ALBERT

Notes: Résumé Le rapport entre les amplitudes et le déphasage des pulsations des champs magnétique et électrique enregistrés au niveau du sol, dont les périodes sont supérieures à la seconde, dépendent de la variation de la conductivité avec la profondeur En vue d'interpréter les résultats des observations effectuées au Centre de Physique du Globe de Dourbes, divers types de distribution de la conductivité sont étudiés, et en particulier un modèle composite constitué d'une couche de conductivité uniforme prolongée par un milieu où la variation de la conductivité est continue semble être susceptible de représenter les résultats expérimentaux.

Notes: Summary The vertical gradient of gravitational field is derived by a corollary ofGreen's theorem from the gravitational potential. For the solving of the integral defined the vertical gradient is given a simple approximation. For practical computation are presented the numerical values of coefficients.

Notes: Summary The theory of a Zöllner's horizontal pendulum with perfect wires of suspension is made. We use the Euler's angles of the axes of a system fixed in the moving body relatively to fixed axes and a fourth angle caracterising the amplitude of a motion of translation. We give the conditions for the decoupling of the four types of motion (pure rotation, pitching, rolling, translation) and the equations of forced motions. A rigorous theory of Lettau's double pendulum is initiated. We suppose that the primary pendulum has only one degree of freedom. First the case of a secondary pendulum not disturbing the primary one is examined, and then the case of an indifferent primary pendulum, wich enables us to understand what happens in the normal case. The potential energy of the secondary pendulum is not always a minimum in the central position when the plane of symmetry is vertical and it is possible that parasitesolutions appear, stabler than the central one. This study is extended to the case of a non-vertical plane of symmetry and indications are given for the study of the free motions of the system. In conclusion we could say that this system is simple only at first sight. Its use would be necessary in the case of a real great drift of the underground of the station. But in the contrary case ordinary simple pendulums are sufficient and more easy to understand.

Notes: Summary The subject is treated, how far the events of motion in the sea can be reproduced by application of methods, which are based on the hydrodynamical differential equations. In particular comparisons between observed and computed sea-levels for the tides in estuaries and in the North-sea are worked out. Furtheron, a method is communicated, which is giving the shape of the sea-surface, when distribution of density is known, without using a layer of no motion. The result shows a remarkable agreement with the topography of the sea-surface in the South-Atlantic given byA. Defant.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Der nachfolgende Aufsatz diskutiert erneut die Frage der Korrekturen bei der Auswertung seismischer Filme. Die vom Verfasser vorgeschlagene Methode ist auf alle Verfahren der angewandten Seismik anwendbar und kann zur Entlastung des Wissenschaftlers von jedem Zeichner oder Rechner gehandhabt werden.

Notes: Summary The fault plane solution for the Alaska earthquake of October 24, 1927, is obtained and is found to be similar to that of the more recent earthquake of July 10, 1958, which occurred in the same general region. Using the data from the plane of polarization of theS waves, the mechanism at the focus is seen to conform to a single couple or faulting model rather than to a double couple. TheS waves, further, select one of the nodal planes forP as the fault plane.

Notes: Summary An electronic sound spectrograph has been used to analyze the transients in complicated earthquake and explosion signals. Transient analysis with a sound spectrograph gives a means for directly obtaining group velocity at each of the spectral frequencies for each of the separate arrival branches, for any type of transient signal. Compared to frequency analysis, it presents the fine spectral structure of the signal as it changes with time, not an average over a time that includes many parts of the seismic signal. Dispersion as well as the body wave spectrum of theP wave has been observed by transient analysis of seismic signals. Dispersion has also possibly been observed in theS wave, and in the various multiply reflectedS waves, which have been found to increase in period from one arrival to the next. The dispersed pattern of arrival of fundamental and higher mode surface waves has been observed for oceanic, continental, and mixed paths. Among these signals is a clear indication of the continental second shear mode. The separation of surface waves for the direct and complementary paths has also been accomplished. Our results compare well with those obtained by standard techniques. The dispersion of the fundamental and higher mode signals from explosive sources in shallow water may be easily studied by making sound spectrograms and amplitude sections of these seismic signals. These shallow water shots show bubble pulses and Airy phases, which are clearly defined on the spectrograms and sections.

Notes: Summary The author describes the pulsing ionospheric technique which since 1939 has been successfully employed for forecasting surface weather.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Messungen der Gefrierkernkonzentration während der Jahre 1957 und 1958 zeigten im Verlauf des Monats Januar markante Spitzenwerte, die zeitlich mit den vonE.G. Bowen vorhergesagten Maxima übereinstimmten. Da es große Schwierigkeiten bereitet, das Auftreten dieser Maxima durch die «Meteorstaubhypothese» zu erklären, wird auf Umstellungen der Zirkulation der Atmosphäre im Januar hingewiesen, die möglicherweise diese Schwankungen der Gefrierkernkonzentration auslösen können.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Der Transport radioaktiver Aerosol-Partikel durch die Atmosphäre wirft neue meteorologische Probleme auf. Eine kinematische Methode der Vorhersage von Trajektorien zeigt erhebliche Unterschiede gegenüber den Stromlinien. Die Ausbreitung von Partikelwolken ist eine Funktion der Vektorstreuung des Windfeldes und einem von der Zeit abhängigen Parameter. Der Massenaustausch zwischen der Troposphäre und der viel partikelreicheren Stratosphäre vollzieht sich vorwiegend in horizontaler Richtung im Niveau der Strahlströmungen. Einige Besonderheiten der Stratosphäre über dem tropischen Pazifik werden kurz beschrieben: die Aufspaltung der Tropopause über dem Äquator und die großen zeitlichen Änderungen der zonalen Windströmungen. Während die Gravitation und das Auswaschen durch Niederschläge vorwiegend gröbere Partikel (Durchmesser〉2μ) zur Sedimentation bringen, fällt die Koagulation an Wolkenelementen hauptsächlich die kleinsten Partikel (〈0.1 μ) aus.

Notes: Summary By comparing the equalities expressing the solar flux within a wide spectral region on the assumption of an extintion within the atmospheric aerosol given by βαλ−α and that of an extintion represented by β1λ−1, a relationship is established by means of which: 1) The error is discussed which is done when the air opacity is expressed by β1, in the case when α≠1; 2) A simple and quick method is worked out for determining the parameters βα and α from actinometric observations, carried out within the spectral regions λ〈525 mμ and 525 mμ〈λ〈625 mμ.

Notes: Abstract I has been shown that irradiation of air by sun-rays leads to a formation of atmospheric condensation nuclei, as measured with the automatic nucleus counter (1). To control the influence of the material, experiments were done in a gasometer where a rubber balloon was built in, also in a metal container covered either with uviol glass or window glass, or with air in a polyethylene balloon. The same influence of sunrays was observed in each case. Similar experiments were then done with compressed air from a metal container, or with oxygen gas, nitrogen gas or nitrous oxide all from metal containers. In all cases sun-rays produced condensation nuclei; the effect was present both at 1800 m and at 270 m altitude. Diffuse sunlight with high clouds also had an effect. Infra-red radiation and mechanical shaking were without result, but ultraviolet rays from a quartz-mercury lamp increased the nucleus count of the balloon whether it contained air or one of the above-mentioned gases. As yet it has not been possible to decide the mechanism of formation of these nuclei and what their meteorological and biological role might be. The detailed paper will appear later in «Geofisica pura e applicata».

Notes: Summary In brief a newly developed freezing nuclei meter is described. Results of measurements made with this instrument in New Jersey, California and in the Thule area, Greenland, are shown. These data are compared with measurements of condensation nuclei, simultaneously made with the General Electric and the Aitkennuclei counters. Also the results obtained from some measurements of the lightscattering function of the aerosol in industrial areas near New York City are presented.

Notes: Summary Working on the hypothesis that atmospheric ice-forming nuclei are largely of terrestrial origin, the nucleating ability of various types of soil particles and mineral dusts has been investigated. Of the thirty substances tested, twenty-one, mainly silicate minerals of the clay and mica groups, were found to produce ice crystals in supercooled clouds and also on supercooled soap films at temperatures of − 18° C, or above, and of these, ten were active above − 12° C. The most abundant of these is kaolinite with a threshold temperature of − 9° C. Ten natural substances, again mainly silicates, were found to become more efficient ice nuclei having once been involved in ice-crystal formation, i.e. they could be pre-activated or «trained». Thus, ice crystals grown on kaolinite nuclei, which are initially active at −9° C, when evaporated and warmed to near 0° C in a dry atmosphere, leave behind nuclei which are thereafter effective at − 4° C. Particles of montmorillonite, another important constituent of some clays, and which are initially inactive even at −25° C, may be pre-activated to serve as ice nuclei at temperatures as high as −10° C. It is suggested that although such particles can initially form ice crystals only at cirrus levels, when the ice crystals evaporate they will leave behind some «trained» nuclei which may later seed lower clouds at temperatures only a few degrees below 0° C. On this hypothesis, the fact that efficient nuclei are occasionally more abundant at higher levels would not necessarily imply that they originate from outer space. Indeed, in view of our tests on products of stony meteorites, produced both by grinding and vaporization, which show them to be ineffective at temperatures above − 17° C, it seems likely that atmospheric ice nuclei are produced mainly at the earth's surface, the clay minerals, particularly kaolinite, being a major source. Although a good deal of work has been carried out in different laboratories on the ice-nucleating ability of a wide variety of inorganic compounds, there has been little agreement in the results. Careful tests carried out in our laboratory have revealed a number of reasons for this. Spurious results may be obtained because of the presence, in the air or the chemicals, of small traces of silver or free iodine, leading to the formation of silver iodide: if all such trace impurities are removed, many of the substances that have been claimed to provide efficient ice nuclei are found to be quite ineffective. It is dangerous to infer that all twinkling particles in a water cloud are ice crystals since particles of some seeding agents glitter even at positive temperatures. The threshold temperature of a nucleant will depend upon the criterion adopted for the onset of nucleation, i.e. upon the fraction of the total number of particles of seeding agent which are activated; this, in turn, will depend upon the fraction of particles which happen to possess suitable crystallographic faces for nucleation. Much may also depend upon the manner in which the test is performed. Since some nucleating materials produce ice crystals only after a delay of 30 seconds or more, they may appear to be ineffective if tested in the transient cloud of an expansion chamber but highly effective if allowed to remain in an ice-supersaturated atmosphere for a minute or more. Again, we have found that the efficiency of some nuclei is governed by the supersaturation as well as the temperature of the environment, and the supersaturation regimes in expansion, diffusion, and mixing-cloud chamber may be widely different. Highly soluble particles, although able to act as «sublimation» nuclei in atmospheres super-saturated relative to ice but sub-saturated relative to water, on entering a water cloud go quickly into solution and lose their nucleating ability. Inorganic substances which definitely nucleate a supercooled water cloud in a mixing-cloud chamber at temperatures of −15° C and above are: AgI (−4° C), PbI2 (−6° C), CuS (−6° C), Ag2S (−8° C), Ag2O (−9° C), HgI2 (−8° C), V2O5 (−14° C), Cu2I2 (−15° C), the figures in brackets indicating the threshold temperatures at which about one particle in 104 becomes active as an ice nucleus. Cadmium iodide (−12° C), ammonium fluoride (−9° C) and iodine (−14° C) are examples of salts which will act as sublimation nuclei in an ice-supersaturated atmosphere and will nucleate a supercooled soap film, but which are ineffective in a water cloud because of their solubility. Although the most efficient nucleating agents tend to be hexagonal in structure, there are some striking exceptions e.g. Ag2S, Ag2O, HgI2, but in most cases, we have been able to find a low-index crystal surface on which the ice lattice could grow with a misfit of only a few per cent. In an attempt to investigate the nucleation mechanism in more detail, we have studied the growth of ice on single crystals of various nucleating agents. Perfect orientation of ice crystals has so far been observed on the basal faces of silver iodide, lead iodide, cupric sulphide, cadmium iodide, and freshly-cleaved mica, on the (001) plane of iodine, and on the (010) plane of mercuric iodide.

Notes: Summary Coda waves viz. the tail portion of an earthquake record have been observed and analysed byCarder, Macelwane and others. They showed that the periods of such waves increase with the increase of epicentral distances.Carder observed that these waves have very little transverse component so that these may be considered as of the type of Rayleigh waves. RecentlyOmote showed that the Coda waves contain three periodsT 1,T 2,T 3 of whichT 1 increases with epi-central distances as observed by previous observers. ButT 2,T 3 remain constant for all earthquakes from different epicentral distances.Omote tried to explain this phenomenon by considering that the surface of the earth consists of several layers andT 2,T 3 are free oscillation periods of the surface layers.T 1 period has been explained bySezawa and also byJeffreys which has been shown byGutenberg. The author has attempted to explain the periodsT 2,T 3 by considering passage of cracks at the focal region. The Rayleigh wave character of Coda waves and low velocity of such waves have been explained.

Notes: Summary Differences between epicenter azimuths and the direction of arrival of firstP-waves are determined from the horizontal seismograms of Djakarta station. Systematic azimuth deviations of more than 15° are encountered in the NW through N to SE azimuths. Azimuth deviations caused by a discontinuity dipping 5, 10 and 15° and with a ratio of velocity of longitudinal waves at either side of the discontinuity of 1.23, 1.38 and 1.52 are calculated. The most simple model suitable to the observed data is that of a discontinuity with a velocity ratio of about 1.5, dipping 8–10° in a N 10° E direction. In the S and W directions of Djakarta no dipping discontinuity is needed to account for the few observed data in these quadrants.

Notes: Riassunto Fino ad oggi sono apparse solo teorie elettrogeosmotiche transitorie unidimensionali. Quì risolviamo un problema del genere bidimensionale, con elettrodi verticali cilindrici. Le curve rappresentative delle portate d'acqua catodicaq K a cui perveniamo, denotano diminuzioni abbastanza rapide fino ai tempi dell' ordine dei «tempi elettrodici τ», (t=τ), portate che poi diminuiscono in modo molto lento. Si riscontrano quì più estesi «pianerottoli»q K che non quelli delle monodimensionalità (t=τ/9). Inoltre, col crescere dei rapporti distanze eteropolari-raggi catodici, o col diminuire dei raggi catodici, tali portate (che si compongono dei contributi dei singoli anodi) s'incrementano nel modo diagrammato.

Notes: Summary Calculations are performed to determine the time variation of supersaturation during cloud formation. It is shown that a simple expression can be used to obtain the maximum supersaturation (and hence the number of nuclei activated) as a function of updraught velocity and nucleus spectra insert omitted portion of copy reported in Part 1 and it isshown that they lead to cloud droplet concentrations which agree with those actually observed.

Notes: Summary The development of the law of radiation, and his consequences, shortly exposed.

Notes: Summary Certain problems of synoptic meteorology relating to the nature of the large quasi-stationary cyclonic and anticyclonic centers aloft are examined from the standpoint of an hypothesis which seeks to connect their maintenance with that of the smaller transient disturbances. The suggested link between these two scales of eddies is in many ways similar to that operating in the general circulaton in order to account for the sustained existence of the circumpolar mean zonal motions, according to the more modern concepts. Newer views concerning the dynamcis of large convective processes, and the essential nonlinearity of the laws governing motions in the atmosphere, figure importantly in the arguments advanced.

Notes: Summary Recently one of the authors introduced for a polydisperse aerosol the useful concept of the equivalent radius which is computed from a monodisperse substitute aerosol with the same fraction of charged nuclei as the actual. In this paper the result of a theoretical and experimental investigation into the agreement between equivalent and average radius of polydisperse aerosols are presented. It is shown that for normal conditions as is to be expected in practice the equivalent radius represents a very good estimate of the average size of submicron particles in polydisperse aerosols.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Für die regionale Klassifikation der Witterungslagen in Gebieten von der Grösse des Alpenraumes wird ein Klassifikationsschema vorgeschlagen, welches auf der Grundlage der im Buch vonFlohn: «Witterung und Klima in Mitteleuropa» veröffentlichten Klassifikation vonLauscher aufgebaut ist. DasLauscher'sche Schema wird von 5 auf 6 Klassen und von 17 auf 33 Typen erweitert wodurch es allgemein für beliebige Gebiete verwendbar wird und eine übersichtliche Charakterisierung der Witterungslage gibt. In der Verschlüsselung durch zwei Ziffern wird sowohl der Witterungscharakter als auch die vorherrschende Strömungsrichtung angegeben.

Notes: Summary The note presents results of five years measurements of circum-global radiation in Dublin with two Bellani spherical pyranometers constructed and supplied by the Physikalisch-Meteorologische Observatorium in Davos. It was found that the agreement of these remarkably simple instruments is very good over the whole period and that they are most suitable and convenient for climatological stations.

Notes: Résumé La marche annuelle de l'intensité du vent en Grèce est étudiée d'après les données anémologiques de 31 stations. Les stations considerées ont été classifiées en 6 types selon la marche annuelle de l'intensité du vent; les raisons qui justifient cette classification sont discutées. L'amplitude annuelle de l'intensité du vent est plus grande aux régions insulaires et littorales qu'à l'intérieur de la Peninsule Héllénique.

Notes: Summary The Southern Oscillation in air pressure may be described primarily as an air pressure balance whose scales are centred near Djakarta (Indonesia) and near Easter Island (South Pacific Ocean) respectively. A synoptic station was established at Easter Island July 1, 1949. 1) The 8 twelve-monthly air pressure values of Djakarta and Easter Island from the period July 1949 up to July 1957 have been correlated with the simultaneous air pressure values at 289 stations throughout the world; 2) The 7 twelve-monthly air pressure values of Djakarta and Easter Island from the period July 1949 up to July 1956 have been correlated with the simultaneous air pressure values at 65 grid points in North Asia and from the period July 1950 up to July 1957 with simultaneous air pressure values at 32 grid points in Africa; 3) At least 5 twelve-monthly air pressure values of Djakarta and Easter Island have been correlated with simultaneous air pressure values at 159 grid points between latitudes 20° and 60° S (Southern Hemisphere Project, Weather Bureau, Pretoria). The latter coefficients obtained, being less reliable, have been used only indicatively. The 545 correlation coefficients have been plotted on world charts and isopleths of the correlation coefficients with the values −0.9,; −0.7; −0.4; 0; +0.4; +0.7 and +0.9 have been drawn (Fig. 1 and 2). The patterns of the isopleths on both maps are very much alike. This is due, of course, to the fact that the coefficient of correlation between Djakarta and Easter Island air pressure deviations reaches a value as high as −0.93. From these pictures may be inferred that the Southern Oscillation acts for the greater part as a stationary wave and for the rest as a progressive wave. Another prominent feature of the Southern Oscillation, shown by the pictures, is that the Easter Island scale is meridionally developed, whereas the Djakarta scale is mainly zonally developed, especially along the equator. It is shown to be very probable that the arctic and antarctic regions both cooperate with the Djakarta region, thus stressing an undeniable overall zonal symmetry of the two patterns. A first impression is obtained of the kind of encroachment of the antarctic circulation on the Southern Oscillation. The well detailed patterns in the northern moderate and high latitudes call up the idea of the planetary waves in the zonal current which normally flows through these latitudes and the question is raised whether blocking action is stimulated when the Southern Oscillation is well developped. Similar indications are obtained from the still rather provisional and rough patterns in the southern moderate and high latitudes.

Notes: Summary The study presents new evidence for the fact that approximately two years prior to the occurrence of maxima and minima of the sunspots, also 1 1/4 to 2 years after the occurrence of maxima, the subtropical high-pressure belts are strengthened and shifted toward the poles, and further that the pressure gradient increases from the high-pressure belt toward the polar region in the summer of the Northern Hemisphere. Based on the summerly amounts of precipitation in Central Europe and average summerly atmospheric pressures in Edinburgh, the intervals of the sunspot cycle, during which the subtropical high-pressure belt is shifted toward the poles, are determined more precisely. The distance of beginning and end of these intervals from the nearest sunspot extreme is expressed in fractions of the distance from the preceding sunspot extreme to the following one, rather than in years. Thus, the departures in anomalous sunspot cycles find their explanation. Finally a chart shows the average annual rings of 10 Central European spruces during a period of almost 200 years. This chart clearly demonstrates the incorrectness of the assertion that the 11-years' sunspot period can be found in annual rings of old trees. This is at least not true in Central Europe. On the other hand the chart expresses well the double or triple variation of precipitations within the sunspot cycle.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Bei der Prüfung der Voraussetzungen, unter welchen die sogenannten «Wachstumskurven» für Lösungströpfchen abgeleitet wurden, kommt man zu dem Ergebnis, dass diese Kurven nur im Falle des Gleichgewichts und nur auf Lösungströfchen mit dem Radiusr≥0.1 μ im Gebiete hoher Feuchten angewendet werden sollten. Da die Bezeichnung «Wachstumskurve» irreführend ist, wird empfohlen, dem GebrauchB. J. Mason's (Physics of Clouds) folgend, diesen Ausdruck prinzipiell durch die Bezeichnung «Gleichgewichtskurve» zu ersetzen. Desgleichen sollten alle für diese Gleichung definierten Grössen wie kritische übersättigung, potentieller Radius und kritischer Radius so umbenannt werden, dass aus der neuen Bezeichnung hervorgeht, dass es sich um Grössen im thermodynamischen Gleichgewicht handelt. Eine Überlegung weist nach, dass in der Regel bei jungen Wolken und Laboratoriumsversuchen, sobald die Feuchtesättigung überschritten wird, die Voraussetzung des Gleichgewichts nicht erfüllt ist. Es wird besonders darauf hingewiesen, dass die Vorstellung, dass die Übersättigung in der Umgebung eines Kerns mindestens seine kritische Gleichgewichtsübersättigung erreicht haben muss, damit der Kern über seinen kritischen Gleichgewichtsradius anwachsen kann, mit dem Experiment in der Mischwolkenkammer nicht in Einklang gebracht werden kann. Die Übersättigung, welche erforderlich ist, in 60 bis 120 Sekundenüber 50% aller Aitkenkerne eines natürlichen Aerosols zu Tröpfchen anwachsen zu lassen, liegt zwischen 2 und 10‰. Der Betrag der notwendigen Übersättigung scheint von der Zeit und der Kerndichte, vielleicht auch den Dimensionen der Kammer und der Temperatur, nicht aber von der chemischen Beschaffenheit des Kernes abzuhängen, da bei den Versuchen die annähernd gleichen Ergebnisse erzielt wurden, unabhängig davon, ob die Kondensation von Wasseroder Benzindampf erfolgt.

Notes: Summary From a study of the variations in potential gradient at Eskdalemuir, Scotland, it is shown that the radioactivity there has roughly doubled during the past six years; in other words, a radioactive contamination equal in activity to the natural background has occurred. Calculations indicate that only some 2% of this contamination can be ascribed to world-wide fall-out following thermonuclear explosions; the remainder must have been generated locally. The obvious sources are the atomic stations — notably Windscale — in Cumberland, and it is considered that, apart from the accident in October 1957, Windscale has leaked radioactive material ever since it first came into operation. The resultant contamination is very considerable and its relation to danger levels is discussed.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Ausgehend von derEmden'schen Theorie der äquatorialen Beschleunigung der Sonne und einer früheren Anwendung derselben auf den Planeten Jupiter, wird auch die Beschleunigung bei Saturn hier erstmalig diskutiert und der Versuch gemacht, dieselbe Theorie zur Erklärung der Ostabweichung der Kontinente der Erde im äquatorialen Gebiet anzuwenden. Das ist nur möglich, wenn man 1.) auf die archaische Periode der Erdentwicklung zurückgreift, bei der aber die wesentlichen Höhenunterschiede der Erdoberfläche schon ausgebildet waren, 2.) der Pol im wesentlichen die jetzige Lage hatte und 3.) der Reibungskoeffizient der festen Erdkruste aber wesentlich geringer war: 1014 gegen etwa 1020 c.g.s.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Gegeben ist ein festes, elastisches Medium, das aus homogenen, isotropen, planparallelen Schichten aufgebaut ist. Im Innern einer Schicht wird ein punktförmiger Störungsherd von Multipolcharakter angenommen. Die Störung setzt zur Zeitt=0 ein. Unter Anwendung der Laplace-Transformation werden nach dem Verfahren vonCagniard «Exponentialkoeffizienten» und «Übertragungsfaktoren» berechnet, die gestatten, die elastischen Verschiebungen der an den verschiedenen Unstetigkeitsflächen reflektierten und gebrochenen Wellen zu bestimmen.

Notes: Summary By means of the long-period records at Uppsala and Kiruna of thirteen specially selected earthquakes, the Love and Rayleigh wave dispersion is determined for all oceans and all continents except for South America. The observations have given information on crustal structure along several paths, not investigated earlier; in other cases, they have confirmed earlier results. The methods are discussed. The results for oceanic areas are summarized in the following table: The observations demonstrate the oceanic structure of the central Arctic area as well as the complete similarity of the Atlantic and Pacific bottom structure. Continental dispersion curves are determined for very long paths over Euro-Asia and for the hitherto longest path over North America as well as for a path crossing Africa. These observations indicate an average crust about 10–15 km thicker along the Euro-Asiatic path than along the North American path, whereas there is perfect agreement between the North American and the African continent. A shear-wave velocity of 4.3–4.4 km/sec is obtained for the upper part of the mantle under the continents. Further conclusions must await the computation of a greater number of theoretical dispersion curves.

Notes: Summary Condensation nuclei which grow into droplets in natural clouds constitute only a small fraction of the total population of nuclei, since they must be activated at low supersaturations (〈1%). Such nuclei cannot readily be measured by the usual expansion methods. A chemical diffusion method is described in which water vapour and HCl vapour diffuse between a water surface and an aqueous HCl solution; this produces the continuous small supersaturations required to study these «cloud nuclei». Nucleus numbers are obtained photographically. Results of observations made by this method during the period April–August 1958 are presented and discussed; they suggest that the main source of cloud nuclei is the dry land surface.

Notes: Résumé Les moyennes mensuelles des températures publiées parF. Eredia pour 482 stations ont servi au calcul de la phase de la composante annuelle par la technique deYakovlev plus expéditive que la méthode d'analyseLabrouste. L'examen de la répartition géographique de la phase calculée fait ressortir les influences de l'orographie, de l'orientation des côtes et de la latitude sur la mise en place dans le temps de la fraction permanente de la marche annuelle des températures.

Notes: Summary The possibility of the use of measurements of the electrolytical conductivity of precipitation water as an aid to the chemical analysis has been examined. The measured conductivity of rain-water and of water obtained by melting snow and rime was of the order of magnitude of that for more or less good distilled water, apart from some exceptions. Considerable variations of the conductivity of rain-water continuously measured during rainfalls were observed. The relation between the conductivity and the chemical composition of the precipitation water was discussed by using the data of the Scandinavian precipitation-chemistry project. The importance of pH measurements was also shown by this consideration.

Notes: Summary The diffusion of gaseous radioiodine vapour to surfaces is controlled by boundary layer effects, and diffusion to the walls of a tube is in good agreement with theory. In the presence of condensation nuclei the behaviour of the radioiodine depends on the amount of iodine carrier present. With no carrier the radioiodine appears to undergo adsorption on the nuclei.

Notes: Summary The conditions for sliding over artificial joint surfaces have been studied experimentally by cutting rock cylinders at various angles to their axes and studying slip over these surfaces in a triaxial testing apparatus. The types of joint used were: (i) filled with plaster to simulate a soft joint filling, (ii) bare surfaces ground approximately flat, and (iii) natural surfaces across which shear failure had taken place. The results agreed reasonably well with the simple theory for a constant coefficient of friction. Measured coefficients of friction lie in the range 0.5–0.8 and differ by surprisingly little between the various surfaces. The surfaces across which sliding has taken place exhibit interesting slickenside phenomena. Subsidiary failures frequently occur which cut across the joint surfaces.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird das Interpretationsproblem der Refraktionsseismik in einem einachsig inhomogenen Körper allgemein behandelt und exakt gelöst.

Notes: Summary The analysis of the readings taken with aWorden gravimeter during fieldwork over a period of four years when compared with tests in a laboratory shows that its behaviour is not dependent on vibration and that the drift can be separated into two distinct parts; an isothermal drift and a thermal drift. The former is remarkably constant over short and long periods of time and is of the order of 0.01 mgal/hour. The latter is complicated and is dependent on the rate of change of the ambient temperature being different in size and sign, for quick and slow changes of temperature. The sensitivity changes slowly with time, 0.1% per year, and is only slightly affected by temperature. Tares or jumps in the readings are very rare. Modifications to the meter are suggested, consisting of the inclusion of a rheostat in the lighting circuit and the attachment of a thermometer to the outside of the instrument. In order to keep the correction for drift to a small size and to increase the accuracy, returns to a base station should be made according to changes in the ambient temperature rather than at fixed time intervals.

Notes: Summary This paper presents the study of variations of the solar radiation and the blueness of the sky during the eclipse of June 30, 1954 at Athens. The comparison of the solar radiation march during the eclipse day to that of the two preceding and the two following days of the eclipse-all five days were almost identical from the standpoint of weather—proved that the direct solar radiation and the total (sky and sun) radiation underwent a considerable decrease during the phenomenon. The blueness of the sky also underwent a significant change, especially at the maximum of the eclipse.

Notes: Summary Measurements of the concentration of small ions near the ground showed that large numbers of «ions» of sign opposite to that of the potential gradient were produced in rain. A series of laboratory experiments designed to examine the processes involved, showed that the ions were produced by the disintegration of films of water when drops splash, and a determination was made of the dependence of the charge released by individual drops on the parameters involved. The paper will be published elsewhere.

Notes: Summary Spectral analysis of atmospheric emission and absorption in the translucent region 8–13 microns from observations made in London and in the relatively clean air near Ascot (Berks) has confirmed the existence of a continuous extinction in the lowest 2 Km of the atmosphere which outweighs the selective extinction due to gaseous constituents. This continuous extinction must be due to atmospheric aerosol, or to the far wings of distant, strong gaseous absorption lines. Our provisional conclusions are that the former cause predominates in London, but is unimportant near Ascot where the observed extinction must be mainly due to the latter cause. Attention is drawn to the important contribution which the continuum can make to the heat balance of the atmosphere below 2 Km. The report will appear elsewhere.

Notes: Summary A technique is described which allows the study of the concentration of silver-iodide particles produced by a ground generator. It consists of marking these particles with Iodine 131, then filtering the air at the required places with air-borne filters. The iodine is extracted chemically, concentrated in a very small silver iodide disc which is then placed upon a nulcear emulsion. After two weeks the activity is measured by electron track counting. Limitations of the method are given. The paper has been published in extenso in the «Zeitschrift für angewandte Mathematik and Physik» (ZAMP), XIa, p. 375, 1958.

Notes: Summary The scheme of a seism caused by the slipping of a transcurrent fault is examined and the law of the variation of the seismic superficial displacement v/s distance to the fault is given, assuming that no extra stress is produced at the base of the broken layer. Taking a simple example for the preseismical strain, it is possible to find an order of magnitude of the extent of the fault in depth. An application to the San Francisco seism of 1906 gives a depth of about 13 km.

Notes: Summary The figures of equilibrium independant from the law of density in their interior can be characterized by the remarkable property that the absolute value of the «shape-parameter» must be a minimum. This gives an equation between the flattening and the twoStokes constant ε and δ, by which the ∞3 figures of equilibrium can be selected from the ∞4 solutions ofHelmert's equations for a given mass. Each inhomogeneous spheroidical figure of equilibrium is determined unequivocally by the mass and the shape of its free surface or by the mass and three physical parameters; the law of density is strictly individual. From the threefold infinite multiplicity of the figures of equilibrium linear series are to find out with two fixed physical parameters or you can compute a series of figures with a common level surface or the series built by all level surface of a given figure of equilibrium. Though the moments of inertia are notStokes constants the normal spheroid of earth unequivocally defined by ω,W 0 andC can be determined without hypotheses, because in the series (ω,K) also the moments of inertia and the mechanical ellipticity are constant. Therefore the empirically known mechanical ellipticity can be substituted by the static flattening returning to the homogenous figure in the beginning of the series. Of course the determination of the normal spheroid of earth demands the knowledge of gravity in equator and of the equator-axis instead of the unknown mass of earch series (ω,W 0), (ω,K) and (K,W 0), which intersect in the normal spheroid, are discussed. Also the boundary surface of the figures of equilibrium in the Cartesian system of the coordinatesa, α andh m is discussed; this surface is determined byf=−3a2/2.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es werden Messanordnungen beschrieben, die für geoelektrische Tiefsondierungen bis ungefähr 4000 m geeignet sind. Anschliessend werden die erzielten Messergebnisse besprochen. Die Übereinstimmung zwischen der geoelektrischen Prognose und dem Ergebnis der Bohrung ist eine sehr gute. Die Abweichung schwankt im Mittel um ungefähr 8–13%.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Messwerte russischer Stationen beweisen die Existenz eines «Kontinental-Effektes» bei der maximalen Elektronendichte derF2-Schicht. Im Sommer besteht im Innern des asiatischen Kontinents vorzugsweise eine höhere Konzentration bei Tag; andererseits fehlt dort die sogenannte «Abend-Konzentration».

Notes: Riassunto Coi dati rilevati nel Settembre 1924 dalla ≪Mario Bianco≫ a Nord dello Stretto di Messina si determinano i coefficienti di diffusione turbolenta, longitudinale e trasversale, per gli strati superficiali della corrente ≪scendente≫ convogliata dallo Stretto medesimo: ottenendo valori in buon accordo con quelli calcolati da altri AA. per altre correnti marine. Inoltre si forniscono elementi sull'estensione per diffusione in profondità delle acque ioniche penetrate nel Tirreno.

Notes: Summary Annual average results of rainwater analysis, carried out byC. Junge at about 60 stations of the United States sampling network are used in an attempt to correlate the ionic species present in rain, as a general contribution to atmospheric chemicstry. Correlation with physical parameters is attempted at the same time in some cases, and the resulting trends discussed. The results obtained are presented in the general form of linear and planar correlation, and linear regression coefficients.

Notes: Summary Following a recent hypothesis on the role of activated sodium chloride particles as possible condensation and sublimation nuclei, an analysis of data given byC. Junge on the chemical composition of aerosols, is made. It is established that all reported giant nuclei fall into three distinct categories of composition and that within each of these categories the ratio of the sums of anions to the sums of cations for constituents for which analyses were made, remains remarkably constant throughout the days of sampling, and for both geographic positions at which sampling has been carried out. A dependence of the hydroxide-carbonate content, on that of nitrate is also indicated in the «alkaline» nuclei. The system is treated as a saturated solution, and it is shown by the procedure of continuous variations that singularities occur at particular ratios of the prevalent chemical groups in solution, possibly indicating formation of complex species. This, together with the presence of double salts in the solid phase may be partly the reason for the constancy of ratio of sums in the groups of particles studied byJunge, while the grouping itself may depend on the origin and subsequent transformations of the particles.

Notes: Summary Following a recent hypothesis on the role of activated sodium chloride particles as potential nuclei of atmospheric precipitation, further analysis is made of average annual data due toC. Junge on the chemical composition of rainwater salts, and correlation of some parameters with the total amount of rainfall is attempted. It is found that the results obtained are in agreement with the proposed role of activated sodium chloride as a nucleus of a substantial part of the atmospheric precipitation.

Notes: Summary The influence of heterogeneity on the determination of the diffusion coefficient by the dynamic method is investigated for polydisperse aerosols with various Gaussian particle size distributions. It is further shown, theoretically and experimentally, that the misapplication ofGormley's formula to polydisperse aerosols must give different apparent diffusion coefficients when they are determined with the same air-flow by two batteries having different dimensions and numbers of channels. On the other hand, the apparent diffusion coefficients as measured by two diffusion batteries with different constants can be equalized by selecting the air-flows through the batteries so that (a/3.77bLc)Q for the two batteries is constant wherea, b, L are the dimensions of the channels,c their number andQ the air-flow. The dependence of the apparent diffusion coefficient on air-flow was tested in a new experimental set-up with reduced length of connecting tubing of anti-static rubber. The results of these experiments confirm previous findings.

Notes: Zusammenfassung In der Nullschicht, die identisch ist mit der Schicht des hochtroposphärischen Windmaximums, kehren sich im Mittel die großräumigen Vertikalbewegungen um und herrschen die stärksten ageostrophischen Windkomponenten zum hohen Druck hin. Diese übergradientischen Winde in der Nullschicht können zur Erklärung der thermisch-indirekten Zirkulation der planetarischen Westwinddrift herangezogen werden. Ein echtes persistentes Windminimum hat ebenfalls Nullschichtcharakter mit ageotrophischem Massenfluß zum tiefen Druck hin (Nullschicht 2. Art mit negativem Nullschichteffekt). Eine persistente Schicht mit verschwindendem horizontalen Druckgradienten kann vielleicht als Nullschicht 3. Art bezeichnet werden, die keinen Nullschichteffekt aufweist. Sie kehrt die großräumigen Vertikalbewegungen nicht direkt um, sondern trennt übereinanderliegende Bereiche mit voneinander unabhängiger Vertikalbewegung. Alle drei Arten von Nullschichten sind im Zusammenhang mit der allgemeinen Zirkulation von großer Bedeutung.

Notes: Summary A survey is given on the present status of knowledge about the chemical composition of atmospheric aerosols. Results on the size distribution and the physical structure of the nuclei provide the necessary basis for an under-standing of their chemistry. Very little is known about the chemistry of particles smaller than 0.1μ. For larger particles micro-analyses show the presence of sulfate, nitrate, chloride, sodium and ammonium which varies in a characteristic way with the size of the particles. The sea spray component can be isolated. Data from rain water analyses are used to obtain information on the large scale distribution of these components and their sources. Some remarks about the fraction of the particles acting as true condensation nuclei and the radioactivity will conclude the paper. The subject has been already developed in detail inAdvances of Geophysics, Vol. 4 (edited byH. E. Landsberg & J. van Miechem), Academic Press Inc., New York, 1958.

Notes: Summary Various recent results on the analyses of rain water, ice samples from Greenland and the SO2 and H2S concentration in air are combined to obtain a picture of the sulfur budget and cycle in the atmosphere. Estimates are presented on the role of industrial sulfur on a global basis. The cycle of sulfur is complicated, but is an interesting example of a trace substance which is present as gas and aerosol. The importance of sulfate for the composition of atmospheric nuclei in remote places is pointed out. The paper will be published elsewhere.

Notes: Summary Although the bubble chamber was only invented byGlaser in 1952, there are today over a hundred chambers in use in physics laboratories throughout the world. In the field of high energy physics they have proved to be an invaluable tool and already much information has been obtained concerning very energetic particle interactions and properties of «strange» particles by the use of both hydrocarbon and liquid hydrogen chambers.

Notes: Summary The properties of condensation nuclei generated at a metal point corona discharge have been examined. The threshold voltages for nucleus production and for small ion production are the same. The fraction of the nuclei which is charged is initially small and becomes virtually zero after a few seconds. It is demonstrated that in the non-uniform field near the point there is a force on the nuclei driving them to the point. From determinations of the diffusion coefficient it is tentatively concluded that a portion at least of the nuclei are originally of molecular size. No satisfactory explanation has been found for certain anomalous features of the variations in size and in concentration of the nuclei with time after production.

Notes: Summary Brief report on an experiment actually in progress.

Notes: Summary During continuous measurements of the concentration of small ions near the ground made over the period of many months, several causes of variation were identified. During rain in large electric fields, ions of sign opposite to that of the potential gradient were produced in sufficiently large numbers to give rise to very high concentrations over short periods. Sometimes, after rain, a considerable increase in the density of small ions was found, suggesting a reduction in the numbers of nuclei and large ions. In moderate electric fields, a reduction was observed in the concentration of ions of sign opposite to that of the potential gradient in a way corresponding to the electrode effect. A simplified theory of the effect predicts results similar to those found in practice. The paper will appear elsewhere.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird das ebenen-Schichtenproblem der Reflexionsseismik mit konstanten Frontgeschwindigkeiten, beliebigen Neigungen und beliebiger Lage der Quelle allgemein behandelt und durch Verallgemeinerung der tΔt Methode ein einfaches Aufschlussverfahren für geneigte Schichten entwickelt.

Notes: Summary Earthquake shear waves with period around 12.2 min have been lately reported byM. Båth (1958), who suggests that these might be due to torsional vibrations of the whole mantle on some axis through the centre of the earth. An attempt has been made here to put forward a theory which accounts for such vibrations. The general elastokinetic equation for a heterogeneous isotropic medium is solved for a free spherical shell overlying a liquid core, and the solution is investigated for the first two modes. The frequency equation is solved for a shell and the limiting cases of a full sphere and an infinitely thin shell. Application is then made for various approximate mantle models, and periods are found which are in fair agreement with the observed. It is then shown that if the rigidity of the core is taken into consideration a closer agreement with the observed might be attained.

Notes: Summary A review is given of the present (1959) seismological stations in Sweden, i.e. Uppsala, Kiruna, Skalstugan, and Göteborg, as well as of older stations, which are no longer in operation, i.e. Vassijaure, Abisko, and Lund, including all pertinent information. The disturbing effect of the loose ground at Lund in distinction from the four first-mentioned stations is clearly demonstrated. The very good ground at Uppsala, Kiruna, Skalstugan, and Göteborg, together with the use of modern equipment of high magnification has made these stations, especially Uppsala and Kiruna, very sensitive. This is obvious from the number of recorded earthquakes. The method of time measurements, including direct recording of time signals, is described, and means to reach a high time accuracy are outlined, including the recommendation to use quartz clocks. Long-period (0.5–2 min) disturbances on the long-period Benioff combinations were mainly due to air currents in the seismometer room and were eliminated by providing the seismometers with special covers. The method of ground amplitude determinations is outlined, especially for the Benioff instruments, and typical magnification curves are given. Comparisons of ground amplitudes from simultaneous records of BenioffE, N and WiechertE, N and of BenioffZ′ and GrenetZ′ have been made. The amplitude comparison between Benioff and Wiechert has given a new estimate of the effect of friction (especially of the recording pen against the paper) in the Wiechert apparatus.

Notes: Summary Some advantages of a correlation measure based on a counting procedure are indicated for geophysical applications.

Notes: Summary The paper treats the results of telluric measurements in the Austrian Molasse-Zone and in the Vienna Basin, supplemented with data of other geophysical methods and deep-wells. The analysis of the results shows that the telluric method supplies not only a picture with good reconnaissance proceeding from which further, especially seismic research can be planned more expediently, but can render good services in solving detailed problems too. The hypothesis concerning the anisotropy of sediments resp. its effect is verified by the results of modelexperiments too.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Ein Effekt wird beschrieben, der bei der Messung der elektrischen Leitfähigkeit von Gasen mit radioaktiven Bestandteilen wirksam ist. Die Meßergebnisse der beiden polaren Leitfähigkeiten werden von abgestrahlten Ladungsquanten, die beim Zerfall der an Meßelektroden angelagerten radioaktiven Substanzen entstehen, gegensinnig beeinflußt. Die Tendenz dieses Einflußes hängt vom Meßprinzip ab, so daß bei der Entlademethode die negative Leitfähigkeit zu groß und die positive zu klein gemessen wird — bei der Auflademethode ist es umgekehrt. Der Emissionseffekt ε ist eine Funktion der Menge der in den Gasen enthaltenen radioaktiven Substanzen, der Expositionszeit und der wirksamen Oberfläche des Meßkondensators. Die Wirkung von ε wird an Ergebnissen von Leitfähigkeismessungen der Luft demonstriert. Durch Reduktion der Meßergebnisse mit gleichzeitigen polaren Basiswerten kann der Einfluß dieses Effektes eliminiert werden.

Notes: Summary The «scintillation effect» occuring in photo-electric nucleus counters is explained as follows: After an adiabatic expansion a radial temperature distribution is formed in the fog-tube to which corresponds an opposite radial distribution of the refraction index of air. This causes a deflection of the light beam in the direction of the large optical density, giving as a result the changes of the photo-current. A calculation following this idea yields the right order of magnitude and the time dependence of the effect.

Notes: Summary A description with illustrating slides is given of the gelatin-silver nitrate technique for identifying chloride particles. Results of samples taken on many flights from an aircraft of the Meteorological Research Flight both in the horizontal and vertical are given. The relationship of these particles and relevant meteorological parameters are discussed.

Notes: Summary Since the beginning of the I.G.Y. collections of precipitation for chemical analysis have been made at 22 sample stations distributed all over the territory of Czechoslovakia at different heights above sea level. Analyses are carried out in the laboratories of the Geophysical Institute, Department of Physics of the Air, Hradec Králové. This preliminary report deals with the results of analyses during which the content of chloride ions was determined independently by the polarographic and the microtitration technique, while the content of nitrate ions was established polarographically. Distribution of concentrations of chlorides over the territory of Czechoslovakia represents a roughly homogeneous distribution of concentrations varying in a half year average from 0.6 mg/l to 6.6 mg/l. Generally higher concentrations can befound in mountain stations in the neighbourhood of industrial centres. In the winter months the values are higher than in the summer months in most of the stations. This is commonly due to a higher content of chlorides in solid precipitation as can be seen from the enclosed chart. A correlation between the concentration of chlorides and the intensity of the precipitation is not always clearly visible. Distribution of nitrates does not correspond with the character of the iso-lines of chlorides. Average concentrations range from 0.2 mg/l to 1.5 mg/l. The highest values were not found in the precipitations collected in the mountain stations. This would suggest a different distribution of chemical components of chlorides and nitrates in the lower levels of the troposphere which is clearly illustrated by the established concentrations in the region of High Tatra where the precipitations are collected in two neighbouring stations the height difference of which reaches nearly 2,000 m.

Notes: Summary Five ofBerlage's eight empirical rules concerning the Southern Oscillation (1957) may be united in one general rule with regard to the different influence of solar activity during 11-year sunspot cycles with annual maximum numberR above or below 85 (Tables 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6). The opposite character of strong and weak 11-year cycles of solar activity is also present in the 7-year period (Tables 7, 8, 9 and 10; Fig. 1). Finally it is shown that a similar contrast obviously exists in the appearance of polar lights (Table 11, Fig. 2 and 3). The results have not been statistically tested. Because of the rather small number of solar periods involved and the complicated character of the relations found, I could not find a satisfactory statistical method to operate with. I may emphasize, however, the ≪converging evidence≫ enlarging considerably the statistical significance of my results.

Notes: Zusammenfassung Es wird über parallele Untersuchungen der atmosphärischen Gefrierkerne und der Kondensationskerne berichtet, die an drei klimatisch verschidenen Meßorten — Frankfurt/M, Taunus Observatorium und Zugspitze — bei unterschiedlichen Witterungsbedingungen vorgenommen wurden. Im Verlauf der Untersuchungen zeigte sich eine starke Abhängigkeit der Aktivierungstemperatur der Gefrierkerne von der Teilchengröße der Kondensationskerne, die mit verschiedenen Methoden nachgewiesen werden konnte.

Notes: Summary An investigation of heated surfaces of glass, metal and oil as sources of condensation nuclei is reported. Below a certain transition temperature the nucleus production is of a temporary nature and decreases to zero with the continued heating of the surface. Above this temperature, however, the nucleus production does not change with time. The transition temperature varies with the material of the surface and is not always associated with the onset of incandescence. The nuclei produced at the lower temperatures have a radius of about 10−5 cm and, on production, are mainly uncharged. Electric light bulbs can produce appreciable numbers of these nuclei.

Notes: Summary The effect on extinction of isothermal distillation, shrinking of the droplets by evaporation without recondensation of the liberated water vapour, coagulation and differential settling of the fog droplets which take place in the fog of a photo-electric nucleus counter and which can produce a small additional extinction («creep») in the first seconds after its formation, were numerically examined. The relative contribution of each process to the total creep observed is assessed. It is found that isothermal distillation can produce amounts of creep (up to 1.70%) which exceed considerably those caused by evaporation or coagulation. The results of these computations explain the occurrence of creep with concentrations greater than approx. 25 000 nuclei/cm3 in fog-tubes of 3.85 cm air-column diameter. That the disappearance of creep in fog-tubes of diameters 2.5 cm and less is due to the accelerated heat-flow from the walls of the narrow fog-tube was previously proved by reducing appropriately the diameter of the light pencil through the fog. In order to meet the objection that by restricting the cross section of the light pencil the fine structure of the fog comes into play, the increase in the travel time of the heat from the walls was achieved this time by using a photo-electric counter with a fog-tube of 8 cm diameter and a light beam of 2.8 cm diameter as in the «Standard Counter 1946». As expected, creep was found in every single measurement up to readings of 53%. Typical examples of the galvanometer pointer-movement and photographic records of the extinction during fog formation in such a wide fog-tube for readings between approx. 10 and 76% are given and their peculiarities discussed. The extinction over the range from 175 000 to 20 000 nuclei/cm3 was also measured with a red and a blue monochromatic interference filter and the results contrasted against the computed extinctions for these two wave lengths. It was ascertained that for the same number of nuclei the extinction for red light is in general larger than that for blue; the difference between the observed extinctions varies considerably, becoming zero or even negative. The most striking feature, however, is the different course of the extinction for the two wave lengths as a function of the number or size of the droplets. The size of the fog droplets in the counter was deduced from the extinction measurements for these two wave lengths and by collecting the falling droplets on coated slides. The radius of the droplets obtained by the optical method varies from 1.81 to 3.19 μ when the extinction decreases from 86 to 56%. The radius of the droplets as deduced from gelatine coated slides dyed with Naphtol Green B increases from 1.44 μ at 67.4% extinction (42 400 nuclei/cm3) to 6.30 μ at 15.6% (858 nuclei/cm3).

Notes: Summary In Northern Bohemia 33 research flights were made during which concentration of giant condensation chloride nuclei was measured up to a height of 3,500 m above the earth's surface. Chloride particles were determined by traces left by them in a sheet of gelatine with silver nitrate (Liesegang circles). The actual size of the particles was obtained by comparison of particles of a known size, falling in a sedimentation tube, with images in the sensitive sheet, and the result was adapted to the analysis of samples during the flight. For each level at which a sample was exposed the spectrum of the sizes of nuclei was determined. During the year the average concentration of the giant chloride nuclei at a height of 100 m above the earth was 7.3×10−3 cm−3. At greater heights concentration of the nuclei decreased successively, so that at 2,000 m it was only 0.3×10−3 cm−3 and above the level of 3,000 m the nuclei occurred sporadically, on the whole. Under the influence of atmospheric exchange the concentration of the nuclei in the boundary layer up to 1,000 m above the earth's surface changes considerably both during the day and during the year. The highest concentration occurs at a height of several hundred metres above the earth in the winter month, at the morning and evening hours, i.e. during a more stable temperature lapse rate. From the established concentrations of the nuclei relation between the turbulent diffusion coefficient and the height above the earth was determined. Its average value during the year increases up to a height of 300 to 400 m above the earth. Above this level it decreases roughly according to the relation ofK∼z −6/7. The exponent changes not only with temperature stratification (with the time of day and year), but also with the average wind speed. For sodium-chloride particles of 2.5μ in diameter the maximum value of turbulent diffusion coefficient (at level of 400 m), reaches about 18×103 cm2 sec−1 while the minimum value is about 5×103 cm2 sec−1 (above 2,000 m).

Notes: Summary The waveform of a sonic pulse along the surface of a semi-infinite medium is investigated for short distances from the source. The velocities of the various modes are compared and used to deduce the elastic constants of the medium. The breadth of the Rayleigh wavelets is used to verify the wavelet theory and deduce the law of absorption of the medium. Direct attenuation measurements are somewhat scattered and do not agree exactly with wavelet breadth results.

Notes: Summary 1) It is confirmed that in filtered, nucleus-free air, in a polyethylene balloon, if irradiated by sunglight, an immediate large number of condensation nuclei appear. — 2) The nucleus count rises to about 35. 000/cm3 and if the irradiation is continued does not increase, but decreases. This decreased is accelerated in the dark. — 3) Less intensive sunlight as when the sun was covered by clouds, gives slower and smaller increases. — 4) The same was observed if, instead of air, inducstrial oxygen or nitrogen was used. — 5) Traces of H2S increase the sun effect enormously. — 6) Traces of NH3 also increase it, but less than H2S. — 7) SO2 filtered through cottonwool gave also in the dark nuclei, which then decreased in number. — 8) It is supposed that H2S is oxydized by the photochemical action of the sun's visible spectrum to SO2 → SO3 → SO4 which is a nucleus. With NH3 the formation of (NH3)2 SO4 is probable. But no direct proof is given that these are the actual impurities which explain the sun's action on air. It is calculated that dilutions of 10−15 of an impurity of the type of H2S can quantitatively explain the sun effect. — 9) The work ofAitken is extensively quoted, who noticed, 50 years ago, the «fog produced by sun».

Notes: Summary The Atmospheric Electric Agitation is a characteristic phenomenon of the meteorological influences on the atmospheric electrical behavior. It can be explained chiefly by variations in the space charge configuration caused by turbulence in connection with the content of condensation nuclei in the air. It is known thatall geophysical elements undergo permanently regular and irregular variations. The periods of these variations are extended from secular dimensions to short-time fluctuations. In this range the variations between about one minute and one hour are of special interest because they are caused by atmospheric turbulence. We know, e.g., the noise of the temperature, the oscillations of the air pressure, the fluctuations of the humidity and others — and we find the corresponding phenomena in the atmospheric electrical elements. We call them the «Atmospheric Electric Agitation». As shown in detail in the paper which is in the press the examination of this agitation leads to the following results: Considering the origin of the atmospheric electric agitation firstly it will be seen that every meteorological process shows itself so to speak in a corresponding agitation effect: It became clear, e.g., a long time ago that frontal zones and inversions — occuring without precipitation and fog (only such cases are considered here) — cause a strong agitation of the atmospheric electrical elements. Further typical causes are variations of the cloudiness, changes of the velocity and the direction of the wind, sudden decreases or increases of the visibility and other ones. But it is remarkable that on undisturbed and cloudless days the agitation is strongly marked too. The fluctuations of the atmospheric electrical field and the current density can be explained by variations of the space charge distribution in the neighbourhood of the station, caused by the effects mentioned above. On undisturbed days these variations of the space charge distribution can be caused only by a mechanism which is connected with atmospheric turbulence: Air masses of different origin make it possible in various respects to characterize and differentiate between various atmospheric electrical effects. The most significant of all is the aerosol content, which under the same ionizing conditions leads to a different conductivity and thereby to a different space charge configuration with its own typical behaviour. If one carries these reactions to the small and minute air-masses which are formed by the atmospheric turbulence, then the agitation of the current and the field should be understood as caused by passing of turbulence cells, which due to their different aerosol content have different conductivities. The various space charges produced thereby give rise to the changes in field and current at the station. This leads to the conclusion that the observations on atmospheric electric agitation indicate again the close relation between meteorological and atmospheric electrical phenomena, which are coupled particularly by the condensation nuclei as connecting link [H. Israël:Condensation nuclei as connecting link for meteorological-electrical relations. Techn. Note No. 1 and 11 of Contract 61 (514)-640]. On the other hand they lead us closer to the idea that we can use this relation obtained from the agitation as much in meteorology as in atmospheric electricity: 1) The first task is to investigate the exchange process in the light of the experiences gained in work on atmospheric electricity. 2) In the field of atmospheric electricity a study of the agitation looks very promising as a help in the important problem of separation of global and local influences. 3) As many local influences are to be seen in the agitation, it is suggested that one looks for a correlation between these factors and the degree of the agitation of potential gradient and air-earth current density.

Notes: Summary A new calibration of the improved version of a photo-electric nucleus counter with a fog-tube of 3.85 cm air-column diameter and blotting-paper lining and of a photo-electric counter Model 1957 with air-column diameter of 2.5 cm and ceramic lining was carried out by adjusting the calibration curve of 1946 with reference to the considerably improved absolute (Aitken type) counter with stereophotomicrographic recording. The experimental arrangement for the calibration, the method of sampling, the nuclei used, the procedure of measuring, the evaluation of the measurements with the photo-electric and photographic counter are discussed and the effect of dampness of the graticule in the photographic counter and the influence of the ambient or initial temperature on the concentration measurements with both types of counters have been theoretically and experimentally investigated. On account of the considerable influence of the dampness of the graticule on the counting results we have used exclusively for this new calibration, measurements on a sufficiently damp graticule. The deduction of the new calibration tables consisting in the, adjustment of 7 fundamental points of the old calibration curve, is described. The agreement of the adjusted values for the two photoelectric counters with different air-column diameters and linings which refer to the same concentration, is very good; the maximum difference is less than 2%. Basic values of concentration curves for photo-electric counters with air-column diameter of 3.85 cm fitted with blotting-paper lining and of 2.5 cm diameter with ceramic lining. The new calibration is valid for an ambient temperature of 20°C.

Notes: Book Reviewed in this article:Handbuch der Physik. Herausgegeben von S. Flügge.Der geologische Bau des Untergrundes von Schleswig-Holstein und seine Erdöllager-stätten.

Notes: Major savings for operators of seismic parties have been achieved by the use of prilled ammonium nitrate as a substitute for gelatin dynamite in areas where shot holes are dry. Pound for pound, the prills appear to have the same energy yield as 60% gelatin dynamite, and some improvement of records has been noted where prills are used. Safety problems are less with ammonium nitrate than with dynamite, and the development of efficient field handling techniques prevents the loss of production.

Notes: Conventional or continuous velocity logging generally fail to solve the problem of velocities in the whole area of a seismic survey. Surface measurements often bring a large amount of additional information: effect of shallow layers, change of facies, correlations. The authors present a theoretical view on the physical meaning of interval velocities. After a short synthesis of the diverse formulae formerly proposed (Faust, West), the practical manner of using these formulae and the accurate interpretation obtained with the help of geological and geophysical data are shown. Several characteristical examples are finally explained and commented on.

Notes: Using a resonance method, determinations have been made of the longitudinal bar velocity and of Poisson's ratio of thirteen different chemically pure limestones. The relation between the velocity and the density showed far less scatter than in the determinations previously published; this is primarily attributed to the high purity of the specimens used. The measurements further showed a tendency of the values of Poisson's ratio to increase with increasing density.

Notes: A uniform field of the normal geomagnetic vertical intensity and its normal dependence on the first and second powers of latitude and longitude are derived for Europe and represented by sketches. The epochs of 1938.5, 1941.5, 1944.5, 1947.5, 1950.5, 1953.5, and 1956.5 have been chosen.It is suggested that anomalies of the vertical intensity should be given according to this field in order to obtain, in course of time, a coherent image of the magnetic effects of the European continent.

Notes: Gravity anomalies due to given mass distributions have been determined by model optical experiments, which utilise the fact that both the light intensity and the gravitational field due to point sources obey the Inverse Square law. The technique is somewhat different from that used by Gerrard et al (1957), and the results seem to be more accurate (maximum discrepancy 2 percent). The applicability of the anology for the determination of magnetostatic fields is also pointed out.

Notes: The decay rate of gamma radiation emitted by a Jamaican mineral spring was measured using portable rate meters. The results of these experiments, supported by auxiliary tests, suggested that the main radioelement causing the radioactivity was radon 222. Fluctuations in the intensity of the radiation were studied in situ. An inverse relation between the intensity and the discharge rate of water was established and the effect of rainfall and of earthquakes was investigated. Some suggestions are made concerning the possible source of radon.

Notes: A new logging method, which makes use of specific chemical reactions to locate petroleum or other minerals has been developed. The method has been named “Differential Electric Log” (CED).In this paper the application to the CED method of redox (reduction/oxidation) reactions is discussed. A series of organic oxidants was found, capable of undergoing reaction with crude oil, sulphur, mineral sulphides, lignite. A small amount of an oxidant of this type is added to the drilling fluid and pumped into the borehole where reaction takes place in correspondence with layers containing oxidizable minerals. Two SP logs, recorded before and after the oxidation, are compared and the presence of such minerals is thus detected.A theoretical hypothesis explaining the mechanism of the potential change due to the chemical reaction is proposed both in the case of electronically conducting and non conducting minerals. The influence of redox potential on SP is discussed.The results of laboratory experiments on several different oxidizable ores and those of field tests performed on pyrite, lignite, and oil wells are reported on and discussed on the basis of the theoretical hypothesis proposed.

Notes: In nine small areas in the Black Forest measurements were made of the CO2 content of ground air, using a method which is based on the difference in heat conductivity between CO2 on one side and N2 and O2 on the other. Measurements during four days yielded four strong CO2 anomalies. At one of these a well was sunk, which gave a considerable discharge of mineral water.

Notes: An analogy is established between the propagation of an electromagnetic field in a horizontally stratified conductive medium and that of currents in a linear electric network. This analogy will allow us to know in which case measurements executed at the surface of the ground can provide information about the properties of deeper layers. The situation is the same as when one tries, by means of impedance measurements at the input terminals, to know the properties of electric lines or lumped networks.A symmetrical linear network establishes between:Voltages V1 and V2 (respectively at input and output terminals)Currents I1 and I2 (respectively at input and output terminals), the relationship 〈displayedItem type="mathematics" xml:id="mu1" numbered="no"〉〈mediaResource alt="image" href="urn:x-wiley:00168025:GPR77:GPR_77_mu1"/〉 is called the “phase constant” and Z the characteristic impedance The table 〈displayedItem type="mathematics" xml:id="mu2" numbered="no"〉〈mediaResource alt="image" href="urn:x-wiley:00168025:GPR77:GPR_77_mu2"/〉 is called “characteristic matrix”If one then takes the horizontal components of an electromagnetic field, one can compare the voltage V with the horizontal electric field E (in volts m-1) and the current I with the horizontal magnetic field H (in Amp m−1)For plane waves in vacuum, one gets (Schelkunoff) Z=C (velocity of light)A layer whose thickness is D has a phase constant⌈= 2 πD/λ (λ= wavelength)For plane waves in a conductive, non magnetic medium whose conductivity is δ, one gets 〈displayedItem type="mathematics" xml:id="mu3" numbered="no"〉〈mediaResource alt="image" href="urn:x-wiley:00168025:GPR77:GPR_77_mu3"/〉 For the system of waves created by a point-source one expresses the solution, since it is classical, as a sum or integral of different modes. For each of these modes, one can still write a bilinear relationship similar to (1), and calculate Z and ⌈.A generalization of this result is given.Boundary conditions that exist at the surfaces of separation are met by writing the continuity of E and H. This condition exactly corresponds to the fact that there one V and one I at the junctions of various sections of lines, or networks.The characteristic matrix of a cascade of networks-or here that of a horizontally stratified ground– is the product of the matrixes of each network. If, in addition, one knows the end impedance–here the conductivity λn of the last layer, supposed to be infinite–one can compute the input impedance Re of the whole system. In electromagnetic prospecting, it is Re that conditions the observable field.Inversely, if measurements were infinitely accurate, the. knowledge of the surface field would give all the thicknesses D and conductivities δ of intermediate layers, in the same way that impedance measurements at the input terminals of a cable would allow to locate any failure. The imperfection of measurements causes the elements located too far away (from the point of view of wave attenuation) to escape detection.

Notes: Book Reviewed in this article: The Earth and its Gravity Field, W. A. Heiskanen and F. A. Vening Meinesz.KRAUS, HUNT and RAMSDELL, Mineralogy.

Notes: Precision calibration tests carried out with a Worden gravimeter in environment conditions as varied as possible have led to the following conclusions. The secular variation curve of the calibration shows that the secular relative variation has been very appreciable in the first year of life of the instrument, precisely of 1.3 × 10−3 in 13 months, while it has been practically zero in the second year. This must be ascribed to the fact that at the beginning of the operations the gravity-meter had just arrived from the factory with its measuring body renewed.On the other side the effect of 24°C of temperature difference between two series of determinations reveals itself in a variation of 0.0022 of the value of the calibration, so that it can be established that the variation of the calibration is I‰ for each 10°C of temperature variation.

Notes: A series of repeat observations during a period of 5 years reveal a variation with time of the Worden gravimeter No. 142 small dial spring system. A possible change in the gravity difference concerned is ruled out. It is shown that the small dial scale factor has diminished by about 0.25 % within the last two years against about 0.5 % four to five years ago. The ratio of L.D. to S.D. has been analysed and the results obtained show confirmation of the change in the small dial system and prove a consistency in the large dial system.

Notes: A 3-component flux gate magnetometer has been built for use in 1½ inch drill-holes. It has an accuracy of 1 mgs. It requires 2–3 men to operate it and they can take measurements in up to 3 100 metre holes in one day. The instrument has definitely proved its worth in describing the‘general’ geology of an ore-body, and it is now used on a routine basis.