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  • Articles  (1,108)
  • Annual Reviews
  • 2000-2004  (1,108)
  • Physics  (1,108)
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  • Articles  (1,108)
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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Remote Sensing of Active Volcanoes (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 81-106 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The synoptic coverage offered by satellites provides unparalleled opportunities for monitoring active volcanoes, and opens new avenues of scientific inquiry. Thermal infrared radiation can be used to monitor levels of activity, which is useful for automated eruption detection and for studying the emplacement of lava flows. Satellite radars can observe volcanoes through clouds or at night, and provide high-resolution topographic data. In favorable conditions, radar inteferometery can be used to measure ground deformation associated with eruptive activity on a centimetric scale. Clouds from explosive eruptions present a pressing hazard to aviation; therefore, techniques are being developed to assess eruption cloud height and to discriminate between ash and meterological clouds. The multitude of sensors to be launched on future generations of space platforms promises to greatly enhance volcanological studies, but a satellite dedicated to volcanology is needed to meet requirements of aviation safety and volcano monitoring.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.81
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Geologic Evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 211-280 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract A review of the geologic history of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen suggests that at least 1400 km of north-south shortening has been absorbed by the orogen since the onset of the Indo-Asian collision at about 70 Ma. Significant crustal shortening, which leads to eventual construction of the Cenozoic Tibetan plateau, began more or less synchronously in the Eocene (50-40 Ma) in the Tethyan Himalaya in the south, and in the Kunlun Shan and the Qilian Shan some 1000-1400 km in the north. The Paleozoic and Mesozoic tectonic histories in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen exerted a strong control over the Cenozoic strain history and strain distribution. The presence of widespread Triassic flysch complex in the Songpan-Ganzi-Hoh Xil and the Qiangtang terranes can be spatially correlated with Cenozoic volcanism and thrusting in central Tibet. The marked difference in seismic properties of the crust and the upper mantle between southern and central Tibet is a manifestation of both Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonics. The former, however, has played a decisive role in localizing Tertiary contractional deformation, which in turn leads to the release of free water into the upper mantle and the lower crust of central Tibet, causing partial melting in the mantle lithosphere and the crust.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.211
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
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    Palynology after Y2K-Understanding the Source Area of Pollen in Sediments (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 1-18 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Pollen grains preserved in lake and bog sediment provide a record of past vegetation that has been an important source of information about climate and land cover during the Quaternary Period. Yet from the beginning, questions have been raised about the source area of pollen in sediment. Interpretation has been hampered by the lack of well-developed theory treating the relationship between the spatial distribution of trees on the landscape and the percentages of pollen in sediment. Within the past decade, however, new theory, models, and empirical data show how heterogeneous vegetation is represented by pollen. The distinction between "local" and "regional" pollen is explained by the Prentice-Sugita dispersal/deposition models, which predict how the ratio of regional to local pollen changes with lake size. Sugita's model simulating a landscape with heterogeneous vegetation predicts the size of the relevant source area-the area of vegetation reflected in between-lake variations in pollen loading-while demonstrating that regional pollen from beyond this distance is homogeneous at all lakes of similar size. By predicting the way landscape patterns will be reflected in pollen records, simulation models can improve research design and lead to more detailed and spatially precise records of past vegetation, enhancing continental-scale climate reconstructions.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.1
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  • 4
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    Dynamics of Volcanic Systems in Iceland: Example of Tectonism and Volcanism at Juxtaposed Hot Spot and Mid-Ocean Ridge Systems (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 107-140 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Volcanic systems are swarms of tectonic fractures and basalt volcanoes formed as a result of plate-pull (as the plates are pulled apart) associated with the mid-ocean ridges and the magma dynamics of the Iceland Mantle Plume. Most systems are 40-150 km long, 5-20 km wide, and develop a central volcano. They supply magma to all eruptions in Iceland. Data obtained in the last few years have greatly improved our knowledge of their volcanotectonic environment; as a result, the geometry of the plume is better constrained, and the crust, previously considered thin (~10 km), is now modeled as thick (~20-40 km). Depending on the location of the volcanic systems, their activity either decreases or increases faulting in the two main seismic zones. From this, we can infer that emplacement of the feeder-dike to the largest historical eruption in Iceland (that of Laki in 1783) increased shear stress in the South Iceland Seismic Zone and almost certainly triggered the largest (M~7.1 in 1784) historical earthquake in Iceland.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.107
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
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    Heterogeneity of the Lowermost Mantle (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 509-537 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Strong heterogeneity at a variety of scale lengths has been imaged in the lowermost mantle using different forward and inverse methods. Coherent patterns in differential travel times of waves that sample the base of the mantle-such as diffracted shear waves (Sdiff) and compressional waves (Pdiff)-are readily apparent, and are compared with results from tomographic studies. Travel time and waveform modeling studies have demonstrated the presence of intense lateral variations in a variety of mapped features, such as a regionally detected high velocity D" layer, ultra-low velocity zones, D" anisotropy, strong scattering and heterogeneity. Such short-wavelength variations currently preclude confident mapping of D" structure at smaller scales. Issues of seismic resolution and uncertainties are emphasized here, as well as the limitations of one-dimensional modeling/averaging in highly heterogeneous environments.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.509
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  • 6
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    BREAKTHROUGHS IN OUR KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING OF THE EARTH AND PLANETS (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 1-15 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: During the last 35 years the planets and moons of our solar system have been visited for the first time, and the plate tectonics paradigm has revolutionized earth science and led to the acceptance of mantle convection as the cause of plate tectonics. The author has been a fortunate participant in these extraordinary events and he offers some reminiscences and recollections of his involvement. He also recalls his former colleague William M Kaula and dedicates this prefatory chapter to him.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.1
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  • 7
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    GROUND PENETRATING RADAR FOR ENVIRONMENTAL APPLICATIONS (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 229-255 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a near-surface geophysical technique that can provide high resolution images of the dielectric properties of the top few tens of meters of the earth. In applications in contaminant hydrology, radar data can be used to detect the presence of liquid organic contaminants, many of which have dielectric properties distinctly different from those of the other solid and fluid components in the subsurface. The resolution (approximately meter-scale) of the radar imaging method is such that it can also be used in the development of hydrogeologic models of the subsurface, required to predict the fate and transport of contaminants. GPR images are interpreted to obtain models of the large-scale architecture of the subsurface and to assist in estimating hydrogeologic properties such as water content, porosity, and permeability. Its noninvasive capabilities make GPR an attractive alternative to the traditional methods used for subsurface characterization.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.229
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  • 8
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    RUSTY RELICS OF EARTH HISTORY: Iron(III) Oxides, Isotopes, and Surficial Environments (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 165-199 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The two most common low-temperature iron(III) oxides on Earth are goethite (alpha-FeOOH) and hematite (alpha-Fe2O3). The delta18O values of natural goethites range from -15.5% to +3.3%, whereas delta18O values of low-temperature hematites range from -16.7% to +4.7%. Plots of deltaD against delta18O for continental goethites are approximately parallel to the meteoric water line of Craig (H Craig. 1961. Science 133:1702-3). This suggests that goethite-water fractionation factors are systematic over a wide range of surficial environments and may indicate that isotopic equilibrium is commonly attained or closely approached. Several experimental or calculated mineral-water, oxygen isotope fractionation curves have been determined for both goethite and hematite. Although there is not yet a consensus on which of these curves best approximates isotopic fractionation in natural samples, oxygen isotope measurements of both goethite and hematite have provided evidence of significant continental climate change on time scales that range from thousands to millions of years. The concentration and delta13C values of an Fe(CO3)OH component in apparent solid solution in goethite are proxies for the partial pressure and delta13C values, respectively, of CO2 in the environment at the time of goethite crystallization. Biological productivity, CO2 pressures in soil or groundwater, and partial pressures of atmospheric CO2 in ancient environments have been estimated from measurements of the mole fractions and delta13C values of Fe(CO3)OH in goethite.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.165
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  • 9
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    THE LATE ORDOVICIAN MASS EXTINCTION (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 331-364 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Near the end of the Late Ordovician, in the first of five mass extinctions in the Phanerozoic, about 85% of marine species died. The cause was a brief glacial interval that produced two pulses of extinction. The first pulse was at the beginning of the glaciation, when sea-level decline drained epicontinental seaways, produced a harsh climate in low and mid-latitudes, and initiated active, deep-oceanic currents that aerated the deep oceans and brought nutrients and possibly toxic material up from oceanic depths. Following that initial pulse of extinction, surviving faunas adapted to the new ecologic setting. The glaciation ended suddenly, and as sea level rose, the climate moderated, and oceanic circulation stagnated, another pulse of extinction occurred. The second extinction marked the end of a long interval of ecologic stasis (an Ecologic-Evolutionary Unit). Recovery from the event took several million years, but the resulting fauna had ecologic patterns similar to the fauna that had become extinct. Other extinction events that eliminated similar or even smaller percentages of species had greater long-term ecologic effects.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.331
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  • 10
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    HYDROGEN IN THE DEEP EARTH (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 365-418 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The mechanisms of exchange of hydrogen between the deep interior and surface of Earth, as well as the means of retention and possible abundance of hydrogen deep within the Earth, are examined. The uppermost several hundred kilometers of Earth's suboceanic upper mantle appear to be largely degassed, but significant primordial hydrogen could be retained within the transition zone, lower mantle, or core. Regassing of the planet occurs via subduction: Cold slabs are likely particularly efficient at transporting hydrogen to depth within the planet. Marked changes in hydrogen cycling have taken place throughout Earth's history: Evidence of hydrated ultramafic melts in the Archean and probable hydrogen retention within a Hadean magma ocean indicate that early in its history, the deep Earth was substantially wetter. The largest enigma associated with hydrogen in the deep Earth lies in the core: This region could represent the dominant reservoir of hydrogen on the planet, with up to ~100 hydrospheres of hydrogen present as a high-pressure iron-alloy.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.365
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  • 11
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    THE CARBON BUDGET IN SOILS (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 535-562 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The global soil C reservoir, ~1500 Gt of C (1 Gt = 1012 kg of C), is dynamic on decadal time scales and is sensitive to climate and human disturbance. At present, as a result of land use, soil C is a source of atmospheric CO2 in the tropics and possibly part of a sink in northern latitudes. Here I review the processes responsible for maintaining the global soil C reservoir and what is known about how it responds to direct and indirect human perturbations. "I am fire and air; my other elements I give to baser life" -William Shakespeare, Antony and Cleopatra
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.535
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  • 12
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    DATING MODERN DELTAS: Progress, Problems, and Prognostics1 (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 257-294 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Radiocarbon dating is the method most frequently used to date Holocene deltaic sequences, but less than one quarter of 14C dates are within +-500 years of predicted age. Such dates tend to be unreliable, in other words, often too old and commonly inverted upsection, and core sample dates obtained near deltaic plain surfaces may be as old as mid- to late Holocene. Stratigraphic irregularities result primarily from downslope reworking of upland alluvial sediment, with displacement of "old carbon" in the sediment that accumulates in lower valleys and deltaic plains. Use of dates that are too old results in inaccurately calculated rates (most often too low) of relative sea-level rise and/or land subsidence. More reliable timing of deltaic sediment requires a multiple-method dating approach, including, where possible, identification of associated archaeological material. Developing an accurate dating strategy is a critical step for implementing reliable coastal protection measures needed for the rapidly increasing human populations in these low-lying, vulnerable nearshore settings.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.257
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  • 13
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    PHYSICS OF PARTIALLY SATURATED POROUS MEDIA: Residual Saturation and Seismic-Wave Propagation (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 419-460 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract In this paper, we present a review of seismic-wave propagation in fluid-saturated and partially saturated porous media. Seismic-wave velocity and attenuation are affected by the degree of saturation and the spatial distribution of fluids within the medium. Attenuation mechanisms include local and global flow as well as energy loss caused by scattering. We also present results from acoustic tomography of unconsolidated porous media with residual paraffin saturation. The acoustic attenuation was found to be sensitive to the grain- and subgrain-scale (microscale) distribution of residual saturation; in other words, the residual saturation behaves like soft cement that locally stiffens grain contacts and creates heterogeneity that results in scattering. The effect of microscale phenomena on multigrain scale (macroscale) measurements of seismic-wave attenuation and velocity cannot be ignored.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.419
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  • 14
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    RHEOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF WATER ICE-APPLICATIONS TO SATELLITES OF THE OUTER PLANETS1 (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 295-330 
    Details
    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The icy moons of the outer solar system have not been quiescent bodies, in part because many have a substantial water component and have experienced significant internal heating. We can begin to understand the thermal evolution of the moons and the rate of viscous relaxation of surface topography because we now have good constraints on how ice (in several of its polymorphic forms) flows under deviatoric stress at planetary conditions. Details of laboratory-derived flow laws for pure, polycrystalline ice are reviewed in detail. One of the more important questions at hand is the role of ice grain size. Grain size may be a dynamic quantity within the icy moons, and it may (or may not) significantly affect rheology. One recent beneficiary of revelations about grain-size-sensitive flow is the calculation of the rheological structure of Europa's outer ice shell, which may be no thicker than 20 km.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.295
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  • 15
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    RESPONSE OF LATE CARBONIFEROUS AND EARLY PERMIAN PLANT COMMUNITIES TO CLIMATE CHANGE1 (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 461-487 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Late Carboniferous and Early Permian strata record the transition from a cold interval in Earth history, characterized by the repeated periods of glaciation and deglaciation of the southern pole, to a warm-climate interval. Consequently, this time period is the best available analogue to the Recent in which to study patterns of vegetational response, both to glacial-interglacial oscillation and to the appearance of warm climate. Carboniferous wetland ecosystems were dominated by spore-producing plants and early gymnospermous seed plants. Global climate changes, largely drying, forced vegetational changes, resulting in a change to a seed plant-dominated world, beginning first at high latitudes during the Carboniferous, reaching the tropics near the Permo-Carboniferous boundary. For most of this time plant assemblages were very conservative in their composition. Change in the dominant vegetation was generally a rapid process, which suggests that environmental thresholds were crossed, and involved little mixing of elements from the wet and dry floras.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.461
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  • 16
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    CONTINUOUS FREE OSCILLATIONS: Atmosphere-Solid Earth Coupling (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 563-584 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract In 1997, after almost forty years since the initial attempt by Benioff et al (1959), continuous free oscillations of the Earth were discovered. Spheroidal fundamental modes between 2 and 7 millihertz are excited continuously with acceleration amplitudes of about 0.3-0.5 nanogals. The signal is now commonly found in virtually all data recorded by STS-1 type broadband seismometers at quiet sites. Seasonal variation in amplitude and the existence of two coupled modes between the atmosphere and the solid Earth support that these oscillations are excited by the atmosphere. Stochastic excitation due to atmospheric turbulence is a favored mechanism, providing a good match between theory and data. The atmosphere has ample energy to support this theory because excitation of these modes require only 500-10000 W whereas the atmosphere contains about 1017 W of kinetic energy. An application of this phenomenon includes planetary seismology, because other planets may be oscillating owing to atmospheric excitation. The interior structure of planets could be learned by determining the eigenfrequencies in the continuous free oscillations. It is especially attractive to pursue this idea for tectonically quiet planets, since quakes may be too infrequent to be recorded by seismic instruments.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.563
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  • 17
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    STREAMFLOW NECESSARY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL MAINTENANCE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 181-206 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract In the last decades, insights from the fields of ecology, geomorphology, and hydrology have been applied to the question of the streamflows necessary for environmental maintenance. For instance, determining the streamflow needed for spawning by salmon or trout requires ascertaining how much water, for how long, and at what time it will be needed? And what flows are necessary for the sustenance of streamside vegetation? Answers to these and similar questions have been sought to minimize environmental degradation in the development or relicensing of water projects, in restoring riverine ecosystems, and in balancing multiple uses for limited water resources. In this contribution, the varieties of environmental maintenance flows applied to rivers are described, as are their fundamental principles. These environmental maintenance flows include flows to maintain aesthetics and recreation, streambed sediment size and its mobility, the channel, its features and continuity, and the floodplain, its wetness regime, and riparian vegetation.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.083001.161748
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  • 18
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    GEOLOGIC STRUCTURE OF THE UPPERMOST OCEANIC CRUST CREATED AT FAST- TO INTERMEDIATE-RATE SPREADING CENTERS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 347-384 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Geological investigations of major fault scarps ("tectonic windows") and DSDP/ODP Drill Holes provide direct views of the uppermost oceanic crust generated at fast- to intermediate-rate spreading centers. These areas reveal a consistent upper crustal structural geometry with basaltic lava flows defining a pattern of downward increasing ("inward") dip toward the spreading center at which they formed and dikes in the lavas and underlying sheeted dike complex showing a similar degree of "outward" dip. Widespread fracturing, faulting, and hydrothermal metamorphism accompanied magmatic construction. These geological relationships can be interpreted in terms of dramatic, asymmetrical, subaxial subsidence of upper crustal rock units that diminishes across the very narrow (few kilometers wide) zone of lava accumulation and dike intrusion at the ridge axis. This type of crustal structure is in accord with some existing models of spreading but augments these idealized views with more realistic geological complexity.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.141132
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  • 19
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    PRELUDE TO THE CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 285-306 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The Prelude began with the origin of Metazoa, perhaps between 720 and 660 million years ago (mya), and ended with the geologically abrupt appearance of crown bilaterian phyla that began between 530 and 520 mya. The origin and early evolution of phyla cannot be tracked by fossils during this interval, but molecular phylogenetics permits reconstruction of their branching topology, whereas molecular developmental evidence supports hypotheses for the evolution of the metzoan genome during the rise of complex bodyplans. A flexible architecture of genetic regulation was in place even before the appearance of crown sponges, permitting increases in gene expression events as bodyplan complexity rose. Neoproterozoic bilaterians were chiefly small-bodied but likely diverse, whereas in the earliest Cambrian, between 543 and approximately 530-520 mya, bodies that were complex by marine invertebrate standards evolved in association with body-size increases.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.082901.092917
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  • 20
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    PLUTO AND CHARON: Formation, Seasons, Composition (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 307-345 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Pluto and Charon, once thought to be a singular system in an odd orbit at the edge of the solar system, are now known as members of a vast population of icy bodies beyond Neptune. Models for the occurrence of the odd orbit and formation of these bodies in the context of the total population are reviewed. Pluto's orbital characteristics, coupled with the existence of volatiles on the surface, suggest that large-scale seasonal change should occur on the surface. Models of seasonal variability are discussed, past and current observations are examined for evidence of variability, and a straw-man model of seasonal changes is proposed. Finally, recent observations of the surface composition of Charon are discussed and compared with observations of other similarly sized icy bodies in the outer Solar System.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.090401.095213
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  • 21
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    MANTLE MIXING: The Generation, Preservation, and Destruction of Chemical Heterogeneity (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 493-525 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Observations of the geochemical diversity of mid-oceanic ridge and ocean-island basalts have traditionally been attributed to the existence of large-scale mantle heterogeneity. In particular, the layered convection model has provided an important conceptual basis for discussing the chemical evolution of the Earth. In this model, a long-term boundary is assumed between a well-mixed and depleted upper mantle and a heterogeneous and more primitive lower mantle. The existence of high 3He/4He in ocean-island sources has been used to argue for the preservation of a primitive component in the deep mantle. Nevertheless, a primitive deep layer is difficult to reconcile with the abundant lithophile isotopic evidence for recycling of oceanic crust and the lack of preservation of primitive mantle. In addition, the widespread acceptance of geophysical evidence for whole mantle flow has made straightforward application of the layered convection model problematic. Model calculations show that whole mantle convection with present day heat flow and surface velocities is sufficiently vigorous to mix large-scale heterogeneity to an extent that is incompatible with the geochemical observations. Several concepts have been proposed in recent years to resolve the apparent conflicts between the various observational constraints and theoretical interpretations. The suggestions include the presence of deeper layering, preservation of highly viscous blobs, core mantle interaction, and strong temporal variations in mantle dynamics. Although these models generally appear to solve parts of the puzzle, at present no single model is able to account for all of the major observations. The reconciliation of conflicting evidence awaits improvements in observational and experimental techniques integrated with better model testing of hypotheses for the generation and destruction of mantle heterogeneity.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.141236
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    ISOTOPIC ADVENTURES-Geological, Planetological, and Cosmic (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 1-74 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141409
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    TROPICAL CYCLONES (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 75-104 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Tropical cyclones encompass virtually every subdiscipline of geophysical fluid dynamics, including cumulus convection, boundary layers, thermodynamic cycles, surface wave dynamics, upper ocean wind-driven circulations, barotropic instability, Rossby waves, and air-sea interaction. After briefly reviewing what is known about the structure, behavior, and climatology of these fascinating storms, the author provides an overview of their physics, focusing on the unique and poorly understood nature of the air-sea interface, and discusses several of the most interesting avenues of ongoing research.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141259
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    FOSSIL PLANTS AS INDICATORS OF THE PHANEROZOIC GLOBAL CARBON CYCLE (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 527-556 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Developments in plant physiology since the 1980s have led to the realization that fossil plants archive both the isotopic composition of atmospheric CO2 and its concentration, both critical integrators of carbon cycle processes through geologic time. These two carbon cycle signals can be read by analyzing the stable carbon isotope composition (delta13C) of fossilized terrestrial organic matter and by determining the stomatal characters of well-preserved fossil leaves, respectively. We critically evaluate the use of fossil plants in this way at abrupt climatic boundaries associated with mass extinctions and during times of extreme global warmth. Particular emphasis is placed on evaluating the potential to extract a quantitative estimate of the delta13C of atmospheric CO2 because of the key role it plays in understanding the carbon cycle. We critically discuss the use of stomatal index and stomatal ratios for reconstructing atmospheric CO2 levels, especially the need for adequate replication, and present a newly derived CO2 record for the Mesozoic that supports levels calculated from geochemical modeling of the long-term carbon cycle. Several suggestions for future research using stable carbon isotope analyses of fossil terrestrial organic matter and stomatal measurements are highlighted.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.141413
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    PHANEROZOIC ATMOSPHERIC OXYGEN (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 105-134 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Theoretical calculations, based on both the chemical and isotopic composition of sedimentary rocks, indicate that atmospheric O2 has varied appreciably over Phanerozoic time, with a notable excursion during the Permo-Carboniferous reaching levels as high as 35% O2. This agrees with measurements of the carbon isotopic composition of fossil plants together with experiments and calculations on the effect of O2 on photosynthetic carbon isotope fractionation. The principal cause of the excursion was the rise of large vascular land plants and the consequent increased global burial of organic matter. Higher levels of O2 are consistent with the presence of Permo-Carboniferous giant insects, and preliminary experiments indicate that insect body size can increase with elevated O2. Higher O2 also may have caused more extensive, possibly catastrophic, wildfires. To check this, realistic burning experiments are needed to examine the effects of elevated O2 on fire behavior.
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    MADAGASCAR: Heads It's a Continent, Tails It's an Island (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 213-248 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Neither geologists nor biologists have a definition that is capable of classifying Madagascar unambiguously as an island or a continent; nor can they incorporate Malagasy natural history into a single model rooted in Africa or Asia. Madagascar is a microcosm of the larger continents, with a rock record that spans more than 3000 million years (Ma), during which it has been united episodically with, and divorced from, Asian and African connections. This is reflected in its Precambrian history of deep crustal tectonics and a Phanerozoic history of biodiversity that fluctuated between cosmopolitanism and parochialism. Both vicariance and dispersal events over the past 90 Ma have blended a unique endemism on Madagascar, now in decline following rapid extinctions that started about 2000 years ago.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141337
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    METAL-SILICATE PARTITIONING OF SIDEROPHILE ELEMENTS AND CORE FORMATION IN THE EARLY EARTH* (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 135-174 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Accretion models for the Earth and terrestrial planets are based on the distribution of siderophile (iron-loving) elements between metal and silicate. Extensive experimental studies of the partitioning of these elements between metallic liquid and silicate melt have led to a better understanding and a more sophisticated application to planetary problems. Siderophile element metal/silicate partition coefficients are a function of temperature, pressure, oxygen fugacity, and metal and silicate composition. Quantification of these effects for a limited subset of siderophile elements has led to the idea that early Earth had a 700-km or deeper magma ocean. This new understanding of siderophile element partitioning has also led to applications to the kinetics of metal-silicate equilibrium, links to the timing of core formation, and a better understanding of core formation and metal-silicate equilibrium in the Moon and Mars. Key issues for future consideration include the role of water in early Earth, consideration of the core as a reservoir for noble gases and/or traditionally lithophile elements, siderophile element concentrations in the deep mantle, oxygen fugacity at high pressures, and further evaluation of the need for a late accretional veneer. The strongest approach to improving accretion models for the terrestrial planets is one that combines geochemistry, geophysics, and planetary dynamics.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.145451
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    VOLCANIC ACTIVITY ON IO DURING THE GALILEO ERA (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 175-211 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Galileo's explorations have revealed a remarkable variety of eruptive styles among Io's diverse volcanoes. Activity at hundreds of volcanic centers ranges from dormant through sporadic to continuous over the 20-year period of spacecraft observation. High temperature volcanism is common on Io, suggesting that the lavas are made up of mafic to ultramafic silicates rather than sulfur compounds. Io's largest plumes are driven by SO2 and sulfur-rich gasses vented from the silicate interior that produce prominent red pyroclastic deposits. Red deposits flag the source regions of many other ongoing or very recent eruptions. Smaller plumes are produced near the margins of active lava flows by explosive volatilization of the underlying or surrounding SO2. These plumes produce SO2 snowflakes that mantle existing topography. Io's volcanism drives significant variations in the atmosphere and plasma torus, yet most of the heat loss occurs through lava flows and by the quiet overturning of lava lakes without large-scale explosive activity. Although only a handful of Io's volcanoes have been directly observed to produce explosive eruptions, volcanic resurfacing is efficient enough to erase even small craters from Io's youthful surface.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.145428
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    THE EFFECTS OF BIOTURBATION ON SOIL PROCESSES AND SEDIMENT TRANSPORT (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 249-273 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Plants and animals exploit the soil for food and shelter and, in the process, affect it in many different ways. For example, uprooted trees may break up bedrock, transport soil downslope, increase the heterogeneity of soil respiration rates, and inhibit soil horizonation. In this contribution, we review previously published papers that provide insights into the process of bioturbation. We focus particularly on studies that allow us to place bioturbation within a quantitative framework that links the form of hillslopes with the processes of sediment transport and soil production. Using geometrical relationships and data from others' work, we derive simple sediment flux equations for tree throw and root growth and decay.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.141314
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    GLOBAL MANTLE TOMOGRAPHY: Progress Status in the Past 10 Years (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 303-328 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract We review the present status of global mantle tomography and discuss two main classes of models that have been developed in the past 10 years: P velocity models based on large datasets of travel times from the International Seismological Centre bulletins, often referred to as "high resolution" models, and S velocity models based on a combination of surface wave and hand picked body wave travel times, or waveforms, referred to as "long wavelength" models. We discuss their respective strengths and weaknesses, as well as progress in the resolution of other physical parameters, such as anisotropy, anelasticity, density, and bulk sound velocity using tomographic approaches. We present the view that future improvements in global seismic tomography require the utilization of the rich information contained in complete broadband seismic waveforms. This is presently within our reach owing to theoretical progress as well as the increase in computational power in recent years.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.091602.113555
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    THE ROLE OF DECAY AND MINERALIZATION IN THE PRESERVATION OF SOFT-BODIED FOSSILS (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 275-301 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Fossil deposits that preserve soft-bodied organisms provide critical evidence of the history of life. Usually, only more decay resistant materials, e.g., cuticles, survive as organic remains as a result of selective preservation and subsequent diagenesis to more resistant biopolymers. Permineralization, the permeation of tissues by mineralizing fluids, may preserve remarkable detail, particularly of plants. However, evidence of more labile tissues, e.g., muscle, normally requires the replication of their morphology by rapid in situ growth of minerals, i.e., authigenic mineralization. This process relies on the steep geochemical gradients generated by decay microbes. The minerals involved, and the level of detail preserved (which may be subcellular), depend on a number of factors, including the nature of microbial activity and amount of decay, availability of ions, and the type of organism that is fossilized. Understanding these controls is essential to determining the conditions that favor exceptional preservation.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.100901.144746
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    PRODUCTION, ISOTOPIC COMPOSITION, AND ATMOSPHERIC FATE OF BIOLOGICALLY PRODUCED NITROUS OXIDE (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 329-356 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The anthropogenic production of greenhouse gases and their consequent effects on global climate have garnered international attention for years. A remaining challenge facing scientists is to unambiguously quantify both sources and sinks of targeted gases. Microbiological metabolism accounts for the largest source of nitrous oxide (N2O), mostly due to global conversion of land for agriculture and massive usage of nitrogen-based fertilizers. A most powerful method for characterizing the sources of N2O lies in its multi-isotope signature. This review summarizes mechanisms that lead to biological N2O production and how discriminate placement of 15N into molecules of N2O occurs. Through direct measurements and atmospheric modeling, we can now place a constraint on the isotopic composition of biological sources of N2O and trace its fate in the atmosphere. This powerful interdisciplinary combination of biology and atmospheric chemistry is rapidly advancing the closure of the global N2O budget.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.31.110502.080901
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    PHYLOGENETIC APPROACHES TOWARD CROCODYLIAN HISTORY (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 357-397 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract A review of crocodylian phylogeny reveals a more complex history than might have been anticipated from a direct reading of the fossil record without consideration of phylogenetic relationships. The three main extant crocodylian lineages-Gavialoidea, Alligatoroidea, Crocodyloidea-are known from fossils in the Late Cretaceous, and the group is found nearly worldwide during the Cenozoic. Some groups have distributions that are best explained by the crossing of marine barriers during the Tertiary. Early Tertiary crocodylian faunas are phylogenetically composite, and clades tend to be morphologically uniform and geographically widespread. Later in the Tertiary, Old World crocodylian faunas are more endemic. Crocodylian phylogeneticists face numerous challenges, the most important being the phylogenetic relationships and time of divergence of the two living gharials (Gavialis gangeticus and Tomistoma schlegelii), the relationships among living true crocodiles (Crocodylus), and the relationships among caimans.
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    THE INDIAN MONSOON AND ITS VARIABILITY (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 429-467 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract For over 300 years, the monsoon has been viewed as a gigantic land-sea breeze. It is shown in this paper that satellite and conventional observations support an alternative hypothesis, which considers the monsoon as a manifestation of seasonal migration of the intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ). With the focus on the Indian monsoon, the mean seasonal pattern is described, and why it is difficult to simulate it is discussed. Some facets of the intraseasonal variation, such as active-weak cycles; break monsoon; and a special feature of intraseasonal variation over the region, namely, poleward propagations of the ITCZ at intervals of 2-6 weeks, are considered. Vertical moist stability is shown to be a key parameter in the variation of monthly convection over ocean and land as well as poleward propagations. Special features of the Bay of Bengal and the monsoon brought out by observations during a national observational experiment in 1999 are briefly described.
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    RECOGNIZING MANTLE PLUMES IN THE GEOLOGICAL RECORD (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 469-523 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Mantle plumes are recognized by domal uplift, triple junction rifting, and especially the presence of a large igneous province (LIP), dominated in the Phanerozoic by flood basalts, and in the Proterozoic by the exposed plumbing system of dykes, sills, and layered intrusions. In the Archean, greenstone belts that contain komatiites have been linked to plumes. In addition, some carbonatites and kimberlites may originate from plumes that have stalled beneath thick lithosphere. Geochemistry and isotopes can be used to test and characterize the plume origin of LIPs. Seismic tomography and geochemistry of crustal and subcrustal xenoliths in kimberlites can identify fossil plumes. More speculatively, plumes (or clusters of plumes) have been linked with variation in the isotopic composition of marine carbonates, sea-level rise, iron formations, anoxia events, extinctions, continental breakup, juvenile crust production, magnetic superchrons, and meteorite impacts. The central region of a plume is located using the focus of a radiating dyke swarm, the distribution of komatiites and picrites, etc. The outer boundary of a plume head circumscribes the main flood basalt distribution and approximately coincides with the edge of domal uplift that causes shoaling and offlap in regional sedimentation.
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    RHEOLOGY OF GRANITIC MAGMAS DURING ASCENT AND EMPLACEMENT (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 399-427 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Considerable progress has been made over the past decade in understanding the static rheological properties of granitic magmas in the continental crust. Changes in H2O content, CO2 content, and oxidation state of the interstitial melt phase have been identified as important compositional factors governing the rheodynamic behavior of the solid/fluid mixture. Although the strengths of granitic magmas over the crystallization interval are still poorly constrained, theoretical investigations suggest that during magma ascent, yield strengths of the order of 9 kPa are required to completely retard the upward flow in meter-wide conduits. In low Bagnold number magma suspensions with moderate crystal contents (solidosities 0.1 〈=phi〈= 0.3), viscous fluctuations may lead to flow differentiation by shear-enhanced diffusion. AMS and microstructural studies support the idea that granite plutons are intruded as crystal-poor liquids (phi〈= 50%), with fabric and foliation development restricted to the final stages of emplacement. If so, then these fabrics contain no information on the ascent (vertical transport) history of the magma. Deformation of a magmatic mush during pluton emplacement can enhance significantly the pressure gradient in the melt, resulting in a range of local macroscopic flow structures, including layering, crystal alignment, and other mechanical instabilities such as shear zones. As the suspension viscosity varies with stress rate, it is not clear how the timing of proposed rheological transitions formulated from simple equations for static magma suspensions applies to mixtures undergoing shear. New theories of magmas as multiphase flows are required if the full complexity of granitic magma rheology is to be resolved.
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    CATASTROPHIC FLOODING OF THE BLACK SEA (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 525-554 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Decades of seabed mapping, reflection profiling, and seabed sampling reveal that throughout the past two million years the Black Sea was predominantly a freshwater lake interrupted only briefly by saltwater invasions coincident with global sea level highstand. When the exterior ocean lay below the relatively shallow sill of the Bosporus outlet, the Black Sea operated in two modes. As in the neighboring Caspian Sea, a cold climate mode corresponded with an expanded lake and a warm climate mode with a shrunken lake. Thus, during much of the cold glacial Quaternary, the expanded Black Sea's lake spilled into to the Marmara Sea and from there to the Mediterranean. However, in the warm climate mode, after receiving a vast volume of ice sheet meltwater, the shoreline of the shrinking lake contracted to the outer shelf and on a few occasions even beyond the shelf edge. If the confluence of a falling interior lake and a rising global ocean persisted to the moment when the rising ocean penetrated across the dividing sill, it would set the stage for catastrophic flooding. Although recently challenged, the flood hypothesis for the connecting event best fits the full set of observations.
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    GEOMORPHOLOGY: A Sliver Off the Corpus of Science (2004)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 32 (2004), S. 1-12 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.32.032803.153614
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    IS EL NINO SPORADIC OR CYCLIC? (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 31 (2003), S. 579-594 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Is El Nino one phase of a continual, self-sustaining natural mode of the coupled ocean-atmosphere that has La Nina as the complementary phase? Or is El Nino a temporary departure from "normal" conditions "triggered" by a random disturbance such as a burst of westerly winds? A growing body of evidence-stability analyses, studies of the energetics, simulations that reproduce the statistics of sea surface temperature variations in the eastern equatorial Pacific-indicates that reality corresponds to a compromise between these two possibilities: The observed Southern Oscillation between El Nino and La Nina corresponds to a weakly damped mode that is sustained by random disturbances. This means that the predictability of El Nino is limited by the continual presence of "noise" so that forecasts should be probabilistic. The Southern Oscillation is also subject to decadal modulations. How it will be influenced by global warming is a matter of considerable uncertainty.
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    MARS 2000 (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 281-304 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Twenty years after the Viking Mission, Mars is again being scrutinized in the light of a flood of information from spacecraft missions to Mars, the Hubble Space Telescope, and the SNC meteorites. This review provides an overview of the current understanding of Mars, especially in light of the data being returned from the Mars Global Surveyor Mission. Mars does not now have a global magnetic field, but the presence of crustal anomalies indicates that a global field existed early in Martian history. The topography, geodetic figure, and gravitational field are known to high precision. The northern hemisphere is lower and has a thinner and stronger crust than the southern hemisphere. The global weather and the thermal structure of the atmosphere have been monitored for more than a year. Surface-atmosphere interaction has been investigated by observations of surface features, polar caps, atmospheric dust, and condensate clouds. The surface has been imaged at very high resolution and spectral measures have been obtained to quantify surface characteristics and geologic processes. Many questions remain unanswered, especially about the earliest period of Mars' history.
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    Dinosaur Reproduction and Parenting (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 19-45 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Non-avian dinosaur reproductive and parenting behaviors were mostly similar to those of extant archosaurs. Non-avian dinosaurs were probably sexually dimorphic and some may have engaged in hierarchical rituals. Non-avian coelurosaurs (e.g. Troodontidae, Oviraptorosauria) had two active oviducts, each of which produced single eggs on a daily or greater time scale. The eggs of non-coelurosaurian dinosaurs (e.g. Ornithischia, Sauropoda) were incubated in soils, whereas the eggs of non-avian coelurosaurs (e.g. Troodon, Oviraptor) were incubated with a combination of soil and direct parental contact. Parental attention to the young was variable, ranging from protection from predators to possible parental feeding of nest-bound hatchlings. Semi-altricial hadrosaur hatchlings exited their respective nests near the time of their first linear doubling. Some reproductive behaviors, once thought exclusive to Aves, arose first in non-avian dinosaurs. The success of the Dinosauria may be related to reproductive strategies.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.19
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    HUMAN IMPACTS ON ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTY (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 17-45 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract An overview is given of the main anthropogenic influences on the chemistry of the atmosphere. Industrial and agricultural activities have altered the chemical composition of the atmosphere in many important ways, which is reflected especially in the distribution and concentrations of ozone in the troposphere and stratosphere. On one hand, as a result of industrial chlorofluorocarbon emissions, ozone has been depleted in unexpected major ways in the polar stratosphere. On the other hand, especially as a result of NO emissions, tropospheric ozone has increased both in the industrial mid-latitude regions and at low latitudes, in the latter mostly because of tropical biomass burning. In the future, growing anthropogenic emissions by developing nations will have an additional effect on the climate and the self-cleaning (oxidation) power of the atmosphere.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.17
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    TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF THE JAPANESE ISLAND ARC SYSTEM (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 109-134 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Growth of the Japanese arc system, which has mainly taken place along the continental margin of Asia since the Permian, is the result of subduction of the ancient Pacific ocean floor. Backarc basin formation in the Tertiary shaped the present-day arc configuration. The neotectonic regime, which is characterized by strong east-west compression, has been triggered by the eastward motion of the Amur plate in the Quaternary. The tectonic evolution of the Japanese arc system includes formation of rock assemblages common in most orogenic belts. Because the origin and present-day tectonics of these assemblages are better defined in the case of the Japanese arc system, study of the system provides useful insight into orogenesis and continental crust evolution.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.109
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    Evolution and Structure of the Lachlan Fold Belt (Orogen) of Eastern Australia (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 47-80 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The Lachlan Fold Belt (Lachlan Orogen) of eastern Australia was part of a Paleozoic convergent plate margin that stretched around the supercontinent of Gondwana from South America to Australia. Lower Paleozoic (545-365 Ma) deep-water, quartz-rich turbidites, calcalkaline volcanic rocks, and voluminous granitic plutons dominate the Lachlan Orogen. These rocks overlie a mafic lower crust of oceanic affinity. Shortening and accretion of the Lachlan occurred through stepwise deformation and metamorphism from Late Ordovician (~450 Ma) through early Carboniferous times, with dominant events at about 440-430 Ma and 400-380 Ma. The development and accretion of the Lachlan Orogen and other related belts within the Tasmanides added about 2.5 Mkm2 to the surface area of Gondwana. The sedimentary, magmatic, and deformational processes converted an oceanic turbidite fan system into continental crust of normal thickness. The addition of this recycled continental detritus and juvenile material to Australia represents an under-recognized continental crustal growth mechanism that has been important thoughout earth history.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.47
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    Climate Reconstruction from Subsurface Temperatures (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 339-365 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Temperature changes at the Earth's surface propagate downward into the subsurface and impart a thermal signature to the rocks. This signature can be measured in boreholes and then analyzed to reconstruct the surface temperature history over the past several centuries. The ability to resolve surface temperature history from subsurface temperatures diminishes with time. Microclimatic effects associated with the topography and vegetation patterns at the site of a borehole, along with local anthropogenic perturbations associated with land use change, can obscure the regional climate change signal. Regional and global ensembles of boreholes reveal the broader patterns of temperature changes at the Earth's surface. The average surface temperature of the continents has increased by about 1.0 K over the past 5 centuries; half of this increase has occurred in the twentieth century alone.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.339
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    Seismic Imaging of Mantle Plumes (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28 (2000), S. 391-417 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The mantle plume hypothesis was proposed thirty years ago by Jason Morgan to explain hotspot volcanoes such as Hawaii. A thermal diapir (or plume) rises from the thermal boundary layer at the base of the mantle and produces a chain of volcanoes as a plate moves on top of it. The idea is very attractive, but direct evidence for actual plumes is weak, and many questions remain unanswered. With the great improvement of seismic imagery in the past ten years, new prospects have arisen. Mantle plumes are expected to be rather narrow, and their detection by seismic techniques requires specific developments as well as dedicated field experiments. Regional travel-time tomography has provided good evidence for plumes in the upper mantle beneath a few hotspots (Yellowstone, Massif Central, Iceland). Beneath Hawaii and Iceland, the plume can be detected in the transition zone because it deflects the seismic discontinuities at 410 and 660 km depths. In the lower mantle, plumes are very difficult to detect, so specific methods have been worked out for this purpose. There are hints of a plume beneath the weak Bowie hotspot, as well as intriguing observations for Hawaii. Beneath Iceland, high-resolution tomography has just revealed a wide and meandering plume-like structure extending from the core-mantle boundary up to the surface. Among the many phenomena that seem to take place in the lowermost mantle (or D"), there are also signs there of the presence of plumes. In this article I review the main results obtained so far from these studies and discuss their implications for plume dynamics. Seismic imaging of mantle plumes is still in its infancy but should soon become a turbulent teenager.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.28.1.391
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    INNER-CORE ANISOTROPY AND ROTATION (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 29 (2001), S. 47-69 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract This paper reviews recent research focused on the Earth's inner core. Large inner-core traveltime anomalies and the anomalous splitting of core-sensitive free oscillations strongly suggest that the inner core is anisotropic. Initial models involved a simple, constant or depth-dependent cylindrical anisotropy at a level less than a few percent. Recent observations suggest that its eastern hemisphere is largely isotropic, whereas its western hemisphere is highly anisotropic, and there are indications that its top 100 km may be isotropic. The coda of inner-core reflected phases has been used to infer strong heterogeneities with a length scale of just a few kilometers. Thus, a complicated three-dimensional picture of the inner core is beginning to emerge, although it has been suggested that much of this complexity may be the misinterpretation of signals that have their origin in the lowermost mantle. Numerical models of the geodynamo suggest that the inner core may rotate at a slightly different rate than the mantle. Recent seismological estimates based upon traveltime and normal-mode data limit inner-core differential rotation to less than +0.2 degrees per year.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.29.1.47
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    MODELING COMPLEX, NONLINEAR GEOLOGICAL PROCESSES1 (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 35-64 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract We review selected geological processes to which numerical modeling has been applied, with the aim of describing some of the general approaches and applications of the modeling. All of these examples involve multiphase fluid flow, in some cases coupled with heat transport and phase changes. First, we describe modeling approaches to a human-made geological system-a potential underground radioactive waste repository. Next, we describe recent advances in modeling two-phase flow through random heterogeneous porous media. We review recent modeling studies of fluid processes in magmatic systems, especially focusing on melting and crystallization induced by magma chambers. Finally, several research directions are suggested, including improving our understanding of the linkage between small-scale and field-scale processes, coupling across regimes (e.g., surface water and ground water), and further developments in the modeling of stochastic geological processes.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.082801.150140
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    SCALING OF SOIL MOISTURE: A Hydrologic Perspective (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 149-180 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Soil moisture is spatially and temporally highly variable, and it influences a range of environmental processes in a nonlinear manner. This leads to scale effects that need to be understood for improved prediction of moisture dependent processes. We provide some introductory material on soil moisture, and then review results from the literature relevant to a variety of scaling techniques applicable to soil moisture. This review concentrates on spatial scaling with brief reference to results on temporal scaling. Scaling techniques are divided into behavioral techniques and process-based techniques. We discuss the statistical distribution of soil moisture, spatial correlation of soil moisture at scales from tens of meters to thousands of kilometers and related interpolation and regularization techniques, and the use of auxiliary variables such as terrain indices. Issues related to spatially distributed deterministic modeling of soil moisture are also briefly reviewed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.140434
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    MODERN IMAGING USING SEISMIC REFLECTION DATA* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 259-284 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract Imaging using seismic reflection data has undergone tremendous advances over the past few years. The advances have been fostered in part by the availability of faster computers that have made more reliable algorithms for migration imaging feasible. The conventional approach to migration imaging, ray-based Kirchhoff migration, has been improved by the use of multiple-valued traveltime tables, ray amplitudes, and ray phases that can be calculated from various ray-tracing implementations. Wave-equation imaging, based on implementations of solutions of the wave equation, one-way wave equation, and approximations to the Lippmann-Schwinger equation, has become tractable. Wave-equation methods take account of wave phenomena such as focusing, defocusing, and diffraction that are important in many geological environments where imaging is used for petroleum exploration. There have also been applications of various types of migration imaging in basic studies of Earth structure. Such studies have been made to investigate deep Earth structure and large-scale lithospheric structure using waveforms from teleseisms as sources.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.140909
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    VOLCANOES, FLUIDS, AND LIFE AT MID-OCEAN RIDGE SPREADING CENTERS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 30 (2002), S. 385-491 
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    ISSN: 0084-6597
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Geosciences , Physics
    Notes: Abstract The recent recognition of a potentially vast, unexplored hot microbial biosphere associated with active volcanism along the global mid-ocean ridge network has fundamentally shifted concepts of how planets and life coevolve. Many processes intrinsic to the dynamics of the spreading center volcanic system provide partial or complete nutritional fluxes that support diverse microbial communities that thrive under extreme conditions on and beneath the seafloor. Mantle melting, volcanism, and fluid-rock reactions transport volatiles from the asthenosphere to the hydrosphere. Volcanic heat and exothermic reactions drive circulation of nutrient-rich fluids from which chemosynthetic organisms gain metabolic energy. In turn, many of these organisms symbiotically support macrofaunal communities that populate the vents. Long-term seafloor observatories will allow exploration of linkages between volcanism and this newly discovered biosphere. Such approaches may provide essential new information about our own planet while providing critically needed insights into how we can explore other planets for life.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.earth.30.091201.141331
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    ENERGY LOSS IN PERTURBATIVE QCD (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 50 (2000), S. 37-69 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract We review the propagation of energetic partons in hot or cold QCD matter, as known from recent work. We summarize advances in the understanding of both collisional and radiative energy loss. Our emphasis is on radiative energy loss, which has very interesting properties that may help to detect the quark-gluon plasma produced in heavy-ion collisions. We describe two different theoretical approaches, which lead to the same radiated gluon energy spectrum. The case of a longitudinally expanding QCD plasma is investigated. The energy lost by a jet with given opening angle is calculated with the aim of making predictions for the suppression (quenching) of hard jet production. Phenomenological implications for the difference between hot and cold matter are discussed. Numerical estimates of the loss suggest that it may be significantly greater in hot matter than in cold. This makes the magnitude of the radiative energy loss a remarkable signal for quark-gluon plasma formation.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.50.1.37
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    COLOR-SUPERCONDUCTING QUARK MATTER (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 51 (2001), S. 131-160 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract I review recent progress in our understanding of the color-superconducting phase of matter above nuclear density, giving particular emphasis to the effort to find observable signatures of the presence of this phase in compact stars.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.51.101701.132449
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    NUCLEAR ASTROPHYSICS MEASUREMENTS WITH RADIOACTIVE BEAMS1 (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 51 (2001), S. 91-130 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Radioactive nuclei play an important role in a diverse range of astrophysical phenomena including the early universe, the sun, red giant stars, nova explosions, X-ray bursts, supernova explosions, and supermassive stars. Measurements of reactions with beams of short-lived radioactive nuclei can, for the first time, probe the nuclear reactions occurring in these cosmic phenomena. This article describes the astrophysical motivation for experiments with radioactive beams, the techniques to produce these beams and perform astrophysically relevant measurements, results from recent experiments, and plans for future facilities.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.51.101701.132430
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    ON THE PRODUCTION OF SUPERHEAVY ELEMENTS (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 50 (2000), S. 411-479 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract In the first century of nuclear physics, 31 radioactive elements were added to the periodic system of elements. In 1996, at GSI, element 112 was synthesized by fusion of 70Zn with 208Pb, and its atomic number was established by a decay chain linked to known isotopes. Relativistic mean field calculations of the ground-state stability of nuclei predict the next spherical proton shell not as previously assumed at Z = 114 but at Z = 120 for 304184120. Moreover, a region of spherical nuclei with depleted central density is predicted at N = 172 for 292172120 by mean field calculations. New elements are established today using recoil separators combined with decay-chain analysis. Three new elements, Z = 110-112, and 18 transactinide isotopes have been discovered since 1985, all assigned by genetical linkage to known isotopes. The production cross sections decrease exponentially going to higher elements and now have reached the 1-pb limit. Fusion aiming at higher and higher atomic numbers is a self-terminated process because of constantly increasing disruptive Coulomb forces. The limitations in the formation and deexcitation stages are presented. The rapid drop to smaller cross sections ("Coulomb falls") is modified by nuclear structure not only in the ground state of the final product (superheavy element) but also in the collision partners and during the amalgamation process (closed shells and clusters). The prospects to produce higher elements and new isotopes by extrapolating the physics learned from reaching Z = 112 are 283114, which might be found in 76Ge/208Pb at a level of 0.1 pb and linked to 259No. At this level, about 30 transactinide isotopes are still in reach. To explain the stabilization of production cross sections in the pb range claimed in 1999 experiments, new physics delaying the descent in the "Coulomb falls" is to appear. For the FLNR experiments claiming Z = 114, no explanation is offered. For the LBL experiment claiming Z = 118, an explanation from new physics is presented. All experiments need confirmation. Verifying the centrally depleted, spherical nuclei around 292172120 would be a victory for nuclear structure physics, much more interesting than the trivial case of another doubly closed shell nucleus.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.50.1.411
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    ATOMIC PARITY NONCONSERVATION AND NUCLEAR ANAPOLE MOMENTS (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 51 (2001), S. 261-293 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Anapole moments are parity-odd, time-reversal-even moments of the E1 projection of the electromagnetic current. Although it was recognized, soon after the discovery of parity violation in the weak interaction, that elementary particles and composite systems such as nuclei must have anapole moments, it proved difficult to isolate this weak radiative correction. The first successful measurement, an extraction of the nuclear anapole moment of 133Cs from the hyperfine dependence of the atomic parity violation, was obtained only recently. An important anapole moment bound in thallium also exists. We discuss these measurements and their significance as tests of the hadronic weak interaction, focusing on the mechanisms that operate within the nucleus to generate the anapole moment. The atomic results place new constraints on weak meson-nucleon couplings, constraints we compare to existing bounds from a variety of and nuclear tests of parity nonconservation.
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    THE BROOKHAVEN MUON ANOMALOUS MAGNETIC MOMENT EXPERIMENT (2004)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 54 (2004), S. 141-174 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: The E821 Experiment at the Brookhaven Alternating Gradient Synchrotron has measured the muon anomalous magnetic moment a to a relative precision of 0.5 parts per million. This effort required a new beamline, a super-ferric muon storage ring with a highly uniform magnetic field, a precision magnetic field measurement system, and electromagnetic calorimeters to record the electrons from muon decay, which carry the essential spin precession frequency information. Data obtained over five years resulted in more than nine billion analyzed events, in nearly equal samples of both muon charges. The experimental results a + = 11 659 203(8) 1010 and a = 11 659 214(9) 1010 are consistent with each other, as predicted by the CPT invariance theorem. The combined result a +- = 11 659 208(6) 1010 is 0.9-2.4 standard deviations higher than predicted by theory; the range depends on the method employed to obtain the hadronic vacuum polarization term in the standard-model calculation. We review the experimental design, physical realization, and analysis procedures and compare the results to the theoretical prediction.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.53.041002.110618
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    ORGANIC MOLECULES IN THE INTERSTELLAR MEDIUM, COMETS, AND METEORITES: A Voyage from Dark Clouds to the Early Earth (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 38 (2000), S. 427-483 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Our understanding of the evolution of organic molecules, and their voyage from molecular clouds to the early solar system and Earth, has changed dramatically. Incorporating recent observational results from the ground and space, as well as laboratory simulation experiments and new methods for theoretical modeling, this review recapitulates the inventory and distribution of organic molecules in different environments. The evolution, survival, transport, and transformation of organics is monitored, from molecular clouds and the diffuse interstellar medium to their incorporation into solar system material such as comets and meteorites. We constrain gas phase and grain surface formation pathways to organic molecules in dense interstellar clouds, using recent observations with the Infrared Space Observatory (ISO) and ground-based radiotelescopes. The main spectroscopic evidence for carbonaceous compounds in the diffuse interstellar medium is discussed (UV bump at 2200 A, diffuse interstellar bands, extended red emission, and infrared absorption and emission bands). We critically review the signatures and unsolved problemsrelated to the main organic components suggested to be present in the diffuse gas, such as polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), fullerenes, diamonds, and carbonaceous solids. We also briefly discuss the circumstellar formation of organics around late-typestars. In the solar system, space missions to comet Halley and observations of the bright comets Hyakutake and Hale-Bopp have recently allowed a reexamination of the organic chemistry of dust and volatiles in long-period comets. We review the advances in this area and also discuss progress being made in elucidating the complex organic inventory of carbonaceous meteorites. The knowledge of organic chemistry in molecular clouds, comets, and meteorites and their common link provides constraints for the processes that lead to the origin, evolution, and distribution of life in the Galaxy.
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    MILLISECOND OSCILLATIONS IN X-RAY BINARIES (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 38 (2000), S. 717-760 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The first millisecond X-ray variability phenomena from accreting compact objects have recently been discovered with the Rossi X-ray Timing Explorer. Three new phenomena are observed from low-mass X-ray binaries containing low-magnetic-field neutron stars: millisecond pulsations, burst oscillations, and kilohertz quasi-periodic oscillations. Models for these new phenomena involve the neutron star spin and orbital motion close around the neutron star, and rely explicitly on our understanding of strong gravity and dense matter. I review the observations of these new neutron-star phenomena and some possibly related phenomena in black-hole candidates, and describe the attempts to use these observations to perform measurements of fundamental physical interest in these systems.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.38.1.717
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    MASS LOSS FROM COOL STARS: Impact on the Evolution of Stars and Stellar Populations (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 38 (2000), S. 573-611 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract This review emphasizes the mass loss processes that affect the fates of single stars with initial masses between one and nine solar masses. Just one epoch of mass loss has been clearly demonstrated to be important for these stars; that is the episode that ends their evolution up the asymptotic giant branch. Quite a clear picture of this evolutionary stage is emerging from current studies. Mass loss rates increase precipitously as stars evolve toward greater luminosity and radius and decreased effective temperature. As a result, empirical relationships between mass loss rates and stellar parameters are determined mostly by selection effects and tell us which stars are losing mass rather than how stars lose mass. After detailed theoretical models are found to match observational constraints, the models may be used to extrapolate to populations not available for study nearby, such as young stars with low metallicity. The fates of stars are found to depend on both their initial masses and their initial metallicities; a larger proportion of low-metallicity stars should end up with core masses reaching the Chandrasekhar limit, giving rise to Type 1.5 supernovae, and the remnant white dwarfs of low-Z populations will be both fewer and more massive than those in Population I. There are also clear indications that some stars lose one to several tenths of a solar mass during the helium core flash, but neither models nor observations reveal any details of this process yet. The observational and theoretical bases for a variety of mass loss formulae in current use are also reviewed in this article, and the relations are compared in a series of figures.
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    KUIPER BELT OBJECTS: Relics from the Accretion Disk of the Sun (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 40 (2002), S. 63-101 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The Kuiper Belt consists of a large number of small, solid bodies in heliocentric orbit beyond Neptune. Discovered as recently as 1992, the Kuiper Belt objects (KBOs) are thought to hold the keys to understanding the early solar system, as well as the origin of outer solar system objects, such as the short-period comets and the Pluto-Charon binary. The KBOs are probably best viewed as aged relics of the Sun's accretion disk. Dynamical structures in the Kuiper Belt provide evidence for processes operative in the earliest days of the solar system, including a phase of planetary migration and a clearing phase, in which substantial mass was lost from the disk. Dust is produced to this day by collisions between KBOs. In its youth, the Kuiper Belt may have compared to the dust rings observed now around such stars as GG Tau and HR 4796A. This review presents the basic physical parameters of the KBOs and makes connections with the disks observed around nearby stars.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.40.060401.093818
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    THE SUPERMASSIVE BLACK HOLE AT THE GALACTIC CENTER (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 39 (2001), S. 309-352 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The inner few parsecs at the Galactic Center have come under intense scrutiny in recent years, in part due to the exciting broad-band observations of this region, but also because of the growing interest from theorists motivated to study the physics of black hole accretion, magnetized gas dynamics, and unusual star formation. The Galactic Center is now known to contain arguably the most compelling supermassive black hole candidate, weighing in at a little over 2.6 million suns. Its interaction with the nearby environment, comprised of clusters of evolved and young stars, a molecular dusty ring, ionized gas streamers, diffuse hot gas, and a hypernova remnant, is providing a wealth of accretion phenomenology and high-energy processes for detailed modeling. In this review, we summarize the latest observational results and focus on the physical interpretation of the most intriguing object in this region-the compact radio source Sgr A*, thought to be the radiative manifestation of the supermassive black hole.
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    MY LIFE IN ASTROPHYSICS* (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 41 (2003), S. 1-14 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Astrophysics has been an important part of my personal and scientific life three times. The first was in 1938 when I did work on stellar energy production. The second was a joyful period nearly 30 years later when that work was rewarded with the Nobel Prize in physics. And the third has lasted over the time since my retirement in 1975 during which Gerry Brown and I have had a very satisfactory collaboration exploring various aspects of supernovae and, more recently, binary pairs.
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    MASS LOSS FROM THE NUCLEI OF ACTIVE GALAXIES (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 41 (2003), S. 117-167 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Blueshifted absorption lines in the UV and X-ray spectra of active galaxies reveal the presence of massive outflows of ionized gas from their nuclei. The "intrinsic" UV and X-ray absorbers show large global covering factors of the central continuum source, and the inferred mass loss rates are comparable to the mass accretion rates. Many absorbers show variable ionic column densities, which are attributed to a combination of variable ionizing flux and motion of gas into and out of the line of sight. Detailed studies of the intrinsic absorbers, with the assistance of monitoring observations and photoionization models, provide constraints on their kinematics, physical conditions, and locations relative to the central continuum source, which range from the inner nucleus (~0.01 pc) to the galactic disk or halo (~10 kpc). Dynamical models that make use of thermal winds, radiation pressure, and/or hydromagnetic flows have reached a level of sophistication that permits comparisons with the observational constraints.
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    HOT GAS IN AND AROUND ELLIPTICAL GALAXIES (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 41 (2003), S. 191-239 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: We review the origin, evolution, and physical nature of hot gas in elliptical galaxies and associated galaxy groups. Unanticipated recent X-ray observations with Chandra and XMM indicate much less cooling than previously expected. Consequently, many long-held assumptions must be reexamined or discarded and new approaches must be explored. Chief among these are the role of heating by active galactic nuclei, the influence of radio lobes on the hot gas, details of the cooling process, possible relation between the hot and colder gas in elliptical galaxies, and the complexities of stellar enrichment of the hot gas.
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    HIGH-RESOLUTION X-RAY SPECTROSCOPY WITH CHANDRA AND XMM-NEWTON (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 41 (2003), S. 291-342 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: The launches of the Chandra X-Ray Observatory in June 1999 and the XMM-Newton Observatory in December 1999 opened a new era in X-ray astronomy. Both of these missions incorporate novel diffraction grating spectrometers that are providing the first high-resolution X-ray spectra of most classes of astrophysical sources. The spectra obtained to date exhibit a wealth of discrete detail, yielding sensitive constraints on physical conditions in the emitting plasmas. We review the essential characteristics of these instruments, the basics of X-ray spectral formation in cosmic sources, and the exciting new results that have emerged from Chandra and XMM-Newton grating observations of a wide variety of astrophysical systems.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.41.071601.165952
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    CLUSTER MAGNETIC FIELDS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 40 (2002), S. 319-348 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Magnetic fields in the intercluster medium have been measured using a variety of techniques, including studies of synchrotron relic and halo radio sources within clusters, studies of inverse Compton X-ray emission from clusters, surveys of Faraday rotation measures of polarized radio sources both within and behind clusters, and studies of cluster cold fronts in X-ray images. These measurements imply that most cluster atmospheres are substantially magnetized, with typical field strengths of order 1 muGauss with high areal filling factors out to Mpc radii. There is likely to be considerable variation in field strengths and topologies both within and between clusters, especially when comparing dynamically relaxed clusters to those that have recently undergone a merger. In some locations, such as the cores of cooling flow clusters, the magnetic fields reach levels of 10-40 muG and may be dynamically important. In all clusters the magnetic fields have a significant effect on energy transport in the intracluster medium. We also review current theories on the origin of cluster magnetic fields.
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    THE ORIGIN OF BINARY STARS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 40 (2002), S. 349-385 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Although we have a general understanding of the manner in which individual stars form, our understanding of how binary stars form is far from complete. This is in large part due to the fact that the star formation process happens very quickly and in regions of the Galaxy that are difficult to study observationally. We review the theoretical models that have been developed in an effort to explain how binaries form. Several proposed mechanisms appear to be quite promising, but none is completely satisfactory.
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    LYMAN-BREAK GALAXIES (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 40 (2002), S. 579-641 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract In this paper we review the properties of Lyman-break galaxies, namely starburst galaxies at high redshifts, approximately in the range 2.5 〈z〈 5, identified by the colors of their far ultraviolet spectral energy distribution around the 912 A Lyman continuum discontinuity. The properties of forming galaxies in the young universe are very important to constrain the history of galaxy evolution and the formation of the Hubble sequence, and until recently, they have remained largely unexplored. The Lyman-break technique has broken an impasse in the exploration of galaxies at high redshift that lasted for about two decades, and within a few years has yielded large and well-controlled samples of star-forming, but otherwise normal, galaxies at z〉 2.5, including ~1000 spectroscopic redshifts and another few thousands of robust candidates. This dataset has allowed us an unprecedented look at fundamental properties of galaxies at 20% of the Hubble time or less. In this paper, we discuss the nature of the Lyman-break galaxies and their properties, including star-formation rate, stellar and total mass, chemical abundance, morphology, and interstellar medium (ISM) kinematics, and outline their contribution to the stellar content of the universe and their connection to the galaxies observed in the present-day universe. We also discuss what the properties of these galaxies, in particular their spatial clustering, imply about the mechanisms of galaxy formation and about the relationship between the underlying distribution of dark matter and the activity of star formation.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.40.121301.111837
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    ABUNDANCE VARIATIONS WITHIN GLOBULAR CLUSTERS (2004)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 42 (2004), S. 385-440 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abundance variations within globular clusters (GCs), and of GC stars with respect to field stars, are important diagnostics of a variety of physical phenomena, related to the evolution of individual stars, mass transfer in binary systems, and chemical evolution in high density environments. The broad astrophysical implications of GCs as building blocks of our knowledge of the Universe make a full understanding of their history and evolution basic in a variety of astrophysical fields. We review the current status of the research in this field, comparing the abundances in GCs with those obtained for field stars, discussing in depth the evidence for H-burning at high temperatures in GC stars, describing the process of self-enrichment in GCs with particular reference to the case of the most massive Galactic GC (omega Cen), and discussing various classes of cluster stars with abundance anomalies. Whereas the overall pattern might appear very complex at first sight, exciting new scenarios are opening where the interplay between GC dynamical and chemical properties are closely linked with each other.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.42.053102.133945
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    ACTION AT A DISTANCE AND COSMOLOGY: A Historical Perspective (2003)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 41 (2003), S. 169-189 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: The first law of theoretical physics, the Newtonian law of gravitation, relies on the concept of action at a distance. The success of this law led to the concept being applied to electricity and magnetism, which were next to be explored in depth. Here the action at a distance had a limited success and ultimately had to be abandoned in favor of the increasingly more popular field theory. Nevertheless, in the 1940s, an attempt was made to revive the concept of action at a distance in a relativistically invariant way by Wheeler & Feynman (1945, 1949). It inspired a series of investigations in both electrodynamics and gravity in which the field concept was not used but the interaction was described as taking place directly between particles. As it impinged very intimately on cosmology, Hoyle was keenly interested in it. This review discusses the work by Hoyle, the author, and others on the development of electrodynamics and gravitation as direct particle theories. In this review, the author discusses how the work was started and went through stages of increasing sophistication, e.g., extending the Wheeler-Feynman electrodynamics to curved spacetime, its consequences in different cosmologies, and the issues arising from its quantization. The resolution of ultraviolet divergences in quantum electrodynamics is also briefly discussed. The parallel development of a Machian theory of gravitation followed the lead from electrodynamics. In both theories one sees a strong link between the large-scale structure of the universe and local physics, as might be expected from an action-at-a-distance framework.
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    INTERSTELLAR TURBULENCE II: Implications and Effects (2004)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Astronomy and Astrophysics 42 (2004), S. 275-316 
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    ISSN: 0066-4146
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Interstellar turbulence has implications for the dispersal and mixing of the elements, cloud chemistry, cosmic ray scattering, and radio wave propagation through the ionized medium. This review discusses the observations and theory of these effects. Metallicity fluctuations are summarized, and the theory of turbulent transport of passive tracers is reviewed. Modeling methods, turbulent concentration of dust grains, and the turbulent washout of radial abundance gradients are discussed. Interstellar chemistry is affected by turbulent transport of various species between environments with different physical properties and by turbulent heating in shocks, vortical dissipation regions, and local regions of enhanced ambipolar diffusion. Cosmic rays are scattered and accelerated in turbulent magnetic waves and shocks, and they generate turbulence on the scale of their gyroradii. Radio wave scintillation is an important diagnostic for small-scale turbulence in the ionized medium, giving information about the power spectrum and amplitude of fluctuations. The theory of diffraction and refraction as well as the main observations and scintillation regions are reviewed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.astro.42.120403.143327
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    THE SHEARS MECHANISM IN NUCLEI1 (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 50 (2000), S. 1-36 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract This chapter reviews the experimental properties of shears bands. The most puzzling characteristic of these structures is the emergence of rotational-like behavior while the nucleus retains a small quadrupole deformation. Regardless of the details of particular theoretical models, it can be shown that the most important degree of freedom in describing the shears mechanism is the shears angle. It is then possible to develop a semiclassical description of the shears mechanism, in which the nature (multipole order) of the interaction between valence protons and neutrons constituting the shears "blades" may be derived and the dynamics of the system described. We discuss the competition between the shears mechanism and collective rotation and mention the connection to "magnetic rotation." Directions for future theoretical and experimental efforts are suggested.
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    HIGH-ENERGY NEUTRINO ASTROPHYSICS (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 50 (2000), S. 679-749 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract High-energy (〉100 MeV) neutrino astrophysics enters an era of opportunity and discovery as the sensitivity of detectors approaches astrophysically relevant flux levels. We review the major challenges for this emerging field, among which the nature of dark matter, the origin of cosmic rays, and the physics of extreme objects such as active galactic nuclei, gamma-ray bursts, pulsars, and supernova remnants are of prime importance. Variable sources at cosmological distances allow the probing of neutrino propagation properties over baselines up to about 20 orders of magnitude larger than those probed by terrestrial long-baseline experiments. We review the possible astrophysical sources of high-energy neutrinos, which also act as an irreducible background to searches for phenomena at the electroweak and grand-unified-theory symmetry-breaking scales related to possible supersymmetric dark matter and topological defects. Neutrino astronomy also has the potential to discover previously unimagined high-energy sources invisible in other channels and provides the only means for direct observations of the early universe prior to the era of decoupling of photons and matter. We conclude with a discussion of experimental approaches and a short report on present projects and prospects. We look forward to the day when it will be possible to see the universe through a new window in the light of what may be its most numerous particle, the elusive neutrino.
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    B MIXING1 (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 50 (2000), S. 577-641 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The neutral B mesons, B0 and Bs0, can oscillate between their particle and antiparticle states owing to flavor-changing weak interactions. In recent years, techniques to detect these oscillations as a function of the meson's decay time have been developed. This article reviews the physics of flavor oscillations and summarizes theoretical predictions. The many observations that demonstrate the time dependence of oscillations are presented along with a combined measurement of its frequency, Deltamd = 0.484 +- 0.015 ps-1. The attempts to measure the Bs0 oscillation frequency, both directly and indirectly, are then summarized, currently resulting in a limit of Deltams〉 14.6 ps-1 (95% CL). Finally, values for the CKM elements |Vtd| = (3.6 +- 0.4) x 10-3 and |Vts/Vtd| 〉 4.7 (95% CL) are extracted.
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    FLY WITH EAGLES (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 51 (2001), S. 1-22 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract My training in many areas of research in theoretical physics derived from what I learned from the "eagles" I flew with. Let me enumerate them. First of all, when the Navy sent me to the University of Wisconsin in January 1944 to become an electrical engineering officer, I met Gregory Breit, who practically adopted me as a son. I learned from him to drag a problem bleeding through the street until it cried for help and gave up. My political indiscretions during my young life forced me to flee to England from Joe McCarthy, where I ended up in the inspiring theory group of Rudi Peierls. Peierls taught us to drive immediately to fundamentals. When I began collaborating with Hans Bethe, the first thing I learned was why he had never had long-term collaborators. I had to wait until he was more than 70 years old in order to have any chance of keeping up with him. He worked like a bulldozer, heading directly for the light at the end of the tunnel. Most important is confidence. He starts each day with a pile of white paper in the upper left-hand corner of his desk and fills it with calculations at a more or less even rate, although he's happy to stop for lunch. I found this to be an amazingly effective procedure to imitate. From my training with Rudi Peierls, his closest friend, I was well prepared to work with Hans. The twenty-odd years I've collaborated with him have been exciting and productive.
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    PARITY-VIOLATING ELECTRON SCATTERING AND NUCLEON STRUCTURE (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 51 (2001), S. 189-217 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The measurement of parity violation in the helicity dependence of electron-nucleon scattering provides unique information about the basic quark structure of the nucleons. This review presents the general formalism of parity-violating electron scattering, with emphasis on elastic electron-nucleon scattering. The physics issues addressed by such experiments are discussed, and the major goals of the presently envisioned experimental program are identified. Results from a recent series of experiments are summarized and the future prospects of this program are discussed.
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    NEUTRINO PROPAGATION IN DENSE ASTROPHYSICAL SYSTEMS (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 51 (2001), S. 295-344 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Even the elusive neutrinos are trapped in matter, albeit transiently, in several astrophysical circumstances. Their interactions with the ambient matter not only reveal the properties of such exotic matter, but also shed light on the fundamental properties of the neutrinos. The physical sites of interest include the early universe, supernovae, and newly born neutron stars. Detection of neutrinos from these vastly different eras using the new generation of neutrino detectors holds great promise for enhancing our understanding of neutrino-matter interactions and astrophysical phenomena.
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    THE RHIC ACCELERATOR* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 52 (2002), S. 425-469 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract This review discusses the design and initial operation of the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider (RHIC), noting the novel features of a heavy ion collider that are distinct from conventional hadron colliders. These features reflect the experimental requirements of operation with a variety of ion species over a wide energy range, including collisions between ions of unequal energies and polarized protons. Other unique aspects of RHIC include intrabeam scattering, interaction-region error compensation, and transition crossing with a slow ramp rate. The RHIC facility has just completed the second physics run after beam commissioning in 2000.
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    THE GRIBOV CONCEPTION OF QUANTUM CHROMODYNAMICS (2004)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 54 (2004), S. 487-524 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Quantum chromodynamics (QCD), which describes hadrons and their interactions, is a non-Abelian gauge theory. The salient property of QCD is color confinement, quantitative understanding of which still remains a challenge. Major contributions to understanding quantum dynamics of non-Abelian fields are due to V.N. Gribov, both in the framework of pure gluodynamics (Gribov copies, Gribov horizon) and in the quest for confinement in the presence of light quarks (supercritical confinement scenario). We discuss Gribov's approach to the confinement problem and review some recent developments that are motivated, directly or indirectly, by his ideas.
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    HEAVY QUARKS ON THE LATTICE (2004)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 54 (2004), S. 451-486 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Lattice quantum chromodynamics provides first-principles calculations for hadrons containing heavy quarkscharm and bottom quarks. Their mass spectra, decay rates, and some hadronic matrix elements can be calculated on the lattice in a model-independent manner. In this review, we introduce the effective theories that treat heavy quarks on the lattice. We summarize results on the heavy quarkonium spectrum, which verify the validity of the effective theory approach. We then discuss applications to B physics, which is the main target of the lattice theory of heavy quarks. We review progress in lattice calculations of the B meson decay constant, the B parameter, semileptonic decay form factors, and other important quantities.
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    THE TEORETICAL PREDICTION FOR THE MUON ANOMALOUS MAGNETIC MOMENT (2004)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 54 (2004), S. 115-140 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: This article reviews the standard-model prediction for the anomalous magnetic moment of the muon and describes recent updates of QED, electroweak, and hadronic contributions. Comparison of theory and experiment suggests a 2.4 difference if e+e hadrons data are used to evaluate the main hadronic effects, but a smaller discrepancy if hadronic decay data are employed. Implications of a deviation for "new physics" contributions, along with an outlook for future improvements in theory and experiment, are briefly discussed.
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    VARIOUS RESEARCHES IN PHYSICS1 (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 50 (2000), S. i 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
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    THE CDF AND DO UPGRADES FOR RUN II (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 50 (2000), S. 71-177 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The DO and CDF collaborations are preparing their detectors for the Tevatron Run II. A 20-fold increase in integrated luminosity is planned for the first two years of the upcoming run, and the detector subsystems are undergoing substantial improvements to handle the higher rates as well as to better measure the products of the , interactions. This review discusses the physics goals that motivate these detector enhancements and describes in detail the improvements being made to the charged particle tracking, calorimetry, muon identification, and trigger subsystems of both detectors.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.50.1.71
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    PRECISION MEASUREMENTS OF THE W BOSON MASS (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 50 (2000), S. 207-248 
    Details
    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The standard model of electroweak interactions has had great success in describing the observed data over the past three decades. The precision of experimental measurements affords tests of the standard model at the quantum loop level beyond leading order. Despite this success, it is important to continue confronting experimental measurements with the standard model's predictions because any deviation would signal new physics. As a fundamental parameter of the standard model, the mass of the W boson, MW, is of particular importance. Aside from being an important test of the model itself, a precision measurement of MW can be used to constrain the mass of the Higgs boson, MH. In this article, we review the principal experimental techniques for determining MW and discuss their combination into a single precision MW measurement. We conclude by briefly discussing future prospects for precision measurements of the W boson mass.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.50.1.207
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    DEVELOPMENTS IN RARE KAON DECAY PHYSICS (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 50 (2000), S. 249-297 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract We review the current status of the field of rare kaon decays. The study of rare kaon decays has played a key role in the development of the standard model, and the field continues to have significant impact. The two areas of greatest import are the search for physics beyond the standard model and the determination of fundamental standard-model parameters. Due to the exquisite sensitivity of rare kaon decay experiments, searches for new physics can probe very high mass scales. Studies of the Kpinu modes in particular, where the first event has recently been seen, will permit tests of the standard-model picture of quark mixing and CP violation.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.50.1.249
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    STRANGENESS PRODUCTION IN HEAVY-ION COLLISIONS (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 50 (2000), S. 299-342 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Strangeness production is a very useful diagnostic tool in finding the quark-gluon plasma. We review its uses in understanding relativistic heavy-ion collisions. A brief introduction to the main theoretical tools used in interpreting strangeness production is given, and the experimental methods used to extract the signals are discussed in detail. The experimental results from the Brookhaven AGS and CERN SPS programs are presented. We discuss the interpretation of these results, emphasizing their role in the discovery of deconfined quark matter at CERN. Future experiments at RHIC and at the CERN LHC are described.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.50.1.299
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    RECENT PROGRESS IN NEUTRON STAR THEORY (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 50 (2000), S. 481-524 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract We review recent progress in the theory of neutron stars and compare its predictions with the observational data on masses, radii, and temperatures. The theory of neutron stars made up of neutrons, protons, and leptons is discussed in detail along with recent models of nuclear forces and modern many-body techniques. The possibilities of pion and kaon condensation in dense neutron star matter are considered, as is the possible occurrence of strange hyperons and quark-matter drops in the stellar core. The structure of mixed-phase matter in neutron stars, as well as the probable effect of phase transitions on the spin down of pulsars, is also discussed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.50.1.481
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    THE QCD COUPLING CONSTANT1 (2000)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 50 (2000), S. 643-678 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract This paper presents a summary of the current status of determinations of the strong coupling constant alphas. A detailed description of the definition, scale dependence, and inherent theoretical ambiguities is given. The various physical processes that can be used to determine alphas are reviewed and attention is given to the uncertainties, both theoretical and experimental.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.50.1.643
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    QUANTUM MONTE CARLO CALCULATIONS OF LIGHT NUCLEI1 (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 51 (2001), S. 53-90 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Accurate quantum Monte Carlo calculations of ground states and low-lying excited states of light p-shell nuclei are now possible for realistic nuclear Hamiltonians that fit nucleon-nucleon scattering data. Results for more than 30 different (Jpi;T) states, plus isobaric analogs, in A〈= 8 nuclei have been obtained with an excellent reproduction of the experimental energy spectrum. These microscopic calculations show that nuclear structure, including both single-particle and clustering aspects, can be explained starting from elementary two- and three-nucleon interactions. Various density and momentum distributions, electromagnetic form factors, and spectroscopic factors have also been computed, as well as electroweak capture reactions of astrophysical interest.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.51.101701.132506
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    NEW PHYSICS IN CP VIOLATION EXPERIMENTS (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 51 (2001), S. 161-187 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract CP violation plays a privileged role in our quest for new physics beyond the electroweak standard model. In the standard model, the violation of CP in the weak interactions has a single source: the phase of the quark mixing matrix (the CKM matrix, for Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa). Most extensions of the standard model exhibit new sources of CP violation. For instance, the truly minimal supersymmetric extension of the standard model has two new phases in addition to the CKM phase. Given that CP violation is so tiny in the kaon system, is still largely unexplored in B physics, and is negligibly small in the electric dipole moments, it is clear that new physics may have a good chance to manifest some departure from the standard model in this particularly challenging class of rare phenomena. On the other hand, it is also apparent that CP violation generally represents a major constraint on any attempt at model building beyond the standard model. In this review, we tackle these two sides of the relation between CP violation and new physics. Our focus will be on the potentialities to use CP violation as a probe on supersymmetric (SUSY) extensions of the standard model. We wish to clarify the extent to which such indirect signals for SUSY are linked to a fundamental theoretical issue: Is there a relation between the mechanism that originates the whole flavor structure and the mechanism that is responsible for the breaking of supersymmetry? Different ways to answer this question lead to quite different expectations for CP violation in B physics.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.51.101701.132338
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    ATOMIC CLUSTERS AS A BRANCH OF NUCLEAR PHYSICS (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 51 (2001), S. 219-259 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The conduction electrons in clusters of simple metal atoms are approximatively independent and free. Nucleons in nuclei also behave as delocalized and independent fermions. This generic behavior generates analogies between metal clusters and nuclei, such as the shell structure, the shapes, and the dipole vibration mode. However, there are also major differences that arise from the presence of ions in metal clusters. Fission of nuclei and clusters, and particle emission from them, reveal these differences.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.51.101701.132354
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    HIGHLIGHTS OF THE SLD PHYSICS PROGRAM AT THE SLAC LINEAR COLLIDER (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 51 (2001), S. 345-412 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Starting in 1989, and continuing through the 1990s, high-energy physics witnessed a flowering of precision measurements in general and tests of the standard model in particular, led by e+e- collider experiments operating at the Z0 resonance. Key contributions to this work came from the SLD collaboration at the SLAC Linear Collider. By exploiting the unique capabilities of this pioneering accelerator and the SLD detector, including a polarized electron beam, exceptionally small beam dimensions, and a CCD pixel vertex detector, SLD produced a broad array of electroweak, heavy-flavor, and QCD measurements. Many of these results are one of a kind or represent the world's standard in precision. This article reviews the highlights of the SLD physics program, with an eye toward associated advances in experimental technique, and the contribution of these measurements to our dramatically improved present understanding of the standard model and its possible extensions.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.51.101701.132413
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    THE CONTINUOUS ELECTRON BEAM ACCELERATOR FACILITY: CEBAF at the Jefferson Laboratory (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 51 (2001), S. 413-450 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The Jefferson Laboratory's superconducting radiofrequency (srf) Continuous Electron Beam Accelerator Facility (CEBAF) provides multi-GeV continuous-wave (cw) beams for experiments at the nuclear and particle physics interface. CEBAF comprises two antiparallel linacs linked by nine recirculation beam lines for up to five passes. By the early 1990s, accelerator installation was proceeding in parallel with commissioning. By the mid-1990s, CEBAF was providing simultaneous beams at different but correlated energies up to 4 GeV to three experimental halls. By 2000, with srf development having raised the average cavity gradient to 7.5 MV/m, energies up to nearly 6 GeV were routine, at 1-150 muA for two halls and 1-100 nA for the other. Also routine are beams of 〉75% polarization. Physics results have led to new questions about the quark structure of nuclei, and therefore to user demand for a planned 12 GeV upgrade. CEBAF's enabling srf technology is also being applied in other projects.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.51.101701.132327
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    OSCILLATIONS OF ATMOSPHERIC NEUTRINOS (2001)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 51 (2001), S. 451-488 
    Details
    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The observation of muon flavor disappearance in the atmospheric neutrino flux provides compelling evidence for neutrino flavor oscillations and, by implication, for nonzero neutrino rest mass. We review recent results from Super-Kamiokande and other underground atmospheric neutrino experiments. These results, along with oscillation limits from reactor experiments, are evaluated in the context of neutrino three-state mixing. A unifying picture with numu to nutau oscillation as the dominant mode emerges; however, certain ambiguities remain. Future directions for further experimentation are discussed.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.51.101701.132421
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    PION-NUCLEUS INTERACTIONS* (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 52 (2002), S. 23-63 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract Pion-nucleus interactions have been extensively investigated in the past three decades with the meson factories at LAMPF, TRIUMF, and PSI. This article gives a pedagogical review of the advances and discusses open questions as well as issues related to current research.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.52.050102.090713
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    THE MASS OF THE b QUARK (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 52 (2002), S. 201-251 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract We review the current status of determinations of the b-quark mass, mb. We describe the theoretical tools required for determining mb, with particular emphasis on effective field theories both in the continuum and on the lattice. We present several definitions of mb and highlight their advantages and disadvantages. Finally, we discuss the determinations of mb from systems, b-flavored hadrons, and high-energy processes, with careful attention to the corresponding theoretical uncertainties.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.52.050102.090710
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    PARTICLE PHYSICS PROBES OF EXTRA SPACETIME DIMENSIONS (2002)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 52 (2002), S. 397-424 
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    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: Abstract The possibility that spacetime extends beyond the familiar 3 + 1 dimensions has intrigued physicists for a century. The consequences of a dimensionally richer spacetime would be profound. Recently, new theories with higher-dimensional spacetimes have been developed to resolve the hierarchy problem in particle physics. The distinct predictions of these scenarios allow experiment to probe the existence of extra dimensions in new ways. We review the conceptual framework of these scenarios, their implications in collider and short-range gravity experiments, and their astrophysical and cosmological effects, as well as the constraints placed on them by current data.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.52.050102.090706
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    GRAVITATIONAL WAVE ASTRONOMY* (2004)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 54 (2004), S. 525-577 
    Details
    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: The existence of gravitational radiation is a direct prediction of Einstein's theory of general relativity, published in 1916. The observation of gravitational radiation will open a new astronomical window on the universe, allowing the study of dynamic strong-field gravity, as well as many other astrophysical objects and processes impossible to observe with electromagnetic radiation. The relative weakness of the gravitational force makes detection extremely challenging; nevertheless, sustained advances in detection technology have made the observation of gravitational radiation probable in the near future. In this article, we review the theoretical and experimental status of this emerging field.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.54.070103.181251
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    BACKGROUNDS TO SENSITIVE EXPERIMENTS UNDERGROUND (2004)
    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Nuclear and Particle Science 54 (2004), S. 361-412 
    Details
    ISSN: 0163-8998
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Physics
    Notes: We summarize residual background sources encountered in experiments conducted deep underground. Physical mechanisms of production and methods of estimation for the dominant sources are considered, and comparisons of the calculations with underground measurements are discussed. Principal background sources discussed include primary interactions of cosmic rays, mechanisms of neutron production by cosmic rays and low energy backgrounds from neutrons, primordial and anthropogenic radionuclides, and secondary radioactivity from spallation.
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    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1146/annurev.nucl.54.070103.181248
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