ALBERT

Notes: The modern water well contractor is a combination structural engineer, mechanic, geologist and sanitarian. Contractor's skills and accumulated knowledge should be assembled within an area and used as the basis for design and water well specifications. Engineering a water well should have the primary objective of obtaining an adequate supply of potable water, with equal importance placed upon the protection of the source of supply.The drilling of a test bore should be included in the design of every water well. A properly drilled and accurately logged test bore can determine exact design features and equipment requirements. In an area where formation samples may be deceiving and where a more accurate log is required, it is possible to contract for an electric log of the test bore. When it is essential to obtain truly representative samples in an uncontaminated form, core samples may be taken as the test bore is being drilled.Well drillers have the right in most places to procure water for the consumers in the quantities available, and along with this right, they have the obligation of preventing contamination or depletion of the source of supply. It is the well drilling contractor's position to either directly design his projects or consult with the designing agent, making recommendations that will enhance quality rather than convenience or economy.The water well driller should acquaint his customer with modern construction procedures and modern water well design just as he has become aware of building codes and architectural specifications in the construction of buildings and homes. Contractors must keep pace with the achievements of technical people associated with the water well industry by self-education and incentive. The water well industry should be, and is, proud of its responsibility.The design and construction of a water well is no longer limited to the procurement of underground water, but also entails certain obligations on the part of the designer or contractor. Every industry, particularly those who produce consumer goods, have certain responsibilities, but none of their products are as absolutely essential to the existance of life or have a more important role in the social and economic welfare of mankind than the product of the water well drilling industry.No other group has more knowledge of the vast underground water resources or the importance of the

Notes: The determination of aquifer transmissibility by the bail-test method can be considerably simplified if proper attention is paid to the regular spacing of bailer cycles. The transmissibility calculation will then depend on the evaluation of the difference between two numbers, instead of on the evaluation and summation of a large set of numbers, one number for each bailer cycle. The mathematical development on which this method is based is given briefly and a table listing the sums of the reciprocals of the natural numbers, which is used in the simplified determination, is also presented.The formula for the recovery of the water level after repeated bailing of a well completed in a confined aquifer (Skibitzke, 1958) may be written (Ferris et al., 1962):

Notes: During recent years an ever-increasing number of oil operators in West Texas have been faced with the problem of securing relatively large amounts of water to stimulate additional oil production from the region's waning oil reservoirs. Such operations are termed secondary recovery, or in particular, water flooding, which consists of forcing and stripping oil from the voids of the oil reservoirs by the injection of water through retired oil wells. As previously mentioned, this process requires relatively large amounts of water of a quality compatible with the oilfield equipment and the oil reservoir.From 1949 through 1959, in a 30-county West Texas area, secondary oil recovery operations have increased from 14 to 223 projects. As of January 1960, in the Southern High Plains from Hockley and Cochran Counties, southward through Midland and Ector Counties, there were 96 source wells producing about 12,000 acre-feet of water annually for water-flooding operations.

Notes: Local government in Michigan, and perhaps in other states, must try to bring the best thinking there is concerning solutions to health problems which are within their legally designated area of responsibility. One such local health department activity in Michigan is the construction and operation of private individual water well systems. Monroe County, which is just beginning to feel the effects of the suburban spillover from Detroit, Michigan, and Toledo, Ohio, recognized, in 1961, the need for regulation of such water well systems. The subsequent development of a Code, and its enforcement have made us realize that we are just beginning to fully understand a subject which is much broader in scope from a public health standpoint than just construction details and bacterial tests.

Notes: Vast quantities of saline ground water await new commercial uses and economical demineralization processes for recognition as a valuable resource.Saline ground water is more widely distributed than any other natural resource, occurring throughout the United States and in geologic formations ranging from the oldest to the youngest.The Coastal Plain has the greatest reserve of fresh water in the country, but at depths ranging from a few feet to about 3,500 feet most of the fresh-water aquifers also contain large quantities of brackish water. Paleozoic formations in the east-central United States have long been producers of saline water as commercial brines and in association with oil and gas. The volume of saline ground water perhaps exceeds the fresh ground-water supply in the Great Plains Region. The greater part of the Western Mountain Region is generally deficient in fresh ground water; however, saline water is present in highly permeable deposits in numerous closed basins and along saline streams. In each of these major ground-water regions small to very large amounts of saline water can be pumped from wells ranging from a few tens of feet to several thousand feet in depth.Knowledge of saline water distribution is general and inadequate, having been attained as a by-product of investigations of fresh-water supplies. This knowledge should be expanded as technological advances in demineralization processes enhance the importance of saline water for potential supply in numerous water-deficient areas.

Notes: “Fortunately, this nation is well endowed with water. We get enough precipitation every year to cover the whole country with water 30 inches deep.”

Notes: Electric analog computers are playing an important role in the forecast of consequences of developing nonhomogeneous aquifers in Illinois having highly irregular shapes and boundaries and a wide variety of head and discharge controls. Analog computers are versatile and simple equipment, of low to moderate cost, with which ground-water development schemes can be rapidly and accurately tested and the relative merits of alternate choices of development can be appraised.The electric analog computer used by the Illinois State Water Survey consists of an analog model and excitation-response apparatus, i.e., waveform generator, pulse generator and oscilloscope. Analog models are regular arrays of resistors and capacitors and are scaled-down versions of aquifers and confining beds where present. Resistors are inversely proportional to the coefficients of transmissibility and vertical permeability aquifers and the coefficients of leakage of confining beds. Capacitors store electrostatic energy in a manner analogous to the storage of water in the aquifer. The behavior of the electrical network is described by an equation which has the same form as the finite-difference equation for nonsteady state two or three-dimensional flow of ground water. Electrical units (voltage, coulombs, amperes and seconds) and corresponding hydraulic units (feet, gallons, gallons per day and days) are connected by 4 scale factors.Excitation-response equipment force electrical energy in the proper time phase into the analog model and measure energy levels within the energy-dissipative resistor-capacitor network. Oscilloscope traces, i.e., time-voltage graphs, are analogous to time-drawdown or time-recovery graphs and describe drawdown or recovery conditions after a step function-type change in discharge. A catalog of time-voltage graphs provides data for construction of a series of water-level change maps. Close agreement of water-level declines determined with an analog computer and analytical methods for 3 selected idealized aquifer situations is noted with satisfaction.An electric analog model for the East St. Louis area was assembled. The sand and gravel aquifer in the East St. Louis area has an average thickness of 120 feet, an average width of 7 miles and an average length of 30 miles. The analog model for the aquifer consists of a regular array of 2800 resistors and 1350 capacitors. The scale of the model is 1 inch equals 2000 feet. Values of resistors range in magnitude from 2.2 megohms to 33,000 ohms; capacitors are 2500 micromicrofarads. The effects of the Mississippi River were simulated by terminating the portion of the electrical network along the river in an open circuit. Resistors large in magnitude were connected to terminals along the edge of the aquifer and to ground to simulate small amounts of sub-surface flow through bluffs. The accuracy and reliability of the electric analog computer was established by comparing past records of water-level declines and values of water-level declines determined with the analog computer. The electric analog computer was used to evaluate the practical sustained yields of existing pumping centers, to predict the effects of a selected scheme of development and to deter-mine the potential yield of the aquifer under assumed pump-ing conditions.An electric analog model for the Champaign-Urbana area was assembled. The sand and gravel aquifers in the Champaign-Urbana area are contained in the Mahomet buried bedrock valley which extends across the central part of Illinois from the Indiana border to the Illinois River Valley. The Mahomet buried bedrock valley averages about 12 miles wide in the Champaign-Urbana area and is largely filled with glacial drift ranging in thickness from 50 to 440 feet. Sand and gravel are encountered within the glac-ial drift at depths between 60 and 120 feet (upper aquifer), 140 and 170 feet (middle aquifer) and below a depth of 200 feet (lower aquifer). The upper aquifer is thin and discontinuous; the middle aquifer has an average thickness of 43 feet; and the lower aquifer often exceeds 100 feet thick. Till averaging 120 feet thick (upper confining bed) overlies the middle aquifer; about 30 feet of till (lower confining bed) separates the middle and lower aquifers. The analog model for the complex aquifer system consists of a regular array of 7500 resistors and capacitors. The scale of the model is 1 inch equals 1 mile. Values of resistors range from 1 to 68,000 ohms; values of capacitors range from 10e6 to lo-' farads. The analog model consists of 2 horizontal arrays of resis-tors and capacitors (lower and middle aquifers) and 1 hori-zontal ground wire array (water table) interconnected by two vertical arrays of resistors (lower and upper confining beds). The accuracy and reliability of the electric analog computer are being assessed. The computer will be used to predict the effects of future ground-water development and the practical sustained yields of existing pumping centers in the Champaign-Urbana area.

Notes: Increased activity in the fields of ground-water geology and hydrology has focused attention on the academic preparations required of a geologist or engineer planning to enter the field of ground water. In an effort to improve understanding of the educational facilities available in the United States and Canada, the Research Committee of the Technical Division of the National Water Well Association is periodically inquiring into the status of these facilities.To arrive at a better understanding of the formal course work in ground water, a seven-item questionnaire was circulated to appropriate educational institutions in May 1960. A report, “Educational and Academic Research Facilities in Ground-Water Geology and Hydrology in the United States and Canada”, was published in May 1961 summarizing the information obtained from returned questionnaires. A similar survey was made in May 1963 to obtain data on advancements in educational facilities in ground water since 1960.This report, a contribution of the Technical Division of NWWA, is based on questionnaires completed in 1963 and provides statistical data on university and college facilities in the field of ground water. Detailed information is presented on 1) course work, 2) textbooks, 3) degrees granted, 4) descriptions of departments offering course work, 5) course instructors and 6) student training and employment. Recent advancements in educational facilities are summarized. It is hoped that the statistical and descriptive information embodied in this report will provide a suitable background for those who wish to assess the adequacy of available educational facilities in ground-water geology and hydrology.

Notes: Resistance network analogs (R-analogs) permit solution of ground-water flow systems in media that may be uniform or non-uniform, isotropic or anisotropic, and saturated or unsaturated. Two-dimensional as well as axisymmetric systems can be represented on the analog and complex boundary conditions can easily be simulated. Only steady-state systems can be analyzed with the R-analog. However, systems with moving water tables whereby the rate of movement of the water table is controlled by the flow system below the water table can be solved as a succession of steady states. To capitalize on the special feature of R-analogs, i.e. essentially unlimited opportunity for control of the resistance between any two nodes, use of calibrated variable resistors is desirable. R-analogs are specially adapted to obtain solutions of individual flow systems, of which a vertical cross section is simulated on the analog. In the analog model, resistances are inversely proportional to hydraulic conductivities or transmissibilities, electric current rates are proportional to rates of water flow, and electric potentials are proportional to the sum of pressure head and elevation head. R-analogs may be used to analyze the flow system of a pumped well, a groundwater recharge facility, a series of parallel drains, a seeping dam, a surface stream feeding the ground water, etc. Examples are presented of flow problems involving free-surface development, simultaneous occurrence of saturated and unsaturated parts of the medium, moving water tables, and determination of transmissibility distribution and safe yield of ground-water basins. The application of R-analogs in developing realistic cause-and-effect relationships for use with resistance-capacitance analog models of entire ground-water basins, is discussed and exemplified.