ALBERT

Notes: Although menthol is a common ingredient in pharmaceutical and food products, its sensory properties have not been studied extensively. The objective of this study was to describe and compare the temporal properties of l- and d-menthol. The cooling, burning, and bitterness of two menthol isomers (l-, d-) each at 0.01, 0.02, 0.04, 0.08% (w/v) in aqueous solution were evaluated by 11 trained panelists using time-intensity methodology. The intensity of all three attributes were evaluated continuously from introduction of the sample into the mouth, through expectoration at 10 s, until the termination of the sensation. The l-menthol samples had a greater maximum intensity and longer total duration of cooling and burning sensations than the d-menthol samples. In addition, maximum intensity and total duration of cooling and burn increased with concentration. In contrast, the total duration of the burning sensation was only dependent upon concentration of the l-isomer. Increasing menthol concentration significantly increased maximum intensity and total duration of bitterness for both isomers.

Notes: The purpose of this study was to assess the sensory characteristics of sodium lactate (SL) in combination with sodium tripolyphosphate (STP) in a model system at common usage levels for meat products. Using a gelatin-based (2%) system containing various concentrations of sodium lactate (0%, 1%, 2%, or 3%) and sodium tripolyphosphate (0%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, or 0.4%) a thirteen-member trained sensory panel scored samples for saltiness, bitterness, and soapiness. As sodium lactate and sodium tripolyphosphate levels increased, saltiness increased. Bitterness decreased with addition of 1% SL and increased with 2 and 3% SL. Soapiness also increased with increasing levels of SL. Bitterness and soapiness were not affected by increasing STP concentrations.

Notes: A battery of sensory tests is proposed to select potential descriptive panelists. This set of tests is flavor specific. Several abilities are examined: odor and taste recognition, odor memory, discrimination and descriptive capacities. A detailed example of such a battery to select a Camembert cheese descriptive panel is given. The objectives of each test are discussed. Stimuli are chosen to be consistent with the sensory properties which can be perceived in cheese. Score distributions demonstrate the discrimination among candidates for each test. Globally, results show the difficulty to find 20 panelists amongst about a hundred with good scores on each test. The panel leader has to choose the final criteria taking into account whether or not some abilities could be improved by training and whether weak capacities (small deficiencies) in some panel members could be compensated for by other subjects.

Notes: This paper compares experts and consumers to determine the degree to which they agree with each other on ratings of 37 sauce products, using the same sensory attributes. The paper also assesses the degree to which sensory attribute ratings correlate with objective physical measures. The ratings of experts (1-9 scale) and consumers (0–100 scale) agree quite highly, as shown by the high correlation between the two panels across the 37 products. The paper refutes the notion that consumers are incapable of validly rating the sensory aspects of products. The paper therefore presents the case for using consumers to assess the sensory characteristics of products.

Notes: Short-time continuous conching of chocolate offers significant economic advantages over traditional long-time batch methods. High-shear continous mixers can affect conching in a matter of minutes as compared to hours for traditional systems. Milk chocolate conched in two twin-screw, co-rotating, continous mixers operating in series was compared by a variety of sensory methods to chocolate conched by a batch method. A significant difference (P 〈 0.05) in flavor was found between chocolates conched at 60C by the continuous and batch methods, yet there was no preference for either chocolate. Chocolate conched by the batch method (23 h at 60C) had stronger caramel flavor (P 〈 .10) than chocolate conched continuously, but there were no significant differences (P 〈 .10) in sweet, chocolate or milk flavor. In the continuous system, caramel flavor generally increased with conching temperature and residence time; although, at the highest temperature (95C) and the longest residence time (7.5 min) caramel flavor decreased. Increasing the temperature of continuous conching from 70 to 90C produced chocolate significantly (P 〈 .10) more like chocolate conched in a batch system for 21.5 h at 60C.

Notes: Texture of orange gels prepared with 15% fruit pulp, sucrose up to 55° Brix and five different gelling agents — kappa-carrageenan, kappa-carrageenan plus locust bean gum, alginate, gellan gum, and gellan, xanthan and locust bean gums — was studied by Free-Choice Profile (FCP) analysis. Maximum rupture force and deformation at rupture were also determined by uniaxial compression in an Instron texturometer. Generalized Procrustes Analysis applied to FCP data permitted differentiation between samples and informed on the textural attributes responsible for the observed differences. Sensory differences were in general in accordance with mechanical differences. However, carrageenan and gellan gum gels were differentiated with the sensory method applied but not with mechanical tests.

Notes: A method for the first step in the selection of trained sensory assessors, based on their skill in identifying basic tastes in low concentration solutions, was defined and evaluated. The solutions used were: 0.4 and 0.8% sucrose; 0.03, 0.04 and 0.06% citric acid; 0.08 and 0.15% sodium chloride; 0.02 and 0.03% caffeine. Concentration ranges were found adequate. The criterion for selection was to have over 65% correct answers. Out of 226 candidates who received the test, 141 (62%) were selected. The probability of a candidate having more than a certain percentage of correct answers was calculated. The influence of the dilution water quality on the perception of basic tastes was significant; distilled water was the most adequate.

Notes: To find selective and predictive tests in texture profiling, a series of 20 tests and 2 texture profiles were submitted to 25 subjects. Selection was carried out according to ranking, scoring and a texture property knowledge questionnaire. Two profiles were then done on 5 Bolognese sauce and 8 rice samples. Assessors were assessed by Spearman correlation coefficients for ranking tests, F values for scoring, average square canonical correlation coefficients for measuring the dimensionality of individual sample space, product discrimination and response repeatability for both Bolognese sauce and rice samples.Characterization test results showed that subject ability varied widely according to the test and the profile. Only one significant relationship between the texture property knowledge test and rice profile performances was found. More tests were successfully related to one or several texture attributes of both profiles. The ability to complete a complex profile could be discerned, albeit with difficulty, through simple selection tests.

Notes: The objective of this study was to assess the sensory characteristics of potassium lactate (PL) in combination with salt (NaCl) in a model system at common usage levels for meat systems. Using a gelatin-based (3%) model system containing various concentrations of potassium lactate (0%, 1%, 2%, and 3%) and sodium chloride (0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, 2.5%, and 3%), a sensory panel (10) selected for salt sensitivity (0.08% threshold or less) scored the intensity of saltiness and bitterness of each treatment combination using a scale of 0 = none and 15 = intense. As salt concentration increased, saltiness increased and bitterness decreased; as PL increased, saltiness and bitterness increased. At 2% salt, the bitterness of PL was masked; however, salt concentrations below and above 2% were less effective in bitterness reduction.

Notes: 3-AFC discrimination tests between‘threshold’concentration NaCl solutions and purified water stimuli were performed using a variety of interstimulus rinsing regimes to test predictions of test sensitivity based on the Sequential Sensitivity Analysis model. Superior performance on triads with NaCl as the‘odd’stimulus, over triads with water as the‘odd’stimulus, confirmed earlier research. It was possible, using SSA predictions, to find the right combination of rinses, to arrange for either set of triads to elicit strongly superior performance from judges. This manipulation was predicted by SSA but not by an unequal variance Thurstonian model. Failure of some SSA predictions highlighted the notion of stimulus enhancement by adaptation, leading to a modification of the model. Such manipulation of interstimulus rinses could form the basis for increasing or decreasing test sensitivity.

Notes: Two stereoisomeric phenolic compounds, (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin, were rated for perceived intensity of oral astringency and bitterness by trained judges using the scalar method. Mouth drying and mouth roughening were also assessed, since they are often associated with astringency. Amounts of 375, 750 and 1500 mg/L of each compound were tasted in red wine, and in a model system, similar in composition to a dry table wine. Preliminary tests showed that these concentrations were above the threshold level but within the range found in wine. A control sample (model solution or wine without the addition of the above phenolic compounds) was also evaluated. The results showed that the two compounds were both bitter and astringent. The high (-)-epicatechin concentration was significantly more bitter and astringent than the equal concentration of (+)-catechin in the model solution. Mouth drying and roughening ratings showed a similar increasing pattern with the ratings of astringency particularly at the higher concentrations. However, these attributes were rated differently from astringency suggesting that although they contribute to astringency, they are not subsumed by it.

Notes: Nonstructured line scales (NLS) are widely used in sensory and consumer research, normally generating a large amount of data to be introduced to computers for statistical analysis. This process can be very much accelerated with the use of special hardware and software. Available systems are efficient but costly. To overcome this last item a standard mouse was modified to be used as a measuring instrument, and a simple QBASIC program was developed to input the measured data into an ASCII file. The cost of the modified mouse was $60, and data input was 5 times faster than measuring distances with a ruler. Experiments designed to test the mouse showed that error measurements were small.

Notes: In sensory data sets, an important source of differences between panelists is in their use of the measurement scale. These differences can be summarized in differences in location, the overall level, and differences in dispersion, the range of the scale used. This paper discusses a method of correcting for these differences by jointly modeling location and dispersion using a see-saw algorithm. This approach is also applicable when scores are not normally distributed and when there is a (nonlinear) relationship between the dispersion and the location. The approach is illustrated with an example for flavor data of freeze-dried and hot-air dried peppers.

Notes: A statistical method for analyzing sensory profiling data obtained by means of fixed vocabulary or free choice profiling is discussed. The most interesting feature of this method is that it involves only simple statistical treatment and can therefore be performed using standard software packages. The outcomes of this method are compared to those of Generalized Procrustes Analysis on the basis of two data sets obtained, respectively, by means of fixed vocabulary and free choice profiling. A significance test is also discussed in order to assess whether the overall configuration of the products is meaningful. This significance test is based upon a simulation study involving the permutation procedure.

Notes: The objective of this study was to observe the impact of a perceptible difference in the liking of milk on consumption of the milk in both laboratory and cafeteria settings. We produced milk with no flavor defects and milk with a light oxidized flavor. The defect-free milk scored about 1 point higher than the off-flavored milk on a 9-point hedonic scale. We placed the same two milk products in the milk dispenser in a dormitory cafeteria for a total of 32 dinner meals and measured the amount of milk consumed. A subset of subjects from the cafeteria population also consumed the milks in a laboratory consumption test. In a second laboratory consumption test a different group of subjects consumed the two milks. The liking difference had no impact on consumption in the dormitory food service setting and either no impact or a small impact on consumption in a laboratory setting.

Notes: Pork patties from Musculus semimembranosus, were utilized by a sensory panel to develop a descriptive vocabulary for the sensory profiling of warmed-over flavor. Patties were derived from the meat of nonstressed and stressed animals and were stored at 4C for up to 5 days. An initial list containing 45 descriptive terms developed from the literature and a preliminary sample evaluation was presented to the panel. This list was modified over a 7 session period to 16 terms each with a corresponding reference material. Selection criteria were that terms should; have relevance to the product, discriminate clearly between samples, be nonredundant, and have cognitive clarity to the assessors. Criteria fulfillment was determined via representative sample and reference assessment, panel discussions and interpretation of Principal Component Analysis. During vocabulary development the panel showed dynamic changes in their use of the sensory vocabulary. Discriminative abilities were found to increase over the early sessions and appeared to stabilize in the final two sessions.

Notes: The objective of this study was to determine if hedonically different sweetness levels in yogurt, determined by the ideal-relative rating methods, affected the consumption of yogurt in a sensory specific satiety test. Fifteen subjects attended a preliminary session, six taste tests and three sensory specific satiety tests. During each taste test, subjects rated yogurt with one of the three levels of sweetness (high, optimum, and low) for six attributes. During each sensory specific satiety test, subjects were offered a large serving of yogurt with one of the sweetness levels. Liking for optimum or high sweet yogurts decreased more after consumption than the liking for the low sweet yogurt, however, the consumption of optimum and high sweet yogurts was also greater, thus confounding the experiment.

Notes: The feed-back procedure consists of informing assessors of the quality of their response (correct or incorrect) after each triangle test. This procedure showed a contrasted effect according to assessors’detection abilities. A decrease in performance was observed for assessors who had low detection abilities whereas a slight increase was observed for assessors who had higher detection abilities. When the feed-back procedure is followed by a comparison by tasting of the two products, the increase in performance from the beginning to the end of the session is larger than that of both feed-back and control (no information) groups. We suggest that information inference from previous tests, which allows assessors to perform better at subsequent tests, is facilitated by the presence of a double information (feed-back and product comparison). This effect might be due to an attentional process allowing assessors to focus their attention on the difference between the two products. An attempt was made to model learning effect by variation of attentional weights.

Notes: One objective of this study was to compare taste test ratings with amounts consumed and postconsumption ratings made as iced teas of different strengths were repeatedly consumed. The second objective was to determine whether sensory specific satiety could be used as a rapid indicator of long term acceptability of the teas. Subjects first rated their liking of and the flavor intensity of several samples of lemon flavored iced tea. Two tea concentrations were selected from this test to represent distinctly different flavor intensities. Taste test liking ratings of the strong concentration were higher than those of the weak concentration. Subjects consumed either the strong or the weak iced tea ad lib on 20 different afternoons over a 2-month period and rated their liking of the tea after each session. We measured the amount of tea consumed each time. On repeated consumption the subjects liked the weaker tea better than the stronger tea. Subjects consumed about the same amount of each tea. A different group of 15 subjects participated in a sensory specific satiety study of the same two teas. Those subjects drank more of the weak tea than the strong tea.

Notes: Proteins in saliva samples taken from twelve subjects immediately before and immediately after tasting astringent solutions were analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography. Although considerable variation in both the qualitative and quantitative protein pattern was observed among individuals, three peaks appeared to be common to the majority of the chromatograms. The tasting of the astringent solutions resulted in detectable changes in the protein profile of the saliva samples, observed in all the chromatograms examined, and attributed to the interactions of the saliva proteins with the astringent phenolic compounds. The appearance of a major peak at 8 min after the tasting of the astringent compounds common to most of the saliva chromatograms was attributed to the formation of soluble protein-phenol complexes.

Notes: paungency is a physical sensation usually perceived as a component of flavor. Foods and beverages which are described as pungent often impart unpalatable sensations to those uninitiated in the experience. Variations in pungency were examined in whiskies, ethanol-water mixtures, and whisky model systems. Effects on sensory pungency of changes in composition showed that pungency in whisky is not only dependent on the concentration of ethanol in the headspace, but also on a complex of other effects.

Notes: Twenty judges performed a variety of chemosensory tasks in order to select the best scores to form a panel for coffee evaluation. An average of correct responses (P%), one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and principal components analysis (PCA) were compared. The tests involved: ability to recognize the four basic tastes, identification and matching of odors, taste intensity evaluation and perception of small differences in taste. P% accounted for 71.17 ± 4.34% and 10 of the judges had scores greater than the final average. ANOVA and PCA resulted in 2 different panels consisting of 9 and 12 judges, respectively. The panel was composed by the nine panelists selected by the three methods. The other three panelists that were doubtful could improve to the point of acceptance with additional training. These methods should be used simultaneously to have more security in the acceptance or rejection of panelists.

Notes: Consumers want meat products that are healthful and affordable. However, consumers will repurchase a product only if it tastes good. Consumers identified reasons for purchasing frankfurters and evaluated overall acceptability of 10 commercially available frankfurters. Consumers listed “taste” as the most important factor when purchasing frankfurters; only 16% of the consumers indicated that nutrition/health was the most important criterion. Nineteen consumer-perceived sensory and liking attributes were measured for the frankfurters in this study. The intensities of the attributes ranged from low to moderately high. All the frankfurters scored in the low to moderate range for overall acceptability. Most of the scores for liking of individual attributes correlated highly with overall liking, indicating that many of the questions relating to attribute liking could be eliminated.

Notes: In a study of pungency in food systems, three carriers (water, cheese sauce, starch paste) with varying fat levels (none, low, medium, high), synthetic capsaicin concentrations (0.0, 0.4, 0.8, 1.3 ppm), and serving temperatures (25 and 38C) were formulated. Panelists evaluated sensory heat intensity over a 3-min interval. Time-intensity parameters (maximum intensity-MAX, time to maximum intensity-TMAX, and rate of release-RATE) were evaluated. Overall, intensity scores increased as capsaicin concentration increased. The increase was related to carrier and fat level. Water samples (0.4, 0.8, and 1.3 ppm) were perceived as more intense than cheese or starch samples at the same capsaicin level. Generally, increasing the fat level resulted in lower intensity scores. Warming samples increased RATE, the only parameter affected by temperature. The training method was effective when water was the carrier. However, physical or chemical interactions that occur in simple food systems may influence perceived pungency.

Notes: The taste quality of 27 stimuli equi-intense to 100 mM NaCl was described by 10 subjects using cross-modality matching with Munsell colors. Subjects were instructed to use one color for each perceived taste quality. An initial set of 9 stimuli covering the range of taste qualities was used by the subjects to build their own spectrum of colors to match taste qualities. Subjects then used their system to describe the quality of 18 sweet and/or bitter stimuli. All subjects were able to develop and consistently use Munsell colors to describe taste quality. This psychophysical method for taste description could allow for a better discrimination among taste stimuli than the traditional use of five adjectives. Three-dimensional plots in L, a, b coordinates of the color spaces produced by the subjects suggest sweetness and bitterness may not be unitary qualities, and that semantics may not be sufficient to describe taste quality.

Notes: The objective of this study was to determine if higher fiber levels in a food contributed to greater sensory specific satiety. Thirty-two subjects tasted and rated their liking of small samples of nine foods (including the test food) before and after a test meal. Test meals consisted of 500 kcal (2092 kJ) of a soup or a muffin. Both a high-fiber (10g) and low-fiber (1g) version of a soup and a muffin were tested. High-fiber versions contained added microcrystalline cellulose. Data from the soup and muffin treatments were analyzed separately. Each of the test meals resulted in a greater decrease in liking for the food eaten versus the uneaten foods. However, there was no increase in sensory specific satiety for the high-fiber treatments versus the low-fiber treatments. There was also no main effect for gender.

Notes: Currently no standard testing methods exist for finished products eliciting oral heat. In this study, descriptive sensory analysis was used to investigate the effects of rinsing and interstimulus time on measurements of capsaicin heat in tomato-based salsa at three oral locations (tongue, oral cavity, throat). Seven samples were tested daily with variations in intervals between stimuli (30 s, 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 min) and with or without rinsing (crackers and water). Rinsing significantly increased repeatability and increased the rate of heat decay across all loci. An exponential heat decay was observed. Tongue heat was significantly higher than oral cavity and throat burn, and slight sensitization and desensitization occurred with short and long interstimulus times, respectively. This study showed that seven samples of medium-heat salsa could be tested daily with at least 16 min between samples and liberal rinsing with crackers and water.

Notes: Three groups of ten naive assessors were recruited to perform an odor profiling of 10 orange juices using 8 odor descriptors. These panels differed on the way they learned each descriptor. Group 1R learned to match one descriptor with one external standard; group 3R learned to associate one descriptor with 3 external standards; group OR defined by itself the 8 descriptors from a set of orange juices. Results showed that the use of one standard per descriptor seemed to be only efficient when the standard was typical of the odor perception in the orange juices. Learning one odor concept with 3 standards led to redundant use of discriminant descriptors and failed on the agreement among assessors. Finally, group OR was a discriminant as well a homogenous panel.

Notes: The effects of product information on responses to frankfurter sausages and chocolate bars were studied by comparing sensory and hedonic ratings in two conditions: blind tasting and tasting with information present. Furthermore, the effect of information alone was investigated by having the subjects rate the expected sensory and hedonic intensities of the products on the basis of packages with different claims. Three groups of subjects were tested by giving them different information: The basic group (no added claims, n=31), the reduced-fat group (products claimed to have reduced-fat, n=29) and the flavorful group (products claimed to have full meat/chocolate flavor, n=31). Product information increased the rated pleasantness of the frankfurter in all three information groups compared to the blind ratings. The information did not affect the pleasantness of the chocolate bars. The expected attribute intensities of the frankfurters and chocolates were rated lower by the reduced-fat group than by the other groups. Overall, the effect of product information was more clearly seen in ratings of sensory attributes than in pleasantness ratings.

Notes: A sensory panel utilized chicken patties from Pectoralis major muscle to develop a descriptive vocabulary for warmed-over flavor. Patties were subjected to 4 different cooking temperatures and stored at 4C for up to 4 days. A list of 33 descriptive terms, developed from the literature and a preliminary sample evaluation was modified over 5 daily sessions to 18 terms with corresponding references. In the term selection process the criteria used were, that terms should; have relevance to the product, discriminate clearly between samples, be nonredundant, and have cognitive clarity to the assessors. A comprehensive vocabulary was developed that described the sensory dimensions present in the samples. Over sessions the panel was found to display dynamic changes in their use of the sensory vocabulary. Overall, panel discriminative abilities were enhanced and a process of sensory learning was observed.

Notes: The beta-binomial model is combined with a Thurstonian psychometric function to obtain estimates of the parameters of a distribution applicable to replicated difference tests. A method of estimating the variance of d’obtained from these tests is provided. A formula for determining sample size, which is composed of the number of trials (or panelists) and the number of replications, to determine d’is also given.

Notes: Using a Rank-Rating method, d’values were obtained for stimuli from a model system using 15-point, 9-point, 7-point and 5-point category scales. For an apple/grape juice system, d’values were compared for 9-point and 7-point scales. There was general agreement on d’values among the scales, except where stimuli had their scores ‘bunched’into one category: this tended to occur for the strongest and weakest stimuli for Rank-Rating and for the scales with fewer points. Bunching altered distribution variances and distorted the calculated d’values. Further study gave d’values for the discrimination of confusable stimuli, using paired-comparison and rating data, thus providing numerical measures of their relative sensitivity.

Notes: Two simple methods were followed to determine detection thresholds for the taste of substances in aqueous solution. The methods applied were: a modification of the ascending method of limits and a method based on the use of scales. Detection thresholds were calculated for the four basic tastes (sweet, salty, acid, and bitterness), umami and metallic. Reference substances for each taste were sucrose, sodium chloride, citric acid, caffeine, monosodium glutamate and iron (II) sulfate heptahydrate and the results of the two methods were compared. We found that the threshold values calculated by method ASTM-679 was within the range of concentrations identified with the scales method.

Notes: A linguistic format for sensory assessment of foods as well as computational methods to analyze taste panel opinions have been developed within the framework of fuzzy set theory. The methodology is demonstrated via sensory analysis of roasted peanuts. Sensory analysis was represented as linguistic values and associated truth values for attributes such as roast flavor, bitterness and overall quality. This format allowed panelists to describe and discriminate different roast characteristics. Replicate analyses of the same sample were reasonably consistent. The linguistic information was simple yet rich in meaning and could be used to make inferences for quality and process control. Yager's ordered weighted median aggregation operator was used to estimate the expected linguistic values for aroma, flavor, bitterness, sweetness, color and overall quality.

Notes: The relative importance of visual and tactile cues in consumer assessments of‘Royal Gala’apple ripeness were studied in relation to commercial maturity indices which included background color, blush, weight and skin greasiness. Apples were evaluated by consumers under 3 sensory conditions to isolate their use of visual and tactile cues. Individual fruit were harvested to provide apples which independently varied in background color, blush and weight. Visual cues of skin color were found to be greater drivers of perceived apple ripeness than tactile cues of skin greasiness and apple firmness. Amongst the visual cues tested, the hue of the background color had the greatest impact on consumer judgments of‘Royal Gala’apple ripeness. Consumer's ideal‘Royal Gala’apple ripeness was achieved with a background color between chip levels 5 and 8, blush coverage between 33-66% and weighing between 130-142 g.

Notes: Time-Intensity (T-I) and Gustatory Reaction Time (GRT) methodologies were used to study the relative sweetness of sucrose and fructose at 25C. Eleven panelists evaluated nine concentrations (5 to 45%, w/v) of sucrose and fructose by T-I and seven parameters were determined. Higher values were obtained for fructose at 25, 30 and 35% for Maximum Intensity; at 35, 40 and 45% for the Area Under the Curve; at 40 and 45% for Time to decline the Intensity to half of its maximum value and at 45% for Rate of Increase. Ten subjects evaluated seven concentrations (3 to 15%, w/v) of sucrose and fructose by the GRT procedure. Fructose had shorter GRT than sucrose at 3 and 4.5%. Thus, fructose at 25, 30 and 35%, has a more intense and at 40% more persistent sweetness than sucrose and is detected earlier than sucrose at concentrations near gustatory threshold.

Notes: This paper reports the effect of consumer involvement on overall acceptance of frozen peas used in green salad and the effect of consumer involvement on the consumer's ability to perceive variations in a set of physical/chemical characteristics such as AIS (Alcohol Insoluble Solids) and color. The results reveal that consumers with high involvement evaluate 16 experimentally varied pea samples more in accordance with quality indicators used in the industry than consumers with low involvement. In our study 61% of the consumers were highly involved. For low involved consumers there was no relation between average acceptance and the quality indicators used by producer/retailer and retailer/consumer. High involved consumers could identify more of the physical/chemical variation in the pea samples than the low involved consumers. The results stress the importance of a preliminary segmentation of consumers. The low involved consumers do not seem to have any specific preferences for any of the samples included in the study although samples are varied considerably with respect to size, color and amount of sucrose. It may be considered as indifference. An obvious conclusion to draw from the results of this study is to concentrate on the highly involved consumers in further product development.

Notes: Taste stimuli with a single solute were not judged as tasting equally singular; this confirmed earlier results, except in this study the possibility of the results being caused by trigeminal effects was virtually eliminated. Binary mixtures were generally perceived as more mixed than single solute stimuli, indicating a degree of analytic mixing. However, a caffeine/KCl mixture was perceived as more singular tasting than some single solute stimuli, indicating a degree of synthetic mixing. A preliminary examination was made of the hypotheses that the perceived mixedness of a taste mixture might be determined by a summation of the mixedness of its components or alternatively by latency effects.

Notes: The globalization of the food trade has caused an increased interest in the translation of sensory descriptive terms. To deal with this issue the theory and practice of language, translation and sensory terminology were taken into account. The influence of culture on language and the relationship between words and meaning, as well as the verbalization of sensory stimuli and the organisation of a system of terminology were considered. In conclusion it was emphasized that in translation it is necessary to focus the attention primarily on stimuli rather than on words. Interest has to be placed in reality (i.e. perception and scaling of stimuli) and not on the representation of reality (i.e. words).

Notes: The effects of two doses (2.0 and 3.5 kGy) of nonradioactive irradiation on flavor, texture and aroma were compared to nonirradiated controls for (1) frozen raw and precooked, ground beef patties with 10 and 22% fat packaged in vacuum or aerobically; (2) frozen, vacuum-packaged, boneless beef steaks; and (3) chilled, vacuum-packaged, boneless, beef steaks that were repackaged in an oxygen-permeable film (PVC) after 14 days of storage. Samples were evaluated by a highly trained descriptive panel for fifteen sensory attributes for ground beef patties and eighteen sensory attributes for whole muscle beef. Irradiation had minimal effects on flavor, texture, and aroma of frozen, raw and precooked, ground beef patties; frozen boneless beef steaks; and vacuum-packaged, chilled, boneless, beef steaks. Reintroduction of oxygen to irradiated beef by repackaging into PVC film after vacuum aging increased liver-like (at 3.5 kGy) and toughness (at 2.0 kGy) attributes and slightly decreased beef identity and browned/roasted flavor notes (at 2.0 kGy.)

Notes: The ABX test or matching-to-sample is a discrimination procedure involving presentation of both test and control items, and then presentation of one of the two items as a blind sample. The third (blind sample) must then be identified correctly to match it to the one correct alternative from the inspection phase. We hypothesized that the ABX test might have an advantage over other discrimination methods due to a warm-up effect arising from the inspection phase containing both test and control items. Furthermore, the ABX test might prove generally useful like the triangle test since it can be used when there is no specified attribute to be discriminated. The ABX test was compared to several other discrimination procedures. No advantage was observed in a variety of stimuli varying in complexity and in the difficulty of the discrimination.

Notes: Idiazábal cheese is an uncooked pressed cheese, with Appellation of Origin, elaborated with raw ewes’milk. The seasonal characteristic of the Idiazábal cheese, together with other factors such as physical, chemical and microbiological features of the milk, as well as climatic and geographic conditions, can have an influence upon the sensory properties of cheese. The wide acceptance of ewes’milk cheese in Spain and the fact that no sensory characterization studies have been developed for the Idiazábal cheese led to the realization of the present work, that aims at characterization of the cheese from a sensory standpoint and at describing its degree of homogeneity taking into account factors such as the month and cheese factory of elaboration. After carrying out the Quantitative Descriptive Analysis, which included 22 descriptors, and through a jury of specialists, factor analysis enabled us to classify Idiazábal cheese as a slightly pungent cheese in odor, flavor and aftertaste, with its own characteristic flavor and a firm, moderately grainy texture. Nonetheless, a significant degree of heterogeneity was observed among the samples.

Notes: The Aromascan A32S, an “electronic nose”, was evaluated for its performance under conditions of total humidity control. Initially, it was shown that the very high concentration of water vapor in the headspace above a variety of food products used for this study, in comparison with the concentration of their aroma compounds, completely determined the response of the instrument's sensors. Differentiation between the food aromas was impossible. Only when the concentration of a nonaqueous analyte was increased to approximately the water vapor concentration was perfect distinction achieved between air samples with and without analyte. It was obvious that the instrument in its original form would not be capable of distinguishing subtle aroma differences as are encountered within one type of product in quality assurance, storage trials, taint studies etc. However, significant modification of the original version of the instrument and of the sample presentation procedure improved its performance. Now it was possible to distinguish in certain cases, not only between water vapor and food aromas, but also between different samples of the same types of dairy products. These tests were complemented by sensory evaluation by untrained panels. In this form, the Aromascan A32S offers a new vista for successful and reliable application in the food area.

Notes: A hedonic scoring method for evaluating wines with a small panel was examined for reliability, effects of training level and agreement with a traditional 20-point scoring technique. The method was found to differentiate among qualities of 14 domestic Sauvignon Blanc wines with good reliability. Four panels were tested, three with a high degree of experience in wine judging and a fourth consisting of fine wine consumers with no special training. The three experienced panels agreed well about the wines’ quality scores. Mean panel scores were less highly correlated (although still positive) with the untrained panel, which showed higher variability and lower reliability. Mean scores from the hedonic method were correlated at r =+0.94 with mean scores from a 20-point quality judging procedure. The small panel hedonic method is suitable for generating quality scores for consumer guidance in large scale wine surveys, as are commonly found in popular wine periodicals.

Notes: In the running of consumer studies aimed at obtaining information about products and services, it has become increasingly popular to include some sensory type questions about the characteristics of the test product as well as the standard question about overall preference. The implications of this for the resultant data are complex, and as Sudman and Schwarz (1989) point out question order effects have been implicated as one of the major causes of unreplicated or unexpected findings in survey research. This study aims to establish the effect of question order on overall preference scores and sensory scores in consumer studies. Results indicate that there is a significant effect of asking sensory questions on overall preference ratings and the position of the preference questions (relative to the sensory questions) also has implications for overall ratings of preference.

Notes: Judges sorted forty-three odor stimuli into groupings of conceptual similarity, repeating the task over several sessions. There was little between-judges consistency in conceptual structure inferred from the sorting patterns and little within-judges consistency over sessions. The latter suggests that ‘one time’ sorting experiments would give different results on repetition. In a second experiment, the effect of prior categorization experience on subsequent categorical learning was examined. Naive judges and judges from the first study performed further sortings to see whether they could be induced to sort into a chosen set of perfumery categories. Various cues were given: category names, exemplar stimuli, numbers of stimuli within each category and finally the ‘correct’ answers. Increasing the cues increased the tendency to sort according to the a priori plan but complete success was not achieved. Judges who had previously sorted the stimuli according to their own conceptual structure, found the a priori perfumery structure harder to learn than naive judges.

Notes: The Thurstonian prediction that judges will get a higher proportion of correct 3-AFC tests than triangle tests was confirmed using a yogurt system. As predicted, d′ values for the triangle and 3-AFC tests corresponded. Sequential Sensitivity Analysis predictions for the sensitivity of various tasting sequences were confirmed for the 3-AFC test but not the triangle test. Further predictions that the 2-AFC is more sensitive than the 3-AFC were confirmed. This increase in sensitivity more than offset the greater statistical power of the 3-AFC. Difficulties of specifying the nature of the difference for the 2-AFC and 3-AFC tests were overcome using a warm-up procedure.

Notes: The effect of a warm-up sample on reliability of attribute intensity ratings from descriptive panel evaluations was studied by: (1) using a warm-up sample prior to test samples (WU), (2) using a warm-up sample prior to test samples and providing panel consensus attribute ratings for the warm-up sample to panelists (WUC), and (3) providing no warm-up sample (NWU). The standard deviation of ratings from 7 and 4 of 11 attributes for all samples was smallest in WUC and WU, respectively. In paired t-tests, significant differences were found between duplications in 0, 1 and 4 of 11 attributes in WUC, WU and NWU, respectively. Regression analysis of percent fat vs attribute intensity ratings showed the largest R2 from 6, 2, and 2 of 10 significant regression models in WUC, WU, and NWU, respectively. To maximize reliability of descriptive analysis ratings, WUC should be used.

Notes: A specific descriptive lexicon has been developed to evaluate the flavor of Spanish “Serrano” dry-cured ham. Dry-curing of pork legs produces a unique flavor difficult to define in regular meat terms. This lexicon for the flavor of dry-cured ham may be used by researchers to study flavor-development during the curing process. In this paper we have applied the lexicon to the study of dry-cured flavor developed in two different manufacturing processes that differ only in the length of the drying stage. The long processed dry-cured ham (12 months) is stronger for 8 of the 16 sensory attributes studied than the short processed dry-cured ham (7 months). During the long curing process of the ripening-drying stage, we found that the typical dry-cured flavor developed was defined by three factors: “cured flavor,”“off-flavor” and “pork flavor,” whereas in the short curing process typical dry-cured flavor was not fully developed.

Notes: d′ is an estimate of δ, a measure of the degree of sensory difference between two products, that can be obtained easily using tables, from the proportion of difference tests performed correctly. Tables of δ are available for the 2-AFC, 3-AFC, triangular and duo-trio tests. Tables for calculating the variance of d′ for these tests are provided in this paper. They can be used for comparison of d's, especially for those obtained from different difference tests. A simple procedure is described here for computing values for the variance of d′. Having obtained the variance, confidence intervals for d′ can be obtained, tests of significance for d′ can be made as well as tests of whether two or more d's are significantly different. The formula and tables for the number of judgments required for the estimation of δ are given also in this paper.

Notes: A recent article (Moskowitz 1996) presented “evidence” to demonstrate that consumer and expert panels are equally competent for rating products on their descriptive attributes. The purpose of this note is to show that the evidence presented by the Moskowitz article is of dubious value for the purpose of comparing panels. Some examples: the claim that the spread of the means indicates one panel's ability to discriminate better than the other is misleading —panel variability must be taken into account. Whereas the article's interpretation of high and low correlations favors consumers, there is another interpretation that favors experts, and neither opinion necessarily follows from the data. Also, a claim that both panels have equal predictive ability because principal component prediction models yield high R2 values will be demonstrated to have minimal statistical substance by comparing the results to a similar analysis simulated with random data.

Notes: In the multifaceted category research study described herein, several category appraisal studies are conducted (e.g., consumer, descriptive, instrumental). The main applications of this approach are (1) the thorough understanding of the product category in terms of the products’ characteristics and its consumer responses, and (2) the establishment of a data base used to interpret the category's consumer responses through laboratory data (e.g., descriptive, instrumental data).A multifaceted category research study was completed for commercial hot dogs to demonstrate the methodology and the applications of this approach. The descriptive category review showed two main segments of products with unique flavor and texture characteristics: a meat and a poultry/grain segment. Through consumer-descriptive data relationships, the product category's critical attributes (i.e., attributes that affect consumer liking), and the attributes that signal consumer responses of interest were identified. The hot dogs’ critical attributes needed to ensure high liking are: cured meat, smoke, moistness, moisture release, cohesiveness, cohesiveness of mass, oiliness, fat aromatic, sweetness and saltiness. Descriptive attributes that signal consumer HOT DOG FLAVOR and CHEWINESS were also identified.

Notes: This study examined the contributions of stimulus fat content and flavor volatiles to the perception of fat in a milk model system. The model system was formulated by adding bland vegetable oil (0%, 5%, or 10% w/v) and natural cream flavor (0%, 0.5% or 1% w/v) to a skim milk base. Panelists judged pairs of samples for similarity on the basis of three attributes (fat content, mouthcoating and thickness) and the results were analyzed using a multidimensional scaling procedure. Two-dimensional solutions best represented the data. The stimulus spaces for fat content and mouthcoating were visually similar to each other and provided reasonable separation of the samples. Instrumental measures helped to define the underlying dimensions of the stimulus space for fat content. Dimension 1 related to texture and included the contributions of viscosity, and fat particle size and number distribution; dimension 2 related to flavor perception. The sample with a moderate fat content (5%) and the highest concentration of added cream flavor (1%) was perceived to be similar to the 10% fat samples with added flavor. Thus, the added flavor provided the sensation of higher fat content. These data suggest that flavor plays an important role in the preception of fat in dairy foods. A psychophysical model of fat perception in dairy foods is proposed which includes the contribution of viscosity, fat particle size and number distribution, and volatile flavor perceptions.

Notes: Sensory research on kiwifruit has shown that specific sugars and acids, and volatile flavor compounds have causative effects on “sweet” and “acid” aroma and flavor attributes. New Zealand consumers (n = 162) assessed the perceived flavor intensity and acceptability of three volatile flavor compounds (ethyl butanoate, E-2-hexenal and hexanal) at varying levels in a model base solution. Increasing levels of ethyl butanoate positively affected all the acceptability attributes (“overall liking,”“liking of aroma,”“liking of flavor”) as well as increased the perceived intensity of “kiwifruit aroma” and “kiwifruit flavor.” Increasing levels of E-2-hexenal negatively affected all the acceptability attributes but increased the perceived intensity of “kiwifruit aroma” and “acid flavor.” An increase in hexanal increased perceived intensity of “kiwifruit aroma.” Ethyl butanoate and E-2-hexenel at the levels tested had the most prominent effects on consumer perceived intensity and acceptability of the “kiwifruit flavor.”

Notes: Seventy-nine children ages 36–71 months evaluated 2% commercial UHT milk and 2% commercial pasteurized milk for taste, color and mouthfeel with age appropriate facial hedonic scales with Peryam and Kroll verbal descriptors. Children significantly preferred the pasteurized milk over UHT milk for taste and mouthfeel attributes. Descriptive analysis of milks with an adult trained panel showed a significantly higher cooked note in UHT milk products which may explain the difference in preference. The results also showed that children 36–47 months were able to use the 3-point scale; children 47–59 months the 5-point scale; and children 60–71 months the 7-point scale to score preferences for food. Data transformation for a 0 to 100 point scale provided ease of comparison between age groups. Using the appropriate testing instruments, young children were able to provide valid food preference information.

Notes: The objective of this study was to compare data obtained using descriptive analysis (DA) and free-choice profiling (FCP) of a simple model solution. Three menthol isomers (l-, d-, dl-), each at 0.01, 0.02, and 0.04% (w/v), were tested. A trained DA panel (n = 11) used two aroma, three nasal-sensation, two taste, and five mouth-sensation terms to describe the samples. An untrained panel (n = 15) used FCP to assess the same solutions. Individual FCP panelists used from nine to twenty-one terms. All DA terms significantly discriminated among the samples. Seven to eighteen of the FCP panelist descriptors significantly discriminated among the samples. Procrustes analyses (PA) indicated that FCP and DA similarly discriminated among the samples, possibly because the solutions were essentially one dimensional. Sample loadings on dimension 1 of both spaces were correlated (r = 0.966) as were dimension 2 loadings (r = 0.783). The FCP Rc-value was 91.2% and the DA Rc value was 85.6%. At higher concentrations (0.04 and 0.02%) l-menthol was significantly stronger than d-menthol in eucalyptus aroma, nasal clearing, all mouth cooling attributes, and bitter attertaste. At 0.01 % concentration no significant differences were detected among the menthol isomers.

Notes: The relationships among 13 aroma, flavor, mouthfeel and appearance variables for 18 soluble coffees were analyzed using flavor profiling. Three-way ANOVA showed significant main effects for coffees and judges in all attributes. The data were submitted to principal component analyses (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA). Two sequential PCA were performed. The first PCA showed that flavor, bitterness and duration were the most important descriptors positively correlated with the first PC, while the variation in appearance properties dominated the second PC, negatively correlated with these attributes. Five attributes were eliminated and a subset of 8 variables was submitted to a second PCA. The meaning of the first two PC remained unchanged and, as expected, the total variation explained by the first four PC increased. Frequency of positive and negative judgments in both PC allowed to separate coffees into four categories.Confirming the choice of the variables, the CA revealed similar distribution of coffees into four clusters. Aroma, flavor and mouthfeel attributes seemed to play a more important role in the determination of clusters than the appearance variables.

Notes: Expectations are generated by a variety of factors. We indicate a flow chart for the role of expectations at the point of choice and in influencing sensory perception at the time of consumption. We review the sparse literature on how advertising, packaging and information generate sensory expectations. The application of various theories to explain the observed effects of sensory expectations are reviewed. There is overwhelming evidence for assimilation-contrast effect, although no studies have been specifically designed to detect it. Finally we review the reasons why individuals might differ in the way that expectations influence sensory perception. These reasons include ideas from persuasion literature and private body consciousness. A number of behavioral hypothesis that follow from these theories are developed.

Notes: The impact of 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) (earthy/musty), on the flavor evaluation of farm-raised catfish was assessed by a descriptive analysis panel, who are trained to evaluate flavor intensity using universal scales. Ideally, panelists should give the same intensity ratings for all attributes within a sample. Realistically, individual panelists perceive flavor intensity differently, because of variations in detection thresholds, adaptation, fatigue and enhancement or suppression. Experiments were designed to investigate problems associated with evaluating catfish flavor. Samples “spiked” with MIB had lower chickeny flavor than unspiked. Intensities of MIB in spiked samples that followed an equally spiked sample were lower. Problems can occur when catfish are presented at intervals less than 7 min. Panelists experienced difficulty in determining intensity differences of MIB flavor between sessions, but could determine differences in intensity of MIB within a session. These influences must be accounted for in experimental designs to assess catfish flavors.

Notes: A table is provided for testing the significance of R-index values. The use of the table is illustrated and the theory and assumptions behind the method are explained.

Notes: Taste intensity ratings are higher when many low-intensity stimuli are presented than when many high-intensity stimuli are presented. It is investigated whether similar contextual shifts occur for hedonic judgments.Experiment 1 assessed the perceived pleasantness of a heterogeneous stimulus set containing either a large number of quinine (unpleasant context) or sucrose (pleasant context) solutions. In Experiment 2 subjects made hedonic judgments for a set of sucrose solutions. They were classified pre-experimentally as ‘sweet-likers,’‘neutrals,’ or ‘sweet-dislikers.’ Stimulus frequency distributions were positively or negatively skewed. In Experiment 1, hedonic ratings in the pleasant context were lower than those obtained in the unpleasant context. In Experiment 2, no effect of stimulus context was found.It is argued that contextual shifts in hedonic judgments are found only if the stimuli differ substantially along the hedonic dimension. In addition, the subject groups should be homogeneous with regard to preference rank orders, and should be sufficiently large to allow testing with adequate statistical power.

Notes: Although extrusion is widely used for snack foods, there are few descriptive sensory analysis studies of extrudates. This study investigated the effects of potato granule type (flour or flakes), feed moisture content (16%, 18% and 20%) and addition of oil (0%, 2% and 4%) on sensory attributes of extrudates. Generalized Procrustes analysis (GPA) and Principal Component analysis (PCA) were used to describe the relationship among the sensory attributes. Additionally, GPA described the relationship between selected sensory and physical variables. Feed moisture content, as a primary factor, and added oil, as the secondary, affected the puff characteristics. High feed moisture puffs were high in hardness and chewiness, whereas low moisture ones were high in brownness, burnt flavor and fracturability. Added oil changed sensory expansion with relation to low feed moisture. Using GPA, physical properties related to appearance, color and texture were matched with corresponding sensory attributes.

Notes: Wine vinegar is a product obtained from wine acidification which contains at least 5% by wt. of acetic acid, in general without any additives or colorings.Aspects studied in this work include: the determination of the taste group thresholds (geometric mean of the individual best-estimate thresholds “BET”) of two different acids (citric and acetic acids) in aqueous solution and spanish vinegars produced from table and sherry wines. The results obtained suggest that wine vinegar can be considered something more than just an acidulant agent.In order to evaluate differences among wine vinegars, discriminant tests for twenty-five spanish vinegars (sherry, table and flavored vinegars) were applied. Six of the twelve attributes freely chosen by assessors allowed grouping of the spanish wine vinegars according to their sensory aspects.

Notes: Differences in sensory acuity and hedonic reactions to products lead to latent groups in pooled ratings data. Manufacturing locations and time differences also are sources of rating heterogeneity. Intensity and hedonic ratings are ordered categorical data. Categorical responses follow a multinomial distribution and this distribution can be applied to pooled data over trials if the multinomial probabilities are constant from trial to trial. The common test statistic used for comparing vectors of proportions or frequencies is the Pearson chi-square statistic. When ratings data are obtained from repeated ratings experiments or from a cluster sampling procedure, the covariance matrix for the vector of category proportions can differ dramatically from the one assumed for the multinomial model because of inter-trial. This effect is referred to as overdispersion. The standard multinomial model does not fit overdispersed multinomial data. The practical implication of this is that an inflated Type I error can result in a seriously erroneous conclusion. Another implication is that overdispersion is a measurable quantity that may be of interest because it can be used to signal the presence of latent segments. The Dirichlet-Multinomial (DM) model is introduced in this paper to fit overdispersed intensity and hedonic ratings data. Methods for estimating the parameters of the DM model and the test statistics based on them to test against a specified vector or compare vectors of proportions are given. A novel theoretical contribution of this paper is a method for calculating the power of the tests. This method is useful both in evaluating the tests and determining sample size and the number of trials. A test for goodness of fit of the multinomial model against the DM model is also given. The DM model can be extended further to the Generalized Dirichlet-Multinomial (GDM) model, in which multiple sources of variation are considered. The GDM model and its applications are discussed in this paper. Applications of the DM and GDM models in sensory and consumer research are illustrated using numerical examples.

Notes: The aim of this work was to set up the sensory profile and consumer preference test of three different Mozzarella cheeses (from full-fat cow milk, from low-fat cow milk and from full-fat water buffalo milk). The most remarkable difference in composition was the fat content. Nine commercial Mozzarella cheeses (three for each type) were evaluated in triplicate by a trained panel consisting of 10 assessors. Six Mozzarella cheeses (two for each type) out of the nine samples were selected and used for the preference test by 105 consumers. The three different Mozzarella cheeses were sensorially well differentiated. A good discrimination between the Mozzarella cheeses was obtained using the internal preference map method. The combination of cluster analysis and internal preference mapping has lead to a deeper understanding of consumer liking for Mozzarella cheeses.

Notes: The effect of flavor types (natural and artificial), aspartame (APM)/acesulfame potassium (Ace-K) blend ratios (50%/50% - 80%/20% sweetness contribution), and acid levels (50-70% dry basis) on flavor profiles of raspberry beverages was evaluated. Optimum flavor profiles of beverages sweetened with APM/Ace-K blends would have high fruit flavor scores, balanced sourness and astringency and minimal side tastes/aftertastes. Descriptive flavor profilists developed a lexicon of flavor/mouthfeel attributes for evaluating the samples in the design. The design was replicated 3 times. Acid level influenced sourness and sweetness scores; increasing acid levels increased sourness and slightly decreased sweetness. Natural flavor in beverages showed lower raspberry intensities across all acid levels and blend ratios than artificial flavor. APM/Ace-K blend ratio had no effect on flavor/mouthfeel attributes. Additionally, HIS side tastes were minimized across all APM/Ace-K blend ratios. The optimum natural flavor beverage would contain a 60/40 to 75/25 APM/Ace-K ratio with 58-70% acid (dry basis). Optimum artificial flavor beverages would contain 50/50 to 80/20 APM/Ace-K ratios with 57-68% acid (dry basis).

Notes: Three data collection procedures, sorting and two forms of projective mapping (PM), were compared for ease-of-use and the ability to produce meaningful spatial maps when analyzed using Multidimensional Scaling (MDS), Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA) or Coordinate Averaging (CA). Eighteen commercially available snack bars were evaluated for similarity-of-use by two panels of 24. MDS of the sorting data and Procrustes analyses of PM data collected on unlabeled axis grouped the bars according to function and provided a meaningful spatial relationship in one dimension. However, MDS analysis of these PM data grouped the bars by similarity-of-use and provided a meaningful spatial interpretation in two dimensions. The CA analysis was not effective in separating the bars by similarity-of-use but did provide an indication of liking. A comparison of spatial configurations using RV coefficients showed moderate correlations between the methods. A panelist survey showed no significant differences in the ease-of-use, task interest or level-of-satisfaction with the final arrangement between the sorting and the PM data collection methods, but panelists did find it easier to change their minds using the PM procedure.

Notes: Milk powders available commercially are of different qualities. The quality deviations may be due to inherent quality of the milk which in turn is dependent on various conditions like the fat content, the processing parameters, the storage time and the packaging materials used. The various brands of milk powders have been profiled sensorily for odor and flavor and also positioned using Canonical Discriminant Analysis (CDA). The study throws light on the relative qualities of the different brands, their positive and negative points and their relative position with respect to each other. The results indicate that the various types like whole milk powder, partially skimmed milk powder, skimmed milk powder and infant milk formula cluster together into the same group but the groups are separate from each other. The dominant quality attributes for the groups are different and are discussed in relation to the directional vectors.

Notes: In a double-blind crossover study, 94 symptomatic adult patients with allergic rhinitis rated sensory preferences for single exposures (2 sprays in each nostril) to three intranasal corticosteroids: triamcinolone acetonide AQ, beclomethasone dipropionate AQ, and fluticasone propionate. Each patient was given the medication and then immediately asked to use a 100-point scale to rate 13 attributes: comfort to take the medicine, medicine run-off, irritation, strength of urge to sneeze, strength of odor, liking odor, strength of taste, strength of bitter taste, liking taste, and moistness of nose and throat, and then (at least 2 min after administration) irritation, medicine run-off, and overall liking. The order of drug presentation was randomized across patients and a 30-min rest interval occurred between drug administrations. Triamcinolone was lower in odor strength than both beclomethasone and fluticasone (mean scores of 8 vs 57 and 52, respectively; P〈0.001) and the odor of triamcinolone was preferred to the odor of the two other sprays (mean score of 72 vs 55 and 55, respectively; P〈0.001). While the taste intensity ratings of the three sprays were not significantly different, the triamcinolone taste was liked more than that of fluticasone (mean scores of 55 vs 41, P〈0.04). Overall, triamcinolone was liked more than fluticasone (P〈0.05). In summary, patient preference testing has shown that triamcinolone is preferred over beclomethasone and/or fluticasone in terms of odor and taste. Such preferences may be important in treatment compliance and outcomes.

Notes: Ennis and Bi (1998) discussed the beta-binomial (BB) model for replicated difference and preference tests. Based on the BB model, tables of the minimum number of choice responses to achieve significance at α≦ 0.05 are provided for replicated 2-AFC, Duo-Trio, 3-AFC and Triangular tests. The theory underlying the tables, how to use the tables, as well as some examples to illustrate their use are given. The tables can be used to evaluate the results of replicated difference and preference tests using forced choice methods.

Notes: Influence of strain association, temperature, pH and storage on the sensory properties of low fat stirred yogurt was studied through a factorial design including three associations of thermophilic lactic acid bacteria (one Lactobacillus delbrueckii subsp. bulgaricus, one ropy and one nonropy Streptococcus thermophilus strains), three incubation temperatures (39C, 42C and 45C), two final fermentation pH (4.4 and 4.8) and two storage times (7 and 21 days). The 36 formulated yogurts were assessed by Quantitative Descriptive Analysis and by instrumental measurements: apparent viscosity (modified funnel of Posthumus), lactate and pH. Texture perceptions and acid taste, rather than other flavor properties, gave the best discrimination between samples according to strain association, temperature and final pH. Significant two-factor interaction displayed the concomitant influence of strain association and temperature on the sample texture properties. Instrumental parameters correlated best with thickness and acid taste (pH and lactate) and mouthcoating (apparent viscosity).

Notes: The objective of this study was to compare the differences in aroma of cooked rice samples. The rice aroma of four popular rice varieties in Taiwan (TC 189, TNu 70, TNu 67 and TC Sen 10) at different temperatures (18C, 25C and 60C) were analyzed by GC-MS system (using headspace capture collection) and evaluated by trained and naive panels. The GC-MS results indicated that the composition of the volatile components of rice was complicated and no single volatile compound contributed to the characteristics of rice aroma. Fourteen attributes were developed using modified quantitative descriptive analysis and evaluated with line scaling method. The 60C samples were higher in hot-steam-bread aroma, corn aroma, corn-leaf aroma and brown-rice aroma, while the 18C samples were higher in cold-steam-bread aroma and fermented-sour aroma. Compared to the other varieties, the TC Sen 10 was uniquely higher in plastic aroma, sulfur aroma and gasoline aroma. As expected, hedonic results showed that naive panelists preferred the overall aroma perception of the 60C samples. The relationship between the volatile compounds and descriptive attributes is discussed.

Notes: There are many ways in which a laboratory difference test differs from ‘real life’discrimination of foods. One of these is the interval of time between tasting the two stimuli to be discriminated. To investigate this, Cubero et al. (1995) investigated interstimulus delays of up to 1 min. for the same-different test, using a citrus flavored beverage as a medium. The present study extended this research by increasing the interstimulus delays up to 1 day. For judges unfamiliar with the stimuli, performance deteriorated as the time interval increased. For judges more familiar with the stimuli, performance deteriorated but not as much. The results were compatible with Cubero et al.'s hypothesis that different types of memory trace for the first (standard) stimulus were utilized for comparison with the second (comparison) stimulus.

Notes: Thirty Burgundy Pinot noir wines were evaluated by quantitative descriptive profile by nose (BN) and by mouth (BM) separately, by a trained panel composed of 12 judges. A specific vocabulary of 20 terms was developed. Sensory results were analyzed and compared by univariate and multivariate statistical techniques. Principal component analyses of the mean ratings BN and BM were fairly comparable regarding correlation among variables and the position of the wines. However, five sensory characteristics seem to be more intensely perceived BM, against 6 BN. Panel discrimination of the wines and panel repeatability in the measure were found to be slightly better BN than BM. A further canonical discriminant analysis on the data confirmed that panelists could well differentiate groups of wines from the same winemaker, probably corresponding to different style of winemaking.

Notes: Comparisons of volatile compounds released during consumption by different assessors with individual differences in the assessors’chewing patterns, saliva production rates and ultimately their expressions of perceived flavor have received little research attention to date, although such comparisons are fundamental to the understanding of flavor. To address this, eight untrained assessors were chosen and each consumed six Cheddar cheeses during Buccal Headspace Analysis of the volatile compounds released, while in parallel measures of each assessor's mastication behavior using Electromyography, their stimulated saliva production during consumption and their sensory perceptions of the cheeses flavor during Free Choice Profiling were determined. Relationships between the volatile compounds released and the sensory and physiological measures were investigated using Principal Components Analysis, Generalised Procrustes Analysis and Partial Least Squares regression. It was found that although there were differences between assessors’mastication behavior and saliva production rates, the assessors’individual volatile profiles obtained by Buccal Headspace Analysis were similar for each cheese examined. Also, Partial Least Squares was successful in predicting the most important flavor differences between cheeses from the volatile compounds released during their consumption by different assessors.

Notes: The perceived textural attributes of an English Cheddar were measured by a trained panel at various intervals during ripening, including those corresponding to mild and medium maturation times for this variety. The moisture content and pH were also monitored. After the recommended ripening period of 50 weeks the matured cheese was significantly less springy, firmer, harder, crumblier and creamier, indicating that textural attributes are related to the age of the Cheddar. Measures beyond the recommended maturation period revealed further significant differences. Comparisons of the measures taken at mild, medium and full maturity also revealed differences in the textural properties of the different classes of Cheddar. Significant correlations (p ≥0.01) between pH and springiness, crumbliness by fingers and creaminess suggested a strong relationship between these textural attributes and the extent of proteolysis. The results of this study revealed a strong relationship between age and the textural attributes of cheddar when restricted to one particular variety.

Notes: A computerized time intensity procedure was used to evaluate the retronasal aroma intensity of vanillin and limonene in oil/water emulsion. The maximum perceived retronasal intensity of limonene was decreased as oil content in the emulsion increased, but temporal perception (time to maximum intensity and total duration of perception) was not affected. Total duration of vanillin retronasal aroma increased as oil content increased, and salivary flow rate had a significant effect on perception of vanillin aroma. These results suggest that time intensity measurements may be a valuable tool for evaluating the effects of matrix interactions on retronasal aroma intensity.

Notes: Classical techniques of descriptive sensory analysis are useful in food characterization. However, these methods need trained assessors and an agreed vocabulary. Free Choice Profiling may be regarded as a good alternative as it allows descriptive profiles to be carried out with untrained assessors, although certain problems may arise in the generation of descriptors and their interpretation. The descriptive profiles, regarding different lots of toasted almonds, generated by a panel of semi-trained assessors and by a panel of expert assessors were compared. The resulting descriptors were basically the same for both panels. The semi-trained assessors generated less specific and, sometimes, ambiguous and redundant descriptors. The expert assessors showed a higher efficiency in the generation of descriptors, especially regarding texture. Both profiles were graphically similar, though a deeper analysis showed that only the expert assessors were able to discriminate very similar products. Using a panel of semi-trained assessors solves the main problems which arise when consumers are used in free choice profiling. However, both panels are not capable of discriminating very similar products.

Notes: The triangular method, the same-different rating method, and the standard same-different method were each used with 10 tasters to obtain estimates of the discriminability of two concentrations of a colorless beverage. There were no significant differences in d′, an index of discriminability, among the three tasks. In the light of this parity, a choice amongst the methods should be driven by practical considerations. When receiver operating characteristics (ROCs) were fitted to the rating data, the model underlying published tables of d′ was strongly supported, so that discriminability can be assessed from same-different data either by entering tables or by fitting ROC curves. Same-different methods appear more acceptable to tasters than the triangular method.

Notes: There are many ways in which a laboratory difference test differs from ‘real life’ discrimination of foods. One of these is the interval of time between tasting the two stimuli to be discriminated. To investigate this, judges performed same-different discrimination tests using a citrus flavored beverage as a medium. The time interval between tasting the standard and comparison stimuli was varied. In this initial study, short intervals of zero, 30, 60 s were examined. For judges unfamiltar with the stimuli, performance deteriorated as the time interval increased. For judges familiar with the stimuli, the zero time interval elicited best performance but there was no decrease in performance when the interval was increased from 30 to 60 s. The results were explained by hypothesizing different types of memory trace for the standard stimulus being utilized for comparison with the comparison stimulus.

Notes: Instrumental measurement of color places hue in a 360° continuum, but sensory description of color usually refers to distinct hues — red, green, yellow etc. Color evaluation of “Golden Delicious” apples by both an instrumental method and an experienced sensory panel was conducted to determine if sensory panelists perceive changes of golden apple color in green and yellow hues separately or on a hue continuum from green to yellow. Apple color changed from green to yellow during storage. Two different sensory scoring ballots were used to determine if sensory panelists view color in discrete green and yellow hues or on a green-to-yellow continuum. Data collected from this study demonstrated that sensory panelists can detect the color changes of decreasing greenness, increasing yellowness, and color change from green to yellow in an equal fashion. Hue angle represented the best predictor of sensory color perception.

Notes: Tables of means, over assessors, are often used to summarize the results of sensory profile experiments. These tables are sometimes further summarized by Principal Components Analysis (PCA) to give plots of the samples in the principal sensory dimensions. An alternative procedure is to use Generalized Procrutes Analysis (GPA) on the assessor data to allow for differences in usage of the vocabulary and in the proportion of the scale used. It is shown that these methods give different configurations in the principal sensory dimensions when applied to the data from a study of cheeses (Muir et al. 1995). Using a Jackknife method to calculate the variability of the samples in the principal sensory dimensions, the results from the GPA method are shown to have a higher dimensionality than from the PCA method. Jackknife estimates of variability are used to calculate confidence ellipses to attach to the sensory space maps.

Notes: Salivation may affect texture and taste perception. Thus, any influences that affect salivation also might affect a panelist's sensory responses. Twelve sensory panelists were compared for psychophysiological factors that might influence their salivary responses. Medication, body mass index (Quetelet), dieting-induced deprivation, nutrient deficiency, and caffeine, tannin, and fiber consumptions along with smoking were considered. Specific nutrient deficiencies or fiber consumption did not affect salivation of the panelists studied. All other factors, especially smoking and diet-induced deprivation, appeared to warrant further study with a larger population.

Notes: Sipwise and flowise presentation of taste stimuli were compared and better taste discrimination was noted for flowise presentation. Using a model system, discrimination between NaCl solutions and purified water, analysis with atomic absorption spectrophotometry indicated that the superiority of flowise presentation was due to reduction in stimulus variance. Flowise presentation was also superior for discrimination between commercially available natural spring waters.

Notes: This paper investigates the combined effects of price and product quality (overall liking) on the acceptance of restaurant pizza pies. The results reveal that when a panelist evaluates both liking and purchase intent (with price attached to the purchase intent question), product quality is a significantly stronger determinant of purchase intent than is the stated item price. For instance, a 10% increase in product quality (viz., liking) has the same effect on purchase intent as a 20% reduction in item price. The results are surprising, because for other categories investigated by the same method price is a significantly greater determinant of purchase intent. In terms of predictability, 57% of the variation in purchase intent ratings is accounted for by liking, 24% of the variation is accounted for by price, and the remaining 19% is due to error.

Notes: Time-Intensity Curves are often summarized by average curves. From these curves TI-parameters are inferred. In this paper a different method is proposed in which the shape of the curves is the central concept. Isotropic scaling factors are computed for each curve. These factors can be tabled and inspected. Often a large number of scaling factors will be computed, which makes it hard to study them in a table. In such cases they can be represented in a plot, for which in this paper PCA is suggested. In this plot a structure in the scaling factors for the different TI-curves may become visible. It is also possible to make a plot in which the homogeneity of the panel of subjects can be studied.

Notes: In order to evaluate the suitability of signal detection theory methods for assessing the discriminability of foods and beverages, the discriminability of two dairy milk products that differed in fat content was measured with two detection-theoretic methods: the single-interval rating method, and the same-different method. The nominal fat contents of the milk products were 0.1 and 1.6%. Measures of discriminability for three observers were derived by fitting receiver operating characteristics (ROCs) based on equal-variance normal models to the ratings of each observer with a procedure that combined jackknifing and maximum-likelihood estimation. The fitted ROCs provided a good fit to the data indicating that the equal-variance models were appropriate for these tasks. The best-fitting estimates of d′ obtained for each task were not significantly different, demonstrating that d′ is a measure of sensitivity that is largely independent of the task from which it is determined. However, estimates of proportion correct obtained for each task were shown to be significantly different.

Notes: Multidimensional scaling (MDS) procedures produce maps of stimulus points, the dimensions of which may be sensory and/or physicochemical attributes. Our objective was to test the efficiencies of a cyclic design and a MDS method in the study of saltiness perception. Two levels of NaCl (0.1% and 0.2%, w/v) were added to two nonionic and two ionic gum solutions prepared to two concentrations. Subjects scaled dissimilarities between pairs of solutions and rated each sample for flavor attributes. Solution pairs were selected using cyclic designs. Repeated measures ANOVA determined that added NaCl was the only significant factor affecting saltiness perception. In contrast, from KYST-2A MDS maps, we concluded that saltiness perception was influenced by gum property, gum concentration, presence of calcium and potassium, and related to binding of the sodium ion (Na+) as determined by23Na nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The MDS cyclic design successfully reduced the number of samples and subjects when using experienced subjects.

Notes: Since producer based sensory analysis of wine appellations remains in widespread use worldwide by wineries, modern sensory methods were developed for industry judge panels. U.S. appellations were studied using modern sensory analysis processes which accommodated the industry professionals’ biases for perceived quality and provincial sensory language. A panel was assembled comprised of wine industry quality experts (n = 26). First, judge quality biases were determined using a multi-wine preference-testing method (n = 48) in which judges freely record their aroma terms. Subsequently QDA° type strategies were used to create the sensory language from analysis of 1100 wine X judge interactions in which free use of terms was used to describe the wines. Next, an experiment analyzed the wines using a new descriptive analysis scorecard which contained the ten most frequently used terms; and scores were computed from the number of times terms were selected by the judges (frequency of use). Groups of sixteen wines, for which the judges had no large negative bias, from the Carneras American Viticutural Areas (AVA), were compared to those from California wine growing regions (Central Coast, Napa and Sonoma). Replicate trials showed Carneras AVA and Central Coast wines clustered in the principal components (PCA) analysis of the sensory data. The detection of regional typicalness by professionals: (1) was linked to their perceived quality bias, (2) was easily detected in high quality wines linked to grape attributes more than to winemaking attributes, and (3) was not possible when judges had determined that perceived wine quality was low. ANOVA and polar spider plot analysis of the clusters indicated that the important aroma attributes of Carneros wines included Citrus and Green Apples/Pears. Lastly, the sensory analysis data was compared to chemical analysis of terpenes for several wines (n = 22). Chardonnay terpene (linalool) concentrations were highly correlated (p 〈 0.01) with the attribute scores for Citrus which was important in the PCA analysis of the sensory data. These sensory processes offer a descriptive analysis process that accommodates the wine industry professional. The method also offers several advantages over flavor profiling methods including the reduction of the potentially confounding problems of “quality” and “standard terms” among industry professionals as well as speed and correlation with chemical analyses.

Notes: Nonparametric models for sensory discrimination methods are developed. In these models, the relationship between the probability of a correct response, Pc, and the measures for sensory discriminability or sensory difference, p1 and p2 are given. On the basis of the models, different sensitivities for triadic tests were compared including 3-AFC and triangle methods with the strong stimulus as the odd sample and with the weak stimulus as the odd sample. Predictions were made which can be tested experimentally.

Notes: A measure of the reliability (T-IR) of time-intensity measurements was developed based on the concept of standard deviation as a measure of panelist variability. The T-IR measure was applied to time-intensity data collected from 10 panelists evaluating the sweetness of 4 model sweetener solutions on horizontal and vertical time-intensity line orientations. T-IR scores showed that the panelists were similarly reliable across the sweeteners and orientations. As well, independent of scale orientation, responses to sweeteners were similarly reliable. The T-IR measure can be used to maintain a high level of performance by monitoring time-intensity panelists. T-IR also provides an objective method of selecting panelists for time-intensity panels.

Notes: Thurstonian modeling predictions were tested and confirmed for 3-AFC and triangle test methods, as well as for different versions of the tetrad test method, using judges who were required to discriminate bitterness in beer. Sequential Sensitivity Analysis predictions were also confirmed for 3-AFC/triangular methods but not for the tetrad method. It is hypothesized that memory effects might have interfered with the later prediction.

Notes: Sensory analysis has traditionally played a prominent role in quality control for food products. More and more principles from sensory analysis are also applied in the area of food product development, bringing sensory analysis more closely into the domain of marketing. Unfortunately, in practice integration between sensory and marketing practices is far from optimal. Differences in basic orientations between sensory and marketing are a major source contributing to this defective cooperation.Sensory analysis has traditionally been product oriented with an emphasis on internal validity of the test results. Implicitly or explicitly this approach emphasizes the relationships between sensory evaluation and characteristics of the product. Marketing, on the other hand, stresses the external validity of test results: the extent to which test results can be generalized to market behavior. Emphasis on external validity requires an approach to sensory analysis that is fundamentally different from current sensory practice in terms of type of respondents, type of stimuli, scaling procedures adopted and test circumstances.Closer integration between the product and consumer oriented approach to sensory analysis may contribute to the success of product development in the food industry. The literature suggests several factors that may contribute to a more fruitful cooperation between the two approaches to sensory analysis. The company's senior management plays a central role in the achievement of this integration by providing an infrastructure (in terms of personnel, organizational structure and financial resources) that paves the way for closer cooperation.

Notes: To determine quality characteristics of snack chips, six snack chip prototypes containing cowpea flour, cornmeal, wheat flour and cornstarch (26, 34, and 42%) were formulated. Desirable characteristics as determined by three focus groups were a golden yellow color in a thin, smooth corn-chip form with crunchy or crispy texture, greaseless or dry mouthfeel and salty corn flavor. Chips were undesirable if brown-colored, thick, oily or greasy, had either hard or crumbly texture, and had bland, fishy, or burnt flavors. In consumer acceptance tests, commercial products were found to be more appealing than the experimental products. A discriminant model based on instrumental measurements of color and texture from 11 snack chip samples (six prototypes and five commercial samples) correctly grouped 100% of the acceptable and 90% of unacceptable products.