models. They also cannot supply the detailed quantitative and spatial information needed to address emerging issues. A key prerequisite for improving model predictions is to improve the hydrologic algorithms contained within them. The use of the curve number method is still appropriate for flood hydrograph engineering applications, but more physically based algorithms that simulate all streamflow generating processes are needed for nonpoint source water quality modeling. Spatially distributed hydrologic modeling has tremendous potential in achieving this goal.

Notes: : The penetration of sunlight into the water column plays a critical role in the aquatic ecosystem. This study investigates light attenuation through the water column of the Danshuei River estuary and explores the models for quantifying it. The measurement of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) indicates that the conventional exponential attenuation of light with depth is a very good model. A light attenuation coefficient may be derived from the PAR measurements at each location. The simpler measurements of Secchi depth (SD) provide an approximate estimate of the attenuation coefficients through an inverse linear relationship. The results also reveal that the amount and kinds of materials, which are either dissolved or suspended in the water, control light attenuation through the water column. However, the linear regression with such a model results in very poor correlation, and a relatively large constant term for the Danshuei River estuary. The regression with salinity yields a good correlation, indicating that the fraction of sea water might be a good parameter for estimating light attenuation coefficient for practical application in the Danshuei River estuary.

Notes: : The fate of contaminants in large water bodies is highly influenced by the transfer of flow and solutes across the water sediment interface. In this paper, an analytical model is presented where flow in both sediment bed and open channel is coupled at the interface through a boundary layer occupying the upper part of the sediment bed. The presence of this layer allows not only the capture of the inertia effects through a drag term in the generalized Darcy's equation, but also the specification of different soil parameters for the two porous zones. The flow is advective and driven by wave action along the water surface. The resulting system is solved for the pressure and flux in each sediment layer. The generated transport velocity fields are linked to a random walk simulation that is used to examine the trajectories of solute particles. Comparison of these trajectories against experimental tracer tests suggests a pattern very similar to the one attributed to the presence of surface mounds. The results clearly show the significance of the boundary layer and the drag term for soil with high permeability and the impact of both the thickness of the boundary layer and the length of the gravity wave relative to the depth of the water channel on the transport and exchange across the interface. The paper also examines the sensitivity of the mass exchange to the permeability of the two porous zones.

Notes: : Florida water resources are among the most abundant in the United States, with Florida receiving the second-highest mean annual rainfall of all states. However, water supply issues have troubled the state due to the highly variable spatial and temporal distributions of water supply and demand, and they are aggravated by the population's preference for settling in coastal regions where freshwater resources are scarce. Historically, the competing issues of water resource development and natural systems protection have placed water management agencies and local governments at odds. In 1997, the Florida Legislature enacted several major changes to Florida water law in an attempt to improve water resource planning and protection. This paper briefly reviews the history of water management in Florida with an emphasis on decisions culminating in the 1997 legislation, which requires the development of minimum flows and levels. Also examined is the impact of the 1997 law on water management. Efforts made to comply with legislative mandates are summarized; these include, to date, establishment of minimum flows and levels on 209 water bodies and budgeting in excess of $1.4 billion for water resource development projects.

Notes: : The Hydrologic Simulation Program-FORTRAN (HSPF) is a powerful time variable hydrologic model that has rarely been applied in arid environments. Here, the performance of HSPF in southern California was assessed, testing its ability to predict annual volume, daily average flow, and hourly flow. The model was parameterized with eight land use categories and physical watershed characteristics. It was calibrated using rainfall and measured flow over a five-year period in a predominantly undeveloped watershed and it was validated using a subsequent 4-year period. The process was repeated in a separate, predominantly urbanized watershed over the same time span. Annual volume predictions correlated well with measured flow in both the undeveloped and developed watersheds. Daily flow predictions correlated well with measured flow following rain events, but predictions were poor during extended dry weather periods in the developed watershed. This modeling difficulty during dry-weather periods reflects the large influence of, and the poor accounting in the model for, artificially introduced water from human activities, such as landscape overwatering, that can be important sources of water in urbanized arid environments. Hourly flow predictions mistimed peak flows, reflecting spatial and temporal heterogeneity of rainfall within the watershed. Model correlation increased considerably when predictions were averaged over longer time periods, reaching an asymptote after an 11-hour averaging window.

Notes: : Twenty-three stream sites representing a range of forested, agricultural, and urban land uses were sampled in the South Platte River Basin of Colorado from July through September 2002 to characterize water quality during drought conditions. With a few exceptions, dissolved ammonia, Kjeldahl nitrogen, total phosphorus, and dissolved orthophosphate concentrations were similar to seasonal historical levels in all land use areas during the drought. At some agricultural sites, decreased dilution of irrigation return flow may have contributed to higher concentrations of some nutrient species, increased primary productivity, and higher dissolved oxygen concentrations. At some urban sites, decreased dilution of base flow and wastewater treatment plant effluent may have contributed to higher dissolved nitrite-plus-nitrate concentrations, increased primary productivity, and higher dissolved oxygen concentrations. Total pesticide concentrations in urban and agricultural areas were not consistently higher or lower during the drought. At most forested sites, decreased dilution of ground water-derived calcium bicarbonate type base flow likely led to elevated pH and specific-conductance values. Water temperatures at many of the forested sites also were higher, contributing to lower dissolved oxygen concentrations during the drought.

Notes: : One of the biggest challenges in managing cold water streams in the Midwest is understanding how stream temperature is controlled by the complex interactions among meteorologic processes, channel geometry, and ground water inflow. Inflow of cold ground water, shade provided by riparian vegetation, and channel width are the most important factors controlling summer stream temperatures. A simple screening model was used to quantitatively evaluate the importance of these factors and guide management decisions. The model uses an analytical solution to the heat transport equation to predict steady-state temperature throughout a stream reach. The model matches field data from four streams in southwestern Wisconsin quite well (typically within 1°C) and helps explain the observed warming and cooling trends along each stream reach. The distribution of ground water inflow throughout a stream reach has an important influence on stream temperature, and springs are especially effective at providing thermal refuge for fish. Although simple, this model provides insight into the importance of ground water and the impact different management strategies, such as planting trees to increase shade, may have on summer stream temperature.

Notes: : Three instruments commonly used to measure stream canopy cover were evaluated: the clinometer, a modified spherical convex densiometer Model A, and a hemispherical image system. The hemispherical image system was also used to model shade. At each of five locations throughout Oregon, canopy cover above a stream was measured from the center of the stream along a series of transects. Vegetation along the reaches sampled ranged from a densely vegetated coastal forest stand to a sparsely vegetated eastern Oregon meadow. When techniques were compared within each site, canopy cover measured with the clinometer was similar to that measured with hemispherical imagery. The densiometer measurements, however, were typically lower than, though still highly correlated with, those derived from hemispherical images and from the clinometer. Because of site-specific factors, the differences between all methods were significant in the Willamette and John Day Provinces. Canopy cover and shade were not equivalent for the streams studied.

Notes: : In 1996, the State of Oregon adopted a water quality standard based on Escherichia coli (E. coli), recognizing E. coli as an indicator of pathogenic potential. The Oregon Department of Environmental Quality (DEQ) began analysis for E. coli that same year. The Oregon DEQ continued collection and analysis of fecal coliform (a prior indicator organism) for data input to bacterial loading models and the Oregon Water Quality Index (OWQI). The OWQI is a primary indicator of general water quality for the Oregon DEQ and the Oregon Progress Board. The objective of this study was to develop a regression relationship between fecal coliform and E. coli. This relationship would fill data gaps and extend water quality models and indicators. Water quality policy is better informed by the ability of these extended water quality models to determine whether water quality meets present or would have met past bacterial standards. Monitoring resources spent on dual bacterial analyses could be conserved. This study also showed that changes to OWQI values (as a result of changing bacterial indicators) were minimal, and corresponded to improved characterization of water quality with respect to pathogenic potential.

Notes: : The large volumes of ground water that are discharged from the Everglades toward the Miami metropolitan area have historically posed a significant environmental water supply problem. In order to analyze the effects of seepage barriers on these subsurface outflows, the analytic element modeling code GFLOW was used to construct a ground water flow model of a region that includes a portion of the Everglades along with adjacent developed areas. The hydrology of this region can be characterized by a highly transmissive surficial aquifer in hydraulic contact with wetlands and canals. Calibration of the model to both wet and dry season conditions yielded satisfactory results, and it was concluded that the analytic element method is a suitable technique for modeling ground water flow in the Everglades environment. Finally, the model was used to evaluate the potential effectiveness of a subsurface barrier approximately two miles long for increasing water levels within the adjacent fringes of the Everglades National Park. It was found that the barrier had a negligible effect on water levels due to both its relatively short length and the high transmissivity of the surficial aquifer.

Notes: : Integrated water resources management is important, especially in watersheds where substantial interactions exist between the ground and surface water sources. This management warrants the need for reliable estimates of both an overall basin water budget and hydrologic fluctuations between ground water and surface water sources. The objectives of this study were to estimate the total water budget and to simulate the effects of the management of water in the Big Lost River Basin in Idaho. The study used the FIPR Hydrological Model (FHM), a hydrological model developed by the University of South Florida for the Florida Institute of Phosphate Research (FIPR). The FHM is an integrated model that simulates the full water budget of the surface and ground water systems. It has two public domain components: Hydrological Simulation Program - FORTRAN (HSPF) and Modular Three-Dimensional Finite-Difference Ground Water Flow Model (MODFLOW). This study quantified the hydrologic fluxes between ground water and surface water and determined a comprehensive and accurate water budget for the Big Lost River. The study showed an annual amount of 10.44 m3/sec leaves the basin and never to return to the system. The study is useful in developing and calculating the annual water budget in the Big Lost River, and this process should be applicable to estimating water budgets in other basins.

Notes: : The Tualatin is the first watershed in Oregon to implement the Total Maximum Daily Load provisions of the Clean Water Act to deal with nonpoint source pollution. Local officials cite residential yard care practices as potential contributors to nonpoint source pollution in the basin. Qualitative and quantitative methods, including observation of yard maintenance styles, suggest behaviors potentially harmful to water quality and conservation. Yard maintenance is influenced by the importance of neighborhood appearance and concern for aesthetics. These concerns stimulate residents to water, fertilize, and apply weed control at more frequent intervals than yard care experts recommend. Better understanding of the effects that relations with neighbors and yard maintenance knowledge have on residential yard care practices can help improve water quality.

Notes: : In conventional flood damage reduction studies, flood damage is usually estimated with a damage function according to the depth of inundation. However, this method may not reflect the conditions of each family residing in the floodplain because it ignores not only the distribution of flood damage but also the effect of building characteristics and residents' preparedness. This paper uses data from a questionnaire based survey (N= 3,036) conducted 17 months after the Tokai Flood of 2000 that caused disastrous losses to household properties. It provides a conceptual “doughnut structure” model of flood damage to houses and house contents and a mathematical basis for models to explore the determinants of flood damage. Besides the inundation depth, house type significantly affects both the house structural and content damage probabilities, while house ownership and house structure affect house damage probability but not house content damage probability at a given depth. Inundation depth, residing period, and household income significantly affect both house and content damage values. In addition, house ownership has a significant impact on the house damage value, while house structure has an impact on content damage value.

Notes: : The rainfall-runoff response of the Tygarts Creek Catchment in eastern Kentucky is studied using TOPMODEL, a hydrologic model that simulates runoff at the catchment outlet based on the concepts of saturation excess overland flow and subsurface flow. Unlike the traditional application of this model to continuous rainfall-runoff data, the use of TOPMOEL in single event runoff modeling, specifically floods, is explored here. TOPMODEL utilizes a topographic index as an indicator of the likely spatial distribution of rainfall excess generation in the catchment. The topographic index values within the catchment are determined using the digital terrain analysis procedures in conjunction with digital elevation model (DEM) data. Select parameters in TOPMODEL are calibrated using an iterative procedure to obtain the best-fit runoff hydrograph. The calibrated parameters are the surface transmissivity, TO, the transmissivity decay parameter, m, and the initial moisture deficit in the root zone, Sr0. These parameters are calibrated using three storm events and verified using three additional storm events. Overall, the calibration results obtained in this study are in general agreement with the results documented from previous studies using TOPMODEL. However, the parameter values did not perform well during the verification phase of this study.

Notes: : Naturally formed plunge pools (scour holes) are a common morphologic feature in many urban stream systems where the transition between a pipe and a natural channel occurs. Plunge pools serve as significant stream energy dissipaters, increasing flow resistance and enhancing stream channel stability. Such features may also improve habitat diversity and serve as refugia for stream biota during low flow periods. The morphologic characteristics of several naturally formed plunge pools associated with road crossing culvert outlets in the metropolitan Charlotte, North Carolina, area are presented. Plunge pool dimensions surveyed include maximum depth, length, and width, and longitudinal and side slopes as well as bed material. Culvert outlet dimensions and hydraulic characteristics of the scouring jet for each study site are also reported. Design equations developed from flume studies generally failed to predict the naturally formed plunge pool dimensions. Pool volume was significantly correlated with drainage area, with pool depth being the least sensitive dimension to changes in the magnitude of the scouring flow. The excavation costs for designed plunge pools compare favorably to initial construction costs of traditional culvert outlet riprap aprons.