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  • Books
  • Articles  (2,291)
  • 1980-1984  (2,291)
  • 1981  (2,291)
  • Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying  (2,291)
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  • Books
  • Articles  (2,291)
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  • 1980-1984  (2,291)
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Journal
  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : Water quality was monitored for 17 months during base flow periods in six agricultural watersheds to evaluate the impact of riparian vegetation on suspended solids and nutrient concentrations. In areas without riparian vegetation, both instream algal production and seasonal low flows appeared to be major determinants of suspended solids, turbidity, and phosphorus concentrations. Peak levels of all parameters were reached during the summer when flows were reduced and benthic algal production was high. Similar summer peaks were reached in streams receiving major point inputs but peaks occurred downstream from the input. Instream organic production was less important in regulating water quality in areas with riparian vegetation and permanent flows. Concentrations of suspended solids remained relatively constant, while phosphorus and turbidity increased in association with leaf fall in autumn. Intermittent flow conditions in summer increased the importance of instream organic production in controlling water quality, even when riparian vegetation was present. Efforts to improve water quality in agricultural watersheds during base flow should emphasize maintenance of riparian vegetation and stable flow conditions.
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : Numbers and record lengths of precipitation stations were surveyed in the conterminous United States using climatological data published in 1975 by the National Weather Service (NWS). The total numbers of nonrecording (8247) and recording (3036) gages were about the same as in the 1940s and less than in the late 1950s; about 70 percent of the nonrecording gages have record lengths of 25 years or more. State network densities were increased exponentially with population density and long term precipitation average. Except for a few states, precipitation stations maintained by the NWS are adequate in numbers to ensure a 95 percent statistical probability that state sample means will estimate true means within ± 5 percent.
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : The Yellowstone River in Montana produces an abundant supply of high quality water, but in the early 1970's, the specter of mushrooming energy development in the drainage with its attendant demands for large volumes of water prompted this state to initiate steps to protect existing users and to control future water uses. A Water Use Act was passed in 1973, and a moratorium was subsequently placed on the granting of new permits for major diversion. During this moratorium, various governmental entities were given the opportunity to request the reservation of water for future beneficial uses, including instream purposes. An earlier paper described the reservation applications that were received by the state, and it also summarized the legal framework of the reservation process in Montana. Since that time, the responsible state agency has had the opportunity to review the reservation requests, and its final decision in this regard was announced in December of 1978. This paper describes the details of this decision. Basically, an attempt was made to preserve the integrity of the stream while also strengthening its agricultural uses. In addition, a portion of the flow was not earmarked which will provide some flexibility in reacting to future demands.
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : In order to promote a uniform and consistent approach for floodflow frequency studies, the U.S. Water Resources Council has recommended the use of the log-Pearson type III distribution with a generalized skew coefficient. This paper investigates various methods of determining generalized skew coefficients. A new method is introduced that determines generalized skew coefficients using a weighting procedure based upon the variance of regional (map) skew coefficients and the variance of sample skew coefficients. The variance of skew derived from sample data is determined using either of two non-parametric methods called the jackknife or bootstrap. Applications of the new weighting procedure are presented along with an experimental study to test various weighting procedures to derive generalized skew coefficients.
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : The fate and effect of sodium chloride applied to Californian highways in the Lake Tahoe, Truckee River, and Yuba River watersheds were studied over a period of 14 months in 1974–75. Chloride levels in streams below major freeways were found to be elevated during the winter. The high chloride levels occurred after the application of salt to roads, decreasing as the time from application increases. Small lakes receiving runoff from major highways were also enriched with chloride. Several of these lakes displayed a temporary chemocline, which was sufficiently strong to stabilize a temperature inversion in one lake.
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : In current hydrologic practice flood frequency estimates are usually based upon either the annual or the partial duration series of floods. Recurrence intervals generated by each series are not equivalent, however, and conversion of recurrence intervals from one series to the other is usually achieved by reference to a mathematical function developed by Langbein in 1949. Data collected on the Murrumbidgee River in New South Wales suggest, however, that the Langbein conversion function does not always provide a reliable means of comparing recurrence intervals. For discharges more frequent than the three year annual flood the Langbein function understates the discrepancy between the two sets of recurrence interval by approximately 35 percent. Langbein's own North American data appear to be consistent with those collected on the Murrumbidgee River.
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  • 11
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : Water quality models of acid mine drainage effects have involved routing alkalinity and inorganic carbon loads through a hydraulic description of the system. A method is given to estimate conservatively the importance of surface mass transfer of CO2 in lake modeling. The impact of CO2 transfer upon water quality of lake effluent depends upon tributary concentrations and flow rates, initial pH of the water, and the effective mass transfer coefficient. Charts for preassigned allowable errors in acidity and pH due to neglected gas transfer are developed. Data from three reservoirs are related to the charts to estimate the relative importance of CO2 transfer. Significant reduction in modeling effort can be achieved in cases for which errors caused by neglected CO2 loss would be within acceptable limits.
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : Data from 100 stations were used to prepare a generalized characterization of the extremely long dry day sequences in the United States. Maps are presented showing the magnitude of the two-year, dry day sequences for 1 mm threshold and the coefficient of variation of the items used in the extreme value analysis. For the United States, the average coefficient of variation for dry periods is 30 percent as compared with that for maximum 24h rainfalls which is 37 percent. An example is presented for computing the longer return periods.
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  • 13
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
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  • 14
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
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  • 15
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
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  • 16
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
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  • 17
    Electronic Resource
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
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  • 18
    Electronic Resource
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : A two-dimensional mathematical model for the migration of ground water contamination was developed. The finite element method using isoparametric elements, based on the Galerkin formulation and on weighting functions of nonsymmetric form, was used to formulate the numerical description of the convective-dispersive mass transport equation. A field application of the model to the leachate migration from the Babylon sanitary landfill in Long Island, New York, exemplify the calibration and verification of transport model paramters.
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  • 19
    Electronic Resource
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
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  • 20
    Electronic Resource
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
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  • 21
    Electronic Resource
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
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  • 22
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : Evaluation of hydrologic methodology used in a number of water balance studies of lakes in the United States shows that most of these studies calculate one or more terms of the budget as the residual. A literature review was made of studies in which the primary purpose was error analysis of hydrologic measurement and interpretation. Estimates of precipitation can have a wide range of error, depending on the gage placement, gage spacing, and areal averaging technique. Errors in measurement of individual storms can be as high as 75 percent. Errors in short term averages are commonly in the 15-30 percent range, but decrease to about 5 percent or less for annual estimates. Errors in estimates of evaporation can also vary widely depending on instrumentation and methodology. The energy budget is the most accurate method of calculating evaporation; errors are in the 10–15 percent range. If pans are used that are located a distance from the lake of interest, errors can be considerable. Annual pan-to-lake coefficients should not be used for monthly estimates of evaporation because they differ from the commonly used coefficient of 0.7 by more than 100 percent. Errors in estimates of stream discharge are often considered to be within 5 percent. If the measuring section, type of flow profile, and other considerations, such as stage discharge relationship, are less than ideal errors in estimates of stream discharge can be considerably greater than 5 percent. Errors in estimating overland (nonchannelized) flow have not been evaluated, and in most lake studies this component is not mentioned. Comparison of several lake water balances in which the risdual consists solely of errors in measurement, shows that such a residual, if interpreted as ground water, can differ from an independent estimate of ground water by more than 100 percent.
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  • 23
    Electronic Resource
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : The accounting and repayment practices employed by the Water and Power Resources Service (WPRS) greatly distort the actual resource allocation process and the ultimate repayment to the Federal Treasury. Through a series of transfers of capital repayment obligations to future development with modest or no interest charges, the repayment is reduced to only a fraction of the amount implied. In the case of the Pick-Sloan Missouri Basin Program, the public subsidy of hydroelectric power is estimated to be $2 for every $1 of repayment. For irrigation investment, the direct repayment to the Federal Treasury is less than 10 percent of the annualized cost of the public investment, with irrigators repaying at a rate of less than $0.03 for every dollar of public expenditure.
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  • 24
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
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  • 25
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
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  • 26
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
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  • 27
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
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  • 28
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
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  • 29
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
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  • 30
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
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  • 31
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
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  • 32
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
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  • 33
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
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  • 34
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
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  • 35
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    Oxford, UK : Blackwell Publishing Ltd
    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
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  • 36
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : The Salt and Verde Rivers of central Arizona provide the water supply for metropolitan Phoenix and a considerable acreage of irrigated agriculture. Rapid urbanization has caused concern over future water supply and aggravated flooding in the already flood-prone Salt River Valley. Tree-ring data were used as a proxy source to extend the annual and seasonal runoff records back to A.D. 1580 and thus to determine whether the period of record for annual discharge adequately represents the long term flow characteristics of the two rivers. Results show that several periods of extended low flow have occurred during the past 400 years, many of which were more severe then any comparable period since 1890. The low flow periods appear to have a recurrence interval of about 22 years. Also the gaged records contain an above average number of high seasonal and annual flows when compared to the entire 400 years. The reconstructions contain important implications for future water supply and flood potentials in the Salt River Valley.
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  • 37
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : Scientific communication may be impaired because portions of today's watershed literature are unimaginative, uninspiring, and unread. The literature of the last century, however, abounds with prose of great beauty and clarity. Selections taken from the works of Powell, Gilbert, Muir, Ruskin, and Marsh set a literary standard for all 20th Century scientists.
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  • 38
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : An integral part of evaluating the net benefits generated by an existing or proposed irrigation project is the assessment of the associated impacts in commodity markets. Traditionally, these impacts have been measured by either assuming no change in commodity prices and calculating net returns to project farmers, or by allowing commodity prices to fall in accordance with a given elasticity of demand and subtracting commodity production costs from the associated area under the commodity demand curve. In either case, it is implicitly assumed that supply is perfectly inelastic.This article establishes that traditional approaches to measuring direct benefits are biased. Formulae are presented for calculating the maximum absolute and relative error which may result from using these techniques as a function of project size. Direct benefit estimates are then evaluated for three irrigation projects in Nebraska, illustrating how these results can be used to improve project evaluation procedures.
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  • 39
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
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    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : Cumulative density functions (c.d.f.'s) for water quality random variables may be estimated using data from a routine grab sampling program. The c.d.f. may then be used to estimate the probability that a single grab sample will violate a given stream standard and to determine the anticipated number of violations in a given number of samples. Confidence limits about a particular point on the c.d.f. may be used to reflect the accuracy with which the sample estimate represents the true c.d.f. Methods are presented here for calculating such confidence limits using both a normal model and a nonparametric model. Examples are presented to illustrate the usefulness of an estimated c.d.f. and associated confidence limits in assessing whether an observed number of standard violations is the result of natural variability or represents real degradation in water quality.
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  • 40
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
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    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : Generally a difference exists between the horizontal planar area of a watershed as measured on a map and the actual surface area. A technique is presented, utilizing a topographic map, for computing the difference in the two areas as well as yielding a prediction of the actual surface area. Spatial variations in the magnitude of the difference in the two areas for small local sites over the watershed are displayed on computer generated maps. The technique is also used to adjust various inventory variables on maps, such as vegetation density, to reflect actual surface coverage. This allows estimates to be made of the difference in using corrected versus uncorrected area related parameters in mathematical functions describing processes occurring in the atmosphere-surface boundary layer.
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  • 41
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : Previous research provides evidence of a socioeconomic bias in outdoor recreational participation. One explanation of this bias is that socioeconomic groups have differential opportunities to participate, with the “costs” of this participation especially serving to restrict the recreational access of lower class persons living in urban areas. Using driving distance as a measure of cost, this study assessed the effects of travel costs on the attendance of three social class groups from an urban population at rural reservoir facilities. Findings support the contention that, while increased driving distance has a dampening effect on recreational participation, this effect is most pronounced for the lower class person. These findings point to the importance of equity considerations in the planning of outdoor recreational facilities.
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  • 42
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  • 43
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  • 44
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  • 46
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    Notes: An experiment on urban effects of warm season rainfall of a moderately sized city and its downwind towns found no evidence of global enhancement. However, there are grounds for believing that the intra urban distribution of precipitation is influenced by urban variables among which air pollution and urban roughness are considered primary. The presence of an urban heat island did not appear to improve rainfall. On the contrary, it appears to be a factor in the relative aridity of the downtown sector of the city.
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    Notes: A study was made to analyze and modify procedures used for stream assimilation capacity and point source wasteload allocation calculations. This paper describes the sources and types of information collected and the analysis of alternative computation methods developed during the study. The calculation of stream assimilation capacity or Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL), will depend upon assumed stream flows, quality standards, reaction rates, and modeling procedures. The “critical conditions” selected for TMDL calculations usually are low flows and warm temperatures. The complexity of water quality models used for TMDL and allocation calculations can range from simple, complete mixing to calibrated and verified mathematical models. A list of 20 wasteload allocation (WLA) methods was developed. Five of these WLA's were applied to an example stream to permit comparisons based on cost, equity, efficient use of stream assimilation capacity, and sensitivity to fundamental stream quality data. Based on insensitivity to data errors and current use by several states, the WLA method of “equal percent treatment” was preferable in the example stream.
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    Notes: The Streamflow Synthesis and Reservoir Regulation (SSARR) model was calibrated and verified on the Madison and Gallatin watersheds in the upper Missouri River drainage. The study was performed to determine if the SSARR model could simulate snowmelt-runoff volumes to effect better operation of six multipurpose reservoirs on the Missouri River. Physical watershed characteristics and parameter sensitivity are incorporated into a procedure which expedites model calibration. Criteria are established to facilitate parameter development and to objectively evaluate calibration and verification results. A ratio of simulated to observed snowmelt-runoff volumes of the Madison River averaged 1.00 and 1.02 for calibration (N = 8 years) and verification (N = 6 years) with corresponding standard deviations of 0.08 and 0.13. Gallatin volume ratios averaged 0.99 and 0.95 for calibration (N = 7 years) and verification (N = 5 years) with respective standard deviations of 0.08 and 0.28.
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    Notes: Large area soil moisture estimations are required to describe input to cloud prediction models, rainfall distribution models, and global crop yield models. Satellite mounted microwave sensor systems that as yet can only detect moisture at the surface have been suggested as a means of acquiring large area estimates. Relations previously discovered between microwave emission at the 1.55 cm wavelength and surface moisture as represented by an antecedent precipitation index were used to provide a pseudo infiltration estimation. Infiltration estimates based on surface wetness on a daily basis were then used to calculate the soil moisture in the surface 0–23 cm of the soil by use of a modified antecedent precipitation index. Reasonably good results were obtained (R2= 0.7162) when predicted soil moisture for the surface 23 cm was compared to measured moisture. Where the technique was modified to use only an estimate of surface moisture each three days an R2 value of 0.7116 resulted for the same data set. Correlations between predicted and actual soil moisture fall off rapidly for repeat observations more than three days apart. The algorithms developed in this study may be used over relatively flat agricultural lands to provide improved estimates of soil moisture to a depth greater than the depth of penetration for the sensor.
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    Notes: A ground water development project in the northern part of Thailand was appraised by means of benefit-cost analysis. This is the first project in Thailand to develop ground water for irrigation purposes and it is also the first project which made use of an underground PVC pipe water distribution system. Results indicate that the project is economically feasible. In comparing different water distribution systems, it is also found that distribution by means of underground PVC pipes is more economical compared to an open ditch system if the life of the latter is relatively short and the rates of inflation are high.
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    Notes: Texas' surface water law began its evolution during the Hispanic period of occupance. Later, the English riparian doctrine was adopted, and finally, in the late 1800's, the prior appropriation doctrine was superimposed, resulting in an exceedingly complex dual system. Though the judiciary, legislature, and state water agencies have wrestled with the problem of coordinating these diverse water rights and more accurately delineating and measuring riparian rights and water use since early in this century, until recently all attempts were unsuccessful. The unknown riparian element, in particular, made coordinated and efficient management and administration of the state's surface water resources impossible. Finally, measurable progress toward solution of these problems began in 1967 with passage of the Water Rights Adjudication Act, aimed at identifying all unrecorded surface water rights claims and eventually merging all claims into the permit system. This paper examines the gradual evolution of Texas' curious blend of Hispanic-English riparian rights and later appropriate rights; discusses the resultant problems of water resource administration; and traces the progress of the ongoing water rights adjudication, a lengthy, expensive, and complex procedure, which should eventually make possible more efficient administration of all surface water rights.
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    Notes: Water conservation is a much emphasized policy of the Federal government. Discussion of water conservation proposals often involves confusion between a conservation “ethic,” which is an end in itself, and conservation as a means for attaining various economic objectives. Analysis indicates that outside of ground water “mining.” water is usually a renewable and reusable resource. During periods of normal precipitation, water conservation should be employed only when the value of the water saved exceeds the cost of effecting the savings. Water conservation is most valuable as a drought contingency tactic. Water conservation as a substitute for structural provision to meet normal water demand growth is apt to prove shortsighted.
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    Notes: While storm water detention basins are widely used for controlling increases in peak discharges that result from urbanization, recent research has indicated that under certain circumstances detention storage can actually cause increases in peak discharge rates. Because of the potential for detrimental downstream effects, storm water management policies often require downstream effects to be evaluated. Such evaluation requires the design engineer to collect additional topographic and land use data and make costly hydrologic analyses. Thus, a method, which is easy to apply and which would indicate whether or not a detailed hydrologic analysis of downstream impacts is necessary, should decrease the average cost of storm water management designs. A planning method that does not require either a large data base or a computer is presented. The time co-ordinates of runoff hydrographs are estimated using the time-of-concentration and the SCS runoff curve number; the discharge coordinates are estimated using a simple peak discharge equation. While the planning method does not require a detailed design of the detention basin, it does provide a reasonably accurate procedure for evaluating whether or not the installation of a detention basin will cause adverse downstream flooding.
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    Notes: Direct ground water seepage measurements were made in Lake Washington, Florida, to determine the importance of seepage as a water and chloride source to the lake and upper St. Johns River. Over 200 seepage measurements were made in the lake and adjoining canals from July through December 1978. Results indicated that seepage into the shore areas of Lake Washington was an insignificant water source to the lake, representing 0.6 percent of the inputs, and was nearly balanced by ground water recharge in the midlake region. Drainage canals entering Lake Washington, however, exhibited high average seepage rates (17.7 L/m2-day), over eight times the lake average (2.01 L/M2-day). Discharge from the St. Johns River was the dominant factor in the water budget of Lake Washington and represented approximately 88 percent of the inputs during the study year. Although inputs from the drainage canals represented only 6.6 percent of the St. Johns River annual discharge, these canals represented 20.4 percent of the annual St. Johns River chloride loading and 62.1 percent of the river chloride loading during the five driest months of 1978. Evidence from this study indicates that rising levels of chloride in the river in recent years are largely attributable to ground water seepage in channelized areas, particularly in the headwaters. These chloride inputs assume greater importance during low water/low flow periods.
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    Notes: Procedures have been developed (a) to inject a tracer at a constant rate below the water surface at selected points across a stream and (b) to deal with suspended sediment. Mixing remained far from complete in relatively long channels, owing to channel and flow divergence with uncertainty where to sample downstream and which marginal sample values to include for flow calculation. These problems are encountered when mixing is largely dependent on transverse diffusion. Accurate and replicable results were obtained where dye was injected upstream and detected downstream from riffles that induced thorough turbulent mixing. Dye gaging should be practical in gorges or wherever flow is turbulent across the whole width of a channel.
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    Notes: : Urban runoff as well as industrial and agricultural discharges have seriously affected the water quality of the Skudai River, Malaysia. A water quality model is developed for simulating BOD and oxygen relationship. The simulated values agree relatively well with survey data taken during low flow conditions. Survey and simulated values show that a pollution abatement program is needed to prevent further deterioration of the river from organic discharges. A systems approach, involving complete analysis of water quality models and environmental control procedures, considering various water use patterns, water quality criteria, and waste input, is essential for solution.
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    Notes: : Varying treatment levels to meet seasonal variation in assimilative capacity of streams can reduce total costs of treatment. A mathematical model of a Pennsylvania stream based on a theoretically sound approximation of the physical relationships underlying the distribution of DO in a river system was used to determine discharge constraints for an economic optimization model which produced estimates of sewage treatment cost savings. Increasing the number of flow periods during the year enhances cost reducing opportunities even when land application processes are considered. Also, the least cost treatment process for year around operation may not be the least costly under multiple flow period management.
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    Notes: : Urban storm water data from four catchments near Miami, Florida, were collected and compiled by the U.S. Geological Survey and were used for testing the applicability of deterministic modeling for characterizing storm water flows from small land use areas. The four sites were:〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉(1) a 40.8-acre (0.165-km2) single family residential area(2) a 58.3-acre (0.236-km2) highway area(3) a 20.4-acre (0.083-km2) commercial area, and(4) a 14.7-acre (0.059-km2) multifamily residential area.A distributed routing rainfall-runoff model was used to simulate 328 storms at one-minute time intervals. Weighted Standard Error of Estimates (SEE) for storm runoff volume for calibration and verification simulations were 0.072 in. (1.829 mm) and 0.117 in. (2.972 mm), respectively, while the corresponding SEE for peak discharges were 5.761 cfs (0.163 m3/s) and 5.119 cfs (0.145 m3/s), respectively.
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    Notes: : A survey of 34 open hand dug wells was performed in the Senegal River basin of West Africa. Nitrate concentrations were determined on the well water samples over a six-month period. With the exception of two wells, the wells indicated varying levels of nitrate contamination. The range of concentrations was 0.10 to 880 mg/I as nitrate. These data when compared to physical characteristics, land use, and age using a chi-square analysis did not suggest any strong association. The fact that these wells are open and in a semiarid climate may be of such importance that the previously considered factors are of minor relative importance. Contamination may be primarily the result of foreign matter entering the well mouth.
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    Notes: : Survey data from samples of two types of Corps of Engineers planning studies have been collected. The nature of significant environmental issues affecting the studies was ascertained. Information concerning District administrative practices and communication patterns and extraorganizational coordination procedures was also obtained. Statistical analysis examined the relationships between these practices and procedures and the consideration given environmental issues in plan formulation and modification decisions. Environmental issues receive greater consideration in plan formulation decisions where District policies encourage interdisciplinary planning and direct communication between planners and environmental interests. Plan modification decisions reflect environmental considerations to a greater degree where significant controversy exists and where reviewing agencies actively pursue environmental issues.
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    Notes: : The impact of man made change on the hydrology of developing watersheds is frequently measured in terms of the ratio: flood peak after development to flood peak before development over a range of return periods. However, the analysis of urbanization effects on flood frequency presents a vexing problem because of a general lack of flood data in urban areas and also because of nonstationarity in the development process. Clearly, the flood peak ratio depends on the impervious fraction and percent of basin sewered and these factors have been taken into account in recent urban flood peak models. In genral, these models are developed either by: (1) split sample analysis of available annual flood data, or (2) by computer simulation using mathematical watershed models capable of representing man made changes. The present paper discusses the results of work in progress to characterize the impact of urbanization on small developing watersheds in Pennsylvania.
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    Notes: : A review of literature pertaining to the relative rates of evaporation from vegetation covered and open water bodies is presented. The review indicates that the only reliable experiments capable of correctly addressing this question are those conducted in situ. Experiments of this nature show the ratio of vegetation covered (swamp) evaporation to open water evaporation to generally be less than unity over extensive surfaces and to only approach unity for vegetation that is young and vigorous. Recent experimental evidence presented within a theoretical context, however, indicates that even in the latter situation the ratio may never reach unity. Consequently, over large lakes and reservoirs, the presence of vegetation may actually be a water conservation mechanism, with the eradication of the vegetation leading to significantly increased evaporative water losses.
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    Notes: : In urbanizing areas, the usual increase in flood flows also increases erosional capability of streams. In order to evaluate such tendencies quantitatively, 25 stream reaches were studied, and were classified as to whether erosion of the channel and banks was light, medium, or heavy. Analysis of characteristics indicated that (1) densely developed areas are correlated with greater erosion, (2) wide stream buffers of natural vegetation are correlated with lesser erosion, and (3) there is no definite correlation of erosion to slope or characteristics of soil.Erosional stream instability can be avoided by retention of storm water runoff, creating additional channel roughness or reducing channel slope during floods by drop structures, such as culverts, which restrict flow. Channel straightening and general bank protection should be minimized in such streams. Design of culverts should take such effects into consideration.
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    Notes: : Nebraska statutes give first preference for use of ground water to domestic purposes, second to agriculture, and third to manufacturing or industrial purposes.Rapid growth in the number of irrigation wells has caused an increasing number of water use conflicts. One such conflict arose from the installation and use of an irrigation well near Madison in Madison County, Nebraska. Pumping from the irrigation well coincided with head declines in nearby domestic wells screened in the same sand and gravel, but appeared unrelated to water level changes in wells screened in a higher saturated sand.A drawdown-recovery test was performed to determine the degree of hydraulic connection between the wells involved. Operation of the irrigation well was determined to be the cause of the head decline in nearby domestic wells screened in the same sand and gravel.Partly as a result of this conflict, legislation recently introduced into the state legislature would require that wells of higher preference be “reasonably” constructed if wells of lower preference are to be held liable for head loss.
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    Notes: : The effectiveness of water conservation policies on reduction of water consumption was evaluated by use of a multiple regression predictive model. Data were obtained from eight Iowa communities, with regard to water consumption and water conservation policies adopted during the drought of 1977. The proposed model, which takes precipitation, temperature, month effects, and uniqueness of communities into account, is considered superior to the use of simple percent changes in evaluating the significance of reduction in water consumption due to conservation efforts. Among the variety of policies reviewed, mandatory policies with per capita restrictions were found to be most effective. However, voluntary conservation policies also resulted in significant reduction in some communities located in close proximity to other communities with severer water shortages. High credibility of local governments as to water shortage information was singled out as the most important factor in successful conservation by water resource policymakers of these communities. Use of the proposed predictive model for water consumption was demonstrated. Recommendations regarding future water conservation were made.
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    Notes: : The current dredge and fill practices in locating canals along the periphery of wetlands in south Florida are transforming natural basins that originally had primarily slower subsurface drainage to ones that discharge larger quantities of water faster, via a surface drainage system. The objective of this paper is to develop an analytical technique and a numerical model in quantifying the difference of surface and subsurface runoff before and after the construction of drainage canals, and for delineating the effects of drains on channel level and regional water tables in adjacent areas in south Florida. The surface runoff model is formulated on the climatic water balance technique, and the ground water model is treated as a one dimensional transient phenomenon that forms a nonlinear flow problem. Analytical solutions are derived through problem linearization. These two models are coupled to estimate the impact of drainage canals on the adjacent water table drawdown.
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : This paper suggests theoretical models to forecast the demand for recreational boats in a metropolitan area, and their expected usage in various regional water bodies and marinas. The models, which are similar to those used in transportation studies, are implemented using statistical regression analysis and can be easily applied to a wide range of case studies. The models have been used to forecast demand for boats by type and size in the Cleveland S.M.S.A. The proportion of boats attracted to boating facilities on Lake Erie has been calculated. This study is significant in suggesting a theoretically sound methodology to project facilities required for recreational boats.
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  • 84
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : Escherichia coli, Streptococcus faecalis, Salmonella typhimurium, and Staphylococcus aureus were tested by plate counts and Warburg respirometry to determine effects of the presence of carbaryl in water. E. coli and S. typhimurium were initially stimulated in the presence of the insecticide whereas S. faecalis and S. aureus were inhibited. Over a period of days, all bacteria died off more rapidly in the presence of carbaryl. The implications of these data in regards to bacteriological testing of water quality are discussed.
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  • 85
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : The purpose of this paper is to show through the use of numerical examples that modern infiltration theory can be used in everyday hydrologic practice. The actual use of four methods of calculation of infiltration rates and of excess rainfall rates is demonstrated for the case when simultaneous data of rainfall and stream flow are available for a watershed. The four methods are: (1) the well known Π-index method, (2) the traditional Horton's infiltration capacity formula, (3) the less traditional Green and Ampt infiltration capacity formula, and (4) a ponding time approach. It is recommended that hydrologists become at least familiar with the numerical procedures involved in the ponding time and postponding infiltration approach. This approach, though not flawless, should be preferred to the other three methods if use of the other three is at all considered.
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  • 86
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    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : In developing strategies for nonpoint pollution control in designated 208 areas, one of the issues facing planners is the relative emphasis which should be placed upon urban versus agricultural non-point control. Five criteria which should be considered in designing an appropriate BMP strategy mix are discussed: 1) BMP cost effectiveness; 2) information and administrative cost; 3) flexibility, which relates to the cost of reversibility given substantial uncertainties; 4) associated effects, both direct and indirect; and 5) acceptability to local jurisdictions and groups. Whatever an evaluation on the basis of the first four criteria may suggest, acceptance of agricultural BMPs will be difficult to achieve, thus favoring urban oriented strategies, unless local revenue sources are developed to offer payments to farmers for BMP adoption.
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  • 87
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : Forecasts of future urban water demand traditionally have been made by the projection of historic trends in per capita consumption and population. This paper outlines the use of two deterministic models to forecast the residential component of urban water demand. The models incorporate specific representation of the activities which result in water consumption at each residence. Predictions of water use can then be made by modeling the changes expected in the number of these activities and the consumption for each such activity.
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  • 88
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
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  • 89
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
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  • 90
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
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  • 91
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  • 92
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: The reservoir sediment, trap efficiency value is the most informative single description of a reservoir. This value is the proportion of the incoming sediment that is deposited or trapped in the reservoir, usually expressed in percent. It conveys information on what happens to most of the sediment coming into the reservoir and is indicative of the reservoir's useful life. Since Brune's (1953) report very little research progress has been made on this important reservoir design factor in the last 25 years. This is primarily because of the lack of adequate reservoir sediment, trap efficiency data. Worthwhile data for analysis exists on only 20 ponded reservoirs in the U.S., in the size category usually built by agricultural interests. By analyzing available information on these 20 reservoirs, a new trap efficiency curve, which is slightly different from the one used for the last 25 years, was developed. Use of this new trap efficiency curve could mean a reduction in some reservoirs of 4–10 percent in the volume allocated to sediment storage.
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  • 93
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    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
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  • 94
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  • 95
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  • 96
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  • 97
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  • 98
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  • 99
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    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : Dramatic changes in Utah's economy caused by urbanization, large scale energy developments, and other influences will significantly reorient water use patterns. Thus, state water management policies and programs which have evolved over many years should be reevaluated. Several factors have influenced Utah water project financing policy. Among these have been: 1) the prominence of agriculture in the settlement of Utah and the century following, 2) dry cycles and periodic severe droughts, 3) recurring periods of economic depression, and 4) allocation of Colorado River water among the basin states and Mexico, Three revolving funds have been established. The Revolving Construction Fund, created in 1947, provides money for irrigation projects; the Cities Water Loan Fund, created in 1975, provides money to communities for developing culinary systems and improving quality to meet the demands of exploding population growth; and the Water Resources Conservation and Development Fund, created in 1978, provides money for large scale multipurpose water projects costing $1 million or more. The justification for these financing programs seems to be a mixture of rectifying market imperfections and income redistribution. However, trends in the agricultural sector and the multipurpose nature of large scale projects now being funded suggest that earlier justifications may no longer be valid. Rigorous project evaluation procedures, lacking in the past, should be adopted.
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  • 100
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    Journal of the American Water Resources Association 17 (1981), S. 0 
    ISSN: 1752-1688
    Source: Blackwell Publishing Journal Backfiles 1879-2005
    Topics: Architecture, Civil Engineering, Surveying , Geography
    Notes: : The Illinois v. Milwaukee Federal District Court decision is the most far reaching application yet of the federal common law of nuisance to interstate water pollution conflicts. Although a Federal Appelate Court recently rescinded part of the district court decision, Milwaukee must still upgrade its metropolitan sewage system to a level beyond that required by federal and state regulations. The improvements must be completed with or without federal aid. The case points out the apparent inability of the Clean Water Act, the most comprehensive federal legislation affecting the nation's water quality, to deal with certain interstate water quality conflicts. The Milwaukee decision could set a precedent for similar settlements elsewhere which may in turn affect the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's water quality clean up program. A more integrated, ecosystem conscious approach to management of shared water resources (e.g., the Great Lakes) would help reduce the need for court decisions like Illinois v. Milwaukee.
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