ALBERT

Description: In general, the complex electrical resistivity in the subsurface is anisotropic. Despite this, algorithms for the tomographic inversion of complex resistivity data commonly assume isotropy, mainly due to the lack of anisotropic modelling and inversion schemes, potentially leading to artefacts in the inversion results in the presence of anisotropy. The development of an effective anisotropic complex resistivity inversion algorithm which utilizes the gradient information of some cost function benefits from understanding the characteristics of the problem's sensitivities, that is, the partial derivative of the impedance forward response with respect to the complex conductivities in the different spatial directions, as well as with respect to the different ratios of complex conductivities, that is, the different anisotropy ratios. We here derive expressions for these sensitivities and, based on a 2.5-D finite-element modelling algorithm, we compute and discuss sensitivity distributions as well as measurement response curves of typical surface and cross-borehole measurement configurations for 2-D subsurface anisotropic complex resistivity distributions. Depending on the electrode layout and measurement configuration, the sensitivity with respect to the conductivity in a particular direction shows a unique pattern, while for other directions sensitivity patterns are qualitatively similar. These sensitivity characteristics translate into important equivalences between impedance responses of local anisotropic and isotropic anomalies, for both magnitude and phase. Accordingly, with collinear surface arrays only the complex conductivity in the direction of the electrode layout can be unambiguously resolved, and with cross-borehole arrays only the conductivity in the vertical direction, provided an in-hole current injection is used. Nevertheless, anisotropy ratios involving these resolvable conductivity components are likewise detectable. The distinct shape of the measurement response curves, reflecting the distinct spatial patterns of the corresponding sensitivity distributions, suggest that optimized measurement configurations can be inferred for specific exploration questions involving electrical anisotropy and given electrode layouts. The gained insight into the characteristics of the sensitivity distributions of complex resistivity measurements in case of subsurface anisotropy should guide the implementation of effective anisotropic complex resistivity inversion schemes and lead to a routine use of such schemes in any resistivity and induced polarization surveys whenever subsurface electrical anisotropy could be encountered.

Description: The streaming potential phenomenon is an electrokinetic effect that occurs in porous media. It is characterized by an electrokinetic (EK) coefficient. The aim of this paper is to simulate the EK coefficient in unsaturated conditions using the Lattice Boltzmann method in a 2-D capillary channel. The multiphase flow is simulated with the model of Shan & Chen. The Poisson–Boltzmann equation is solved by implementing the model of Chai & Shi. The streaming potential response shows a non-monotonous behaviour due to the combination of the increase of charge density and decrease of flow velocity with decreasing water saturation. Using a potential of –20 mV at the air–water interface, an enhancement of a factor 5–30 of the EK coefficient, compared to the saturated state, can be observed due to the positive charge excess at this interface which is magnified by the fluid velocity away from the rock surface. This enhancement is correlated to the fractioning of the bubbles, and to the dynamic state of these bubbles, moving or entrapped in the crevices of the channel.

Description: Joint inversion that simultaneously inverts multiple geophysical data sets to recover a common Earth model is increasingly being applied to exploration problems. Petrophysical data can serve as an effective constraint to link different physical property models in such inversions. There are two challenges, among others, associated with the petrophysical approach to joint inversion. One is related to the multimodality of petrophysical data because there often exist more than one relationship between different physical properties in a region of study. The other challenge arises from the fact that petrophysical relationships have different characteristics and can exhibit point, linear, quadratic, or exponential forms in a crossplot. The fuzzy c-means (FCM) clustering technique is effective in tackling the first challenge and has been applied successfully. We focus on the second challenge in this paper and develop a joint inversion method based on variations of the FCM clustering technique. To account for the specific shapes of petrophysical relationships, we introduce several different fuzzy clustering algorithms that are capable of handling different shapes of petrophysical relationships. We present two synthetic and one field data examples and demonstrate that, by choosing appropriate distance measures for the clustering component in the joint inversion algorithm, the proposed joint inversion method provides an effective means of handling common petrophysical situations we encounter in practice. The jointly inverted models have both enhanced structural similarity and increased petrophysical correlation, and better represent the subsurface in the spatial domain and the parameter domain of physical properties.

Description: Coal seam fires are a worldwide disaster of both ecological and economic importance. Their remote detection from the ground surface or using airborne techniques is required for developing efficient strategies to extinguish them. We investigate here the use of time-domain-induced polarization to localize coal seam fires. For laboratory experiments, we first introduce a modified time-domain-induced polarization methodology to quickly acquire and invert the secondary voltage distribution mapped after the shutdown of the primary current. A set of sandbox experiments is conducted in which coal is embedded into humidified sand. Raw coal alone generates significant induced polarization anomalies, above those shown by the sand. Even higher induced polarization anomalies are detected in presence of a coal seam fire. We postulate that the higher chargeability is due to the pyrolysis, which may enhance electronic polarization or the polarization associated with the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the material. The position of the coal seam fire is well recovered inside the tank by inverting the secondary voltages in term of a source current density distribution. We also collected field data over a recognized coal seam fire in Colorado, USA. A chargeability anomaly (~800 mV V –1 ) and a resistivity anomaly (~1 Ohm m) are observed at the position of the coal seam fire. We propose a normalized burning front index (a scaled normalized chargeability) to image and localize, without ambiguity, the position of the coal seam fire in the subsurface. The 3-D reconstructed target is located below a negative self-potential anomaly (similarly to what is observed in laboratory experiments) and a temperature anomaly recorded at a depth of 30 cm.

Description: Rock permeability is an important parameter for the formation evaluation. In this paper, a new method with streaming current is proposed to determine the sample permeability based on the electrokinetic effects, and is proved by the experimental measurements. Corresponding to this method, we have designed an experimental setup and a test system, then performed the streaming current (potential) and electro-osmosis pressure experiments with 23 sandstone samples at 0.05 mol l –1 NaCl solution. The streaming current (potential) coefficient and electro-osmosis pressure coefficient are obtained, respectively, with the experimental data at low frequencies with AC lock-in technique. The electrokinetic permeabilities are further calculated with these coefficients. The results are consistent well with the gas permeability measured with Darcy's law, which verifies the current method for estimating rock permeability. Our measurements are also analysed and compared with previous measurements. The results indicate that our method can reflect the essence of electrokinetic effects better and simplify the electrokinetic measurements as well. In addition, we discuss the influences of experimental artefacts (core holder and confining pressure installation) on the electrokinetic data. The results show that the trough phenomenon, appeared in frequency curves of streaming current (potential) coefficients, is induced by the resonance of the core-holder/vibrator system. This is important for the design of electrokinetic setup and the analysis of low-frequency response of the electrokinetic coupling coefficients.

Description: Multiparameter full waveform inversion (FWI) applied to an elastic orthorhombic model description of the subsurface requires in theory a nine-parameter representation of each pixel of the model. Even with optimal acquisition on the Earth surface that includes large offsets, full azimuth, and multicomponent sensors, the potential for trade-off between the elastic orthorhombic parameters are large. The first step to understanding such trade-off is analysing the scattering potential of each parameter, and specifically, its scattering radiation patterns. We investigate such radiation patterns for diffraction and for scattering from a horizontal reflector considering a background isotropic model. The radiation patterns show considerable potential for trade-off between the parameters and the potentially limited resolution in their recovery. The radiation patterns of C 11 , C 22 , and C 33 are well separated so that we expect to recover these parameters with limited trade-offs. However, the resolution of their recovery represented by recovered range of model wavenumbers varies between these parameters. We can only invert for the short wavelength components (reflection) of C 33 while we can mainly invert for the long wavelength components (transmission) of the elastic coefficients C 11 and C 22 if we have large enough offsets. The elastic coefficients C 13 , C 23 , and C 12 suffer from strong trade-offs with C 55 , C 44 , and C 66 , respectively. The trade-offs between C 13 and C 55 , as well as C 23 and C 44 , can be partially mitigated if we acquire P – SV and SV – SV waves. However, to reduce the trade-offs between C 12 and C 66 , we require credible SH – SH waves. The analytical radiation patterns of the elastic constants are supported by numerical gradients of these parameters.

Description: Typically, seismic data are sparsely and irregularly sampled due to limitations in the survey environment and these cause problems for key seismic processing steps such as surface-related multiple elimination or wave-equation-based migration. Various interpolation techniques have been developed to alleviate the problems caused by sparse and irregular sampling. Among many interpolation techniques, matching pursuit interpolation is a robust tool to interpolate the regularly sampled data with large receiver separation such as crossline data in marine seismic acquisition when both pressure and particle velocity data are used. Multicomponent matching pursuit methods generally used the sinusoidal basis function, which have shown to be effective for interpolating multicomponent marine seismic data in the crossline direction. In this paper, we report the use of wavelet basis functions which further enhances the performance of matching pursuit methods for de-aliasing than sinusoidal basis functions. We also found that the range of the peak wavenumber of the wavelet is critical to the stability of the interpolation results and the de-aliasing performance and that the range should be determined based on Nyquist criteria. In addition, we reduced the computational cost by adopting the inner product of the wavelet and the input data to find the parameters of the wavelet basis function instead of using L-2 norm minimization. Using synthetic data, we illustrate that for aliased data, wavelet-based matching pursuit interpolation yields more stable results than sinusoidal function-based one when we use not only pressure data only but also both pressure and particle velocity together.

Description: Deep sea pockmarks underlain by chimney-like or pipe structures that contain methane hydrate are abundant along the Norwegian continental margin. In such hydrate provinces the interaction between hydrate formation and fluid flow has significance for benthic ecosystems and possibly climate change. The Nyegga region, situated on the western Norwegian continental slope, is characterized by an extensive pockmark field known to accommodate substantial methane gas hydrate deposits. The aim of this study is to detect and delineate both the gas hydrate and free gas reservoirs at one of Nyegga's pockmarks. In 2012, a marine controlled-source electromagnetic (CSEM) survey was performed at a pockmark in this region, where high-resolution 3-D seismic data were previously collected in 2006. 2-D CSEM inversions were computed using the data acquired by ocean bottom electrical field receivers. Our results, derived from unconstrained and seismically constrained CSEM inversions, suggest the presence of two distinctive resistivity anomalies beneath the pockmark: a shallow vertical anomaly at the underlying pipe structure, likely due to gas hydrate accumulation, and a laterally extensive anomaly attributed to a free gas zone below the base of the gas hydrate stability zone. This work contributes to a robust characterization of gas hydrate deposits within subseafloor fluid flow pipe structures.

Description: One of the main applications of magnetic field measurements in boreholes is the detection of unexploded ordnance or buried utility structures like pipes or tiebacks. Even though the advantage of fully oriented magnetic vector measurements have long been recognized and could significantly reduce costs and risks, the tools used for those purposes typically measure only the total magnetic field, the vertical and horizontal components or gradients thereof. The Göttingen Bohrloch Magnetometer uses three fibre optic gyros to record its orientation and thus enables us to compute high-quality three-component magnetic vector data regardless of borehole orientation. The measurements described in this paper were run in the scientific borehole Cuxhaven Lüdingworth 1/1A, which was drilled as a part of the ‘Coastal Aquifer Test field’ project to study the dynamics of the saltwater/freshwater interface. As the drill string got stuck during drilling of the first borehole, a second hole was drilled in the immediate vicinity. The drill string lies at a depth between 80 and 114 m at a distance of only 2.5 m southeast of the borehole used for the measurements, making it an ideal target to demonstrate the benefits of vector magnetic surveys. Although the theories to calculate magnetic fields of objects with different shapes is well established and do not need to be tested, they almost exclusively include approximations of the geometry. It is not obvious whether these approximations are suited to describe real data, or whether additional effects or refinements have to be considered. We use both a simplified monopole model and a cylinder model to fit the data and are able to determine the position of the drill string within a statistical error of approximately 10 cm. Additionally, we show that the location of the drill string could not have been determined by measurements of the total field or its horizontal and vertical component alone and that those methods would require the drilling of additional boreholes to obtain an unambiguous result.

Description: Although seismic attenuation measurements have great potential to enhance our knowledge of physical conditions and rock properties, their application is limited because robust methods for improving both the resolution and accuracy of attenuation estimates have not yet been established. We propose attenuation estimation methods for zero-offset vertical seismic profile (VSP) data by combining seismic interferometry (SI) and the modified median frequency shift (MMFS) method developed for attenuation estimation using sonic waveform data. The configuration of zero-offset VSP data is redatumed to that of the sonic logging measurement by adopting two types of SI: deconvolution interferometry and crosscorrelation interferometry (CCI). Then, we can apply the MMFS method to the redatumed VSP data. Although the amplitude information estimated from CCI is biased, we propose a correction method for this bias to correctly estimate attenuation. First, to investigate the performance both in resolution and accuracy, we apply different trace separations to synthetic data with random noise at different signal-to-noise ratio levels. Second, we estimate the influence of residual reflection events after wavefield separation on attenuation estimation. The proposed methods provide more stable attenuation estimates in comparison with the spectral ratio method because the mean-median procedure suppresses random events and characteristic features caused by residual reflection events in spectral domain. Our numerical experiments also imply that the proposed methods can estimate scattering attenuation values even if frequency components are not changed between the two receiver depths. Finally, by preliminarily applying the proposed methods to field VSP data, we demonstrate the advantages of the proposed method in the resolution and stability of attenuation estimates and these observations correlate with those of numerical tests.

Description: Capacitively Coupled Resistivity (CCR) is conventionally used to emulate DC resistivity measurements and may provide important information about the ice content of material in periglacial areas. The application of CCR theoretically enables the determination of both electrical parameters, that is, the resistivity and the electrical permittivity, by analysing magnitude and phase shift spectra. The electrical permittivity may dominate the impedance, especially in periglacial areas or regions of hydrogeological interest. However, previous theoretical work suggested that the phase shift may strongly depend on electrode height above ground, implying that electrode height must be known with great accuracy to determine electrical permittivity. Here, we demonstrate with laboratory test measurements, theoretical modelling and by analysing the Jacobian matrix of the inversion that the sensitivity towards electrode height is drastically reduced if the electrical permittivity is frequency dependent in a way that is typical for ice. For the first time, we used a novel broad-band CCR device ‘Chameleon’ for a field test located in one of the ridge galleries beneath the crest of Mount Zugspitze. A permanently ice covered bottom of a tunnel was examined. For the inversion of the measured spectra, the frequency dependence of the electrical parameters was parametrized in three different ways: A Debye Model for pure ices, a Cole–Cole Model for pure ices and a dual Cole–Cole Model including interfacial water additionally. The frequency-dependent resistivity and permittivity spectra obtained from the inversion, including low- and high-frequency limits, agree reasonably well with laboratory and field measurements reported in the literature.

Description: We evaluate the applicability and the effectiveness of GPR attribute analysis for high-resolution glacier imaging and characterization, testing this approach on 4-D GPR multifrequency data collected in a small glacier in the Eastern Alps, by repeating the acquisition along the same profiles in four different periods of the year 2013. The main objectives are to image and characterize the glacier's inner structure and to quantitatively monitor the seasonal thawing of near-surface frozen materials (snow/firn). A multiattribute approach is used to characterize the subsurface through different attribute categories, including instantaneous and textural attributes considering not only amplitude-, phase- and frequency-related attributes, but also other more complex and integrated parameters. We combine information from more than one attribute into a single image with composite displays, using overlays or mixed displays. The results demonstrate that the developed GPR attribute analysis can provide significant improvements in the discrimination of GPR signals, and obtain enhanced and more constrained data interpretations.

Description: Migration velocity analysis aims at automatically updating the large-scale components of the velocity model, called macromodel. Extended Common Image Gathers are panels used to evaluate focusing after imaging and are constructed as a function of a spatial shift introduced in the imaging condition. We investigate how transmitted waves can also be used in migration velocity analysis: instead of back-propagating the residuals associated with reflected waves, we propose to back-propagate the full wavefield. The image function, equivalent to the migrated section for reflected data, does not exhibit localized events in space along horizons but is still sensitive to the choice of the background velocity model and can thus be coupled to the same objective function defined in the image domain. In order to enhance the benefits of direct waves, we consider a cross-well configuration. Direct waves provide a large illumination between two vertical wells. Associated Common Image Gathers present different characteristics than the ones associated with reflected waves in surface acquisition. In particular, energy is spread over up to the maximum penetration depth. We invert cross-well seismic data along two lines. In the first case, the input data contain the full wavefield dominated by transmitted waves. It demonstrates the possibility to handle transmitted waves to determine the velocity model. It appears that the misfit in the data domain is largely reduced after inversion. In the second case, we use the same algorithm, but with reflected observed data only, as in a classical approach. Most of velocity updates are localized around the reflectivity, leading to an incorrect final model. This demonstrates the benefit of transmitted waves for migration velocity analysis in a cross-well configuration.

Description: An integrated approach to interpret Self-Potential (SP) anomalies based on spectral analysis and tomographic methods is presented. The Maximum Entropy Method (MEM) is used for providing accurate estimates of the depth of the anomaly source. The 2-D tomographic inversion technique, based on the underground charge occurrence probability (COP) function, is, then, used to fully characterize the anomalous body, as the MEM is not helpful in delineating the shape of the anomaly source. The proposed integrated approach is applied for the inversion of synthetic SP data generated by geometrically simple anomalous bodies, such as cylinders and inclined sheets. This numerical study has allowed the determination of mathematical relationships between zero lines of the COP distributions, the polarization angles and the positions along the profile of the causative sources, which have been of great help for interpreting the related SP anomalies. Finally, the analysis of field examples shows the high potential applicability of the proposed integrated approach for SP data inversion.

Description: Volcanic and tectonic events are the main processes involved in the generation of the oceanic crust and responsible for the seismicity associated with seafloor spreading. To monitor this activity, usually not or poorly detected by land-based seismological stations, we deployed from February 2012 to February 2013 a network of autonomous hydrophones to compare the behaviour of the ultraslow-spreading Southwest Indian ridge (SWIR) with that of the intermediate-spreading Southeast Indian ridge (SEIR). The rate of seismicity is similar for both ridges, suggesting that there is no systematic relationship between seismicity and spreading rates. The along-axis distribution of the seismic events, however, does differ, reflecting the rate dependence of accretion modes. Earthquakes are sparse and regularly spaced and scattered along the SWIR, reflecting prevailing tectonic processes. By contrast, along the SEIR, events are irregularly distributed and focus at ridge-segment ends and transforms faults, reflecting the ridge segmentation; only two swarms occurred at a segment centre and are probably caused by a magmatic event. This seismicity distribution thus looks controlled by segment-scale crustal heterogeneities along the SEIR and by regional-scale contrasting accretion processes along the SWIR, probably driven by different lithospheric and asthenospheric dynamics on either side of the Melville fracture zone. The comparison of hydroacoustic and teleseismic catalogues shows that, along these spreading ridges, the background seismicity observed in 1 yr by a hydroacoustic network is representative of the seismicity observed over two decades by land-based networks.

Description: Geothermal well GRT-1 (Rittershoffen, Alsace) was drilled in 2012. Its open-hole section (extending down to a depth of 2.6 km) penetrated fractured sandstones and granite. In 2013, the well was subjected to Thermal, Chemical and Hydraulic (TCH) stimulation, which improved the injectivity index fivefold. The goal of the study was to assess the impact of the stimulation by comparing pre- and post-stimulation well-logging (acoustic and temperature [ T ] logs) and mud-logging data. This comparison revealed modifications of almost all the natural fractures. However, not all of these fractures are associated with permeability enhancement, and the post-stimulation T logs are important for characterizing this enhancement. Chemical alteration due to mechanical erosion at the tops and bottoms of the fractures was observed in the sandstones. These zones display indications of very small new permeability after the TCH stimulation. Because a major fault zone caved extensively where it crosses the borehole, it was not imaged in the acoustic logs. However, this originally permeable zone was enhanced as demonstrated by the T logs. Based on the natural injectivity of this fault zone, hydraulic erosion and thermal microcracking of its internal quartz veins are associated with this permeability enhancement. Although local changes in the borehole wall observed in the acoustic images cannot be directly linked to the improved injectivity index, the comparison of the acoustic image logs allows for identification of fracture zones impacted by the TCH stimulation.

Description: We investigate the spatial coherence of underwater ambient noise using a yearlong time-series measured off Ascension Island. Qualitative agreement with observed cross-correlations is achieved using a simple range-dependent model, constrained by earlier, active tomographic studies in the area. In particular, the model correctly predicts the existence of two weakly dispersive normal modes in the microseism frequency range, with the group speed of one of the normal modes being smaller than the sound speed in water. The agreement justifies our interpretation of the peaks of the measured cross-correlation function of ambient noise as modal arrivals, with dispersion that is sensitive to crustal velocity structure. Our observations are consistent with Scholte to Moho head wave coupled propagation, with double mode conversion occurring due to the bathymetric variations between receivers. We thus demonstrate the feasibility of interrogating crustal properties using noise interferometry of moored hydrophone data at ranges in excess of 120 km.

Description: Recent tectonic reconstructions of the South Atlantic have partitioned the ocean basin into several segments based upon one or more proposed intraplate South American deformation zones. In several of these reconstructions, opening of the southern segment(s) by seafloor spreading prior to Aptian-Albian time is accompanied by contemporaneous strike-slip motion along an intraplate boundary extending southeastward from the Andean Cochabamba—Santa Cruz bend to the Rio Grande Fracture Zone (RGFZ). We have examined new magnetic data over the Pelotas, Santos and Campos Basins, offshore Argentina and Brazil, acquired by ION-GXT in tandem with long-offset, long record seismic reflection data, and identified seafloor spreading anomalies M4, M3, M2 and M0 (~131, ~129, ~128 and ~125 Ma). Integrating these results with our earlier work, we have been able to correlate magnetochrons M4, M3, M2 and M0 north and south of the RGFZ on the South American margin, and north and south of the Walvis Ridge on the African side. Our results are therefore inconsistent with diachronous opening models that involve substantial continental strike-slip motion north of RGFZ during M4 to M0 time. Although the ocean basin may have opened from south to north, our results indicate that seafloor spreading began north of the RGFZ earlier than previously proposed.

Description: Determining thin layer thickness is very important for reservoir characterization and CO 2 quantification. Given its high time–frequency resolution and robustness, the complex spectral decomposition method was applied on time-lapse 3-D seismic data from the Ketzin pilot site for CO 2 storage to evaluate the frequency-dependent characteristics of thin layers at the injection level. Higher temporal resolution and more stratigraphic details are seen in the all-frequency and monochromatic reflectivity amplitude sections obtained by complex spectral decomposition compared to the stacked sections. The mapped geologic discontinuities within the reservoir are consistent with the preferred orientation of CO 2 propagation. Tuning frequency mapping shows the thicknesses of the reservoir sandstone and gaseous CO 2 is consistent with the measured thickness of the sandstone unit from well logging. An attempt to discriminate between pressure effects and CO 2 saturation using the extracted tuning frequency indicates that CO 2 saturation is the main contributor to the amplitude anomaly at the Ketzin site. On the basis of determined thickness of gaseous CO 2 in the reservoir, quantitative analysis of the amount of CO 2 was performed and shows a discrepancy between the injected and calculated CO 2 mass. This may be explained by several uncertainties, like structural reservoir heterogeneity, a limited understanding of the complex subsurface conditions, error of determined tuning frequency, the presence of ambient noise and ongoing CO 2 dissolution.

Description: Comprehensive analytical solutions to 3-D axisymmetric problems for static response of multilayered thermoelastic media subjected to surface loads and containing sources are presented in this study. The solution strategy employs Laplace and Hankel transforms to the field variables. The problem is formulated in cylindrical coordinate system and in this coordinate system vector surface harmonics and generalized propagator matrix are introduced to find the solution for the problem for the behaviour of thermoelastic multilayered media subject to surface loads and containing heat sources. A high-order adaptive Gaussian quadrature method with continued fraction expansions is employed to approximate the integral solutions expressed in terms of semi-infinite Hankel-type integrals. It is the first time to apply the proposed solution method to investigate the behaviour of repository for heat-emitting high-level nuclear waste (HLW) in a geological formation where the HLW can be regarded as a decaying with time point heat source.

Description: We present a series of processes for understanding and analysing controlled-source electromagnetic (CSEM) responses for a conductive and permeable earth. To realize the CSEM response, a new 3-D CSEM forward modelling algorithm based on an edge finite element method for both electrically conductive and magnetically permeable heterogeneities is developed. The algorithm shows highly accurate results in validation tests against a semi-analytic solution for stratified earth and an integral form of the scattered field. We describe the vector behaviour of an anomalous magnetic field originating from a conductive and permeable anomaly when the loop sources are deployed over a conductive half-space. The CSEM response of the conductive and permeable anomaly is classified into three effects originating from: conductivity perturbations, permeability perturbations and the coupling of these two effects. The separated individual results and the corresponding integral equation form of the anomalous field help to better understand the physical behaviour. We confirm the characteristic features of the CSEM response from the conductive and permeable anomaly, for example, (1) the general dominance of the induction effect in the out-of-phase response accompanied by a non-negligible magnetization effect from the magnetic anomaly in a conductive half-space and (2) the dominance of near frequency-independent magnetization effects in the in-phase response at relatively low frequencies and change in ruling part of the in-phase response into the induction effect as the frequency increases. We also demonstrate the effect of coupling mode and show that its maximum contribution is limited to a few per cent level of other two modes, induction and magnetization mode, even when the heterogeneity of our model is strong. In our synthetic survey, using examples of land-based profiling surveys of low induction number and intermediate regime, we find that the effect of magnetization can be used as an indicator of the existence of magnetic material. One important point to note from this study is the importance of accurate cancelling-out or estimation of free-space responses, which can mask the magnetic responses to imaging the varying magnetic property.

Description: Extraction of fluids from subsurface reservoirs induces changes in pore pressure, leading not only to geomechanical changes, but also perturbations in seismic velocities and hence observable seismic attributes. Time-lapse seismic analysis can be used to estimate changes in subsurface hydromechanical properties and thus act as a monitoring tool for geological reservoirs. The ability to observe and quantify changes in fluid, stress and strain using seismic techniques has important implications for monitoring risk not only for petroleum applications but also for geological storage of CO 2 and nuclear waste scenarios. In this paper, we integrate hydromechanical simulation results with rock physics models and full-waveform seismic modelling to assess time-lapse seismic attribute resolution for dynamic reservoir characterization and hydromechanical model calibration. The time-lapse seismic simulations use a dynamic elastic reservoir model based on a North Sea deep reservoir undergoing large pressure changes. The time-lapse seismic traveltime shifts and time strains calculated from the modelled and processed synthetic data sets (i.e. pre-stack and post-stack data) are in a reasonable agreement with the true earth models, indicating the feasibility of using 1-D strain rock physics transform and time-lapse seismic processing methodology. Estimated vertical traveltime shifts for the overburden and the majority of the reservoir are within ±1 ms of the true earth model values, indicating that the time-lapse technique is sufficiently accurate for predicting overburden velocity changes and hence geomechanical effects. Characterization of deeper structure below the overburden becomes less accurate, where more advanced time-lapse seismic processing and migration is needed to handle the complex geometry and strong lateral induced velocity changes. Nevertheless, both migrated full-offset pre-stack and near-offset post-stack data image the general features of both the overburden and reservoir units. More importantly, the results from this study indicate that integrated seismic and hydromechanical modelling can help constrain time-lapse uncertainty and hence reduce risk due to fluid extraction and injection.

Description: A new plate motions model for the northwest Africa–North America Plate pair during the Oligocene and early Miocene is presented. The model is accompanied by a high-resolution isochron map for the central Atlantic region, resulting from a re-examination of 423 ship tracks from the NGDC data base for the area between the 15°20' FZ and the Azores triple junction. A new digital model of fracture zones for this region and a set of 309 magnetic profiles crossing the Oligocene to recent oceanic crust within the study area allowed to determine accurate finite reconstruction poles for the North America–northwest Africa conjugate plate pair between the early Miocene (Chron 6) and the early Oligocene (Chron 13). For times older than Chron 7 (~25 Ma), the finite reconstruction poles were calculated using a reliable data set coming exclusively from the region south of the Canary Islands FZ (~32°N), which allowed to test the rigidity of the northwest African oceanic lithosphere during the Oligocene–early Miocene phase of Atlas orogeny. A comparison of theoretical magnetic isochrons with observed magnetic lineations systematically shows that anomalously high spreading rates occurred in the area north of the Canary Islands FZ before Chron 7, thereby suggesting that the formation of the Atlas mountain, rather than being a localized intracontinental process, was logically linked to the central Atlantic spreading history. Thus, an independent Moroccan Plate could have existed during the Oligocene–early Miocene time interval, which included both the oceanic lithosphere north of the Canary Islands FZ and the northern Maghrebian areas of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In this eventuality, the Atlas mountain belt should be reinterpreted as a giant flower structure associated with dextral transpression.

Description: Spectral induced polarization measurements are affected by temperature variations due to a variety of temperature-dependent parameters that control the complex electrical conductivity. Most important is the influence of the ion mobility, which increases with increasing temperature. It is responsible for the increase of the conductivity of the fluid in the pores with temperature and influences the electrical double layer on the mineral surface. This work is based on laboratory measurements of 13 sandstone samples from different sources with different geological and petrophysical characteristics. We measured the complex impedance in a frequency range from 0.01 to 100 Hz and a temperature range from 0 to 40 °C. The main observation is a decrease of the characteristic time (defined by the inverse of the frequency, at which the phase shift is maximum) with increasing temperature. The strength of this decrease differs from one sample to another. The temperature dependence of the phase shift magnitude cannot easily be generalized, as it depends on the particular sample. The experimental findings suggest that neglecting the influence of temperature on complex conductivity may lead to significant errors when estimating hydraulic conductivity from relaxation time. We also simulate the temperature dependence with a theoretical model of membrane polarization and review some of the model properties, with an emphasis on the temperature dependence of the parameters. The model reproduces several features characterizing the measured data, including the temperature dependence of the characteristic times. Computed tomography and microscope images of the pore structure of three samples also allow us to associate differences in the geometrical parameters used in the modelling with pore scale parameters of the actual samples.

Description: Knowledge about the pressure dependency of elastic and electrical properties is important for a variety of geophysical applications. We present a technique to invert for the stiff and compliant porosity from velocity measurements made as a function of differential pressure on saturated sandstones. A dual porosity concept is used for dry rock compressibility and a squirt model is employed for the pressure and frequency dependent elastic properties of the rocks when saturated. The total porosity obtained from inversion shows satisfactory agreement with experimental results. The electrical cementation factor was determined using the inverted porosity in combination with measured electrical conductivity. It was found that cementation factor increased exponentially with increasing differential pressure during isostatic loading. Elastic compressibility, electrical cementation factor and electrical conductivity of the saturated rocks correlate linearly with compliant porosity, and electrical cementation factor and electrical conductivity exhibit linear correlations with elastic compressibility of the saturated rocks under loading. The results show that the dual porosity concept is sufficient to explain the pressure dependency of elastic, electrical and joint elastic-electrical properties of saturated porous sandstones.

Description: A new plate motions model for the northwest Africa–North America Plate pair during the Oligocene and early Miocene is presented. The model is accompanied by a high-resolution isochron map for the central Atlantic region, resulting from a re-examination of 423 ship tracks from the NGDC data base for the area between the 15°20' FZ and the Azores triple junction. A new digital model of fracture zones for this region and a set of 309 magnetic profiles crossing the Oligocene to recent oceanic crust within the study area allowed to determine accurate finite reconstruction poles for the North America–northwest Africa conjugate plate pair between the early Miocene (Chron 6) and the early Oligocene (Chron 13). For times older than Chron 7 (~25 Ma), the finite reconstruction poles were calculated using a reliable data set coming exclusively from the region south of the Canary Islands FZ (~32°N), which allowed to test the rigidity of the northwest African oceanic lithosphere during the Oligocene–early Miocene phase of Atlas orogeny. A comparison of theoretical magnetic isochrons with observed magnetic lineations systematically shows that anomalously high spreading rates occurred in the area north of the Canary Islands FZ before Chron 7, thereby suggesting that the formation of the Atlas mountain, rather than being a localized intracontinental process, was logically linked to the central Atlantic spreading history. Thus, an independent Moroccan Plate could have existed during the Oligocene–early Miocene time interval, which included both the oceanic lithosphere north of the Canary Islands FZ and the northern Maghrebian areas of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia. In this eventuality, the Atlas mountain belt should be reinterpreted as a giant flower structure associated with dextral transpression.

Description: Maximizing vertical resolution is a key objective in seismic data processing. Early deconvolution and spectral balancing algorithms assumed that the seismic source wavelet was temporally invariant, or stationary. In practice, seismic scattering and attenuation give rise to non-stationary seismic source wavelets. To address this issue, most conventional time-varying deconvolution wavelet shaping and spectral modelling techniques using the stationary polynomial fitting assume the wavelet to be locally stationary within a small number of overlapping analysis windows while the fitting coefficients are invariant with all the frequencies. In this paper, we show an improvement obtained by modelling smoothly varying spectra of the seismic wavelet using non-stationary polynomial fitting in the time–frequency domain. We first decompose each seismic trace using a generalized S-transform that provides a good time–frequency distribution for the estimation of the time-varying wavelet spectra. We then model the slowly varying source wavelet spectrum at each time sample by a smooth low-order polynomial. Finally, we spectrally balance the modelled wavelet to flatten the seismic response, thereby increasing vertical resolution. We calibrate the algorithm on a simple synthetic and then apply it to a 3-D land survey acquired in western China, showing the value on both vertical slices through seismic amplitude and attribute time slices. Our new algorithm significantly improves the vertical resolution of the seismic signal, while not increasing the noise.

Description: Knowledge about the pressure dependency of elastic and electrical properties is important for a variety of geophysical applications. We present a technique to invert for the stiff and compliant porosity from velocity measurements made as a function of differential pressure on saturated sandstones. A dual porosity concept is used for dry rock compressibility and a squirt model is employed for the pressure and frequency dependent elastic properties of the rocks when saturated. The total porosity obtained from inversion shows satisfactory agreement with experimental results. The electrical cementation factor was determined using the inverted porosity in combination with measured electrical conductivity. It was found that cementation factor increased exponentially with increasing differential pressure during isostatic loading. Elastic compressibility, electrical cementation factor and electrical conductivity of the saturated rocks correlate linearly with compliant porosity, and electrical cementation factor and electrical conductivity exhibit linear correlations with elastic compressibility of the saturated rocks under loading. The results show that the dual porosity concept is sufficient to explain the pressure dependency of elastic, electrical and joint elastic-electrical properties of saturated porous sandstones.

Description: In order to perform gas exploration and determine the distribution pattern of gas in the Yanchang Oil Field in the eastern part of the North Shaanxi Slope, Ordos Basin, China, gravity and magnetic survey data were systemically collated, processed and interpreted in combination with the drilling data and recent seismic data. The genesis of gravity and magnetic anomalies and the relationship between the characteristics of the gravity and magnetic fields and known gas distribution were explored in order to predict the favourable exploration targets for gas. Gravity anomalies resulted both from the lateral variation in density of the basement rock and lateral lithologic transformation in the sedimentary cover. The regional magnetic anomalies were mainly caused by the basement metamorphic rocks and the residual magnetic anomalies may reflect the amount and general location of the volcanic materials in the overlying strata. The residual gravity and magnetic anomalies generated by high-density sandstone and high content of volcanics in the gas reservoir of the upper Paleozoic distorted and deformed the anomaly curves when they were stacked onto the primary background anomaly. The gas wells were generally found to be located in the anomaly gradient zones, or the distorted part of contour lines, and the flanks of high and low anomalies, or the transitional zones between anomaly highs and lows. The characteristics of gravity and magnetic fields provide significant information that can be used for guidance when exploring the distribution of gas. Based on these characteristics, five favourable areas for gas exploration were identified; these are quasi-equally spaced like a strip extending from the southeast to the northwest.

Description: Spectral induced polarization measurements are affected by temperature variations due to a variety of temperature-dependent parameters that control the complex electrical conductivity. Most important is the influence of the ion mobility, which increases with increasing temperature. It is responsible for the increase of the conductivity of the fluid in the pores with temperature and influences the electrical double layer on the mineral surface. This work is based on laboratory measurements of 13 sandstone samples from different sources with different geological and petrophysical characteristics. We measured the complex impedance in a frequency range from 0.01 to 100 Hz and a temperature range from 0 to 40 °C. The main observation is a decrease of the characteristic time (defined by the inverse of the frequency, at which the phase shift is maximum) with increasing temperature. The strength of this decrease differs from one sample to another. The temperature dependence of the phase shift magnitude cannot easily be generalized, as it depends on the particular sample. The experimental findings suggest that neglecting the influence of temperature on complex conductivity may lead to significant errors when estimating hydraulic conductivity from relaxation time. We also simulate the temperature dependence with a theoretical model of membrane polarization and review some of the model properties, with an emphasis on the temperature dependence of the parameters. The model reproduces several features characterizing the measured data, including the temperature dependence of the characteristic times. Computed tomography and microscope images of the pore structure of three samples also allow us to associate differences in the geometrical parameters used in the modelling with pore scale parameters of the actual samples.

Description: The streaming potential phenomenon is produced by the flow of an electrolyte in a porous medium and is used for geophysical prospecting. It is quantified through an electrokinetic (EK) coefficient. The dependence of the EK coefficient on the conductivity of the electrolyte is described by the Helmholtz–Smoluchowski (HS) equation. This equation provides successful forecasts of the EK coefficient in the standard range of concentration. However, experimental measurements show deviations to this equation at extreme low and extreme high salinities. The aim of this study is to model the EK coefficient using Lattice Boltzmann simulations in a 2-D capillary channel, with a view to understanding these deviations. The effect of the constitutive parameters of the HS equation such as the permittivity and the viscosity is discussed. The validity of the HS equation using strong potentials is assessed. Finally, a model of bulk fluid conductivity is derived. This model allows to take into account the change of local ionic distribution in the vicinity of the mineral. It appears to have a significant impact on the derivation of potentials at low salinities and in the presence of polyvalent counterions.

Description: Extraction of fluids from subsurface reservoirs induces changes in pore pressure, leading not only to geomechanical changes, but also perturbations in seismic velocities and hence observable seismic attributes. Time-lapse seismic analysis can be used to estimate changes in subsurface hydromechanical properties and thus act as a monitoring tool for geological reservoirs. The ability to observe and quantify changes in fluid, stress and strain using seismic techniques has important implications for monitoring risk not only for petroleum applications but also for geological storage of CO 2 and nuclear waste scenarios. In this paper, we integrate hydromechanical simulation results with rock physics models and full-waveform seismic modelling to assess time-lapse seismic attribute resolution for dynamic reservoir characterization and hydromechanical model calibration. The time-lapse seismic simulations use a dynamic elastic reservoir model based on a North Sea deep reservoir undergoing large pressure changes. The time-lapse seismic traveltime shifts and time strains calculated from the modelled and processed synthetic data sets (i.e. pre-stack and post-stack data) are in a reasonable agreement with the true earth models, indicating the feasibility of using 1-D strain rock physics transform and time-lapse seismic processing methodology. Estimated vertical traveltime shifts for the overburden and the majority of the reservoir are within ±1 ms of the true earth model values, indicating that the time-lapse technique is sufficiently accurate for predicting overburden velocity changes and hence geomechanical effects. Characterization of deeper structure below the overburden becomes less accurate, where more advanced time-lapse seismic processing and migration is needed to handle the complex geometry and strong lateral induced velocity changes. Nevertheless, both migrated full-offset pre-stack and near-offset post-stack data image the general features of both the overburden and reservoir units. More importantly, the results from this study indicate that integrated seismic and hydromechanical modelling can help constrain time-lapse uncertainty and hence reduce risk due to fluid extraction and injection.

Description: We study the accuracy and numerical stability of three eigenvector sets for modelling the coupled poroelastic and electromagnetic layered-Earth response. We use a known eigenvector set, its flux-normalized version and a newly derived flux-normalized set. The new set is chosen such that the system is properly uncoupled when the coupling between the poroelastic and electromagnetic fields vanishes. We carry out two different numerical stability tests: the first test focuses on the internal system, eigenvector and eigenvalue consistency; the second test investigates the stability and preciseness of the flux-normalized systems by looking at identity relations. We find that the known set shows the largest deviation for both tests, whereas the new set performs best. In two additional numerical modelling experiments, these numerical inaccuracies are shown to generate numerical noise levels comparable to small signals, such as signals coming from the important interface conversion responses, especially when the coupling coefficient is small. When coupling vanishes completely, the known set does not produce proper results. The new set produces numerically stable and accurate results in all situations. We therefore strongly recommend to use this newly derived set for future layered-Earth seismo-electromagnetic modelling experiments.

Description: The Quaternary Añavieja-Dévanos tufa system is located in the northern sector of the Iberian Chain. It has been previously tackled by means sedimentological studies focused on the available outcrops and some boreholes. They have permitted the proposal of a sedimentary scenario that fits with a pool-barrage fluvial tufa model. However a better knowledge of the characteristics and internal distribution of the usually non-outcropping pool deposits as well as of its relationship with barrage deposits has not been evaluated in detail yet. Palaeoenvironmental studies on tufas are usually biased because tufas are commonly delicate facies exposed to intense erosion during water level fall stages; for this reason outcrops are usually scarce and very often coincide with the most cemented barrage deposits. In order to analyse the internal characteristics of the tufa deposits under study, but also the lateral correlation among different facies, ground penetrating radar (GPR) has been employed both for the evaluation of its applicability in such kind of environments and to improve, if possible, the sedimentary model using geophysical data in sectors without outcrops. A GPR survey including different antennas ranging from 50 to 500 MHz along different sectors and its comparison with natural outcrops has been carried out. GPR results have permitted to deduce clear differences between pool and barrage deposits and to recognise its internal structure and geometrical relationships. The survey also permitted an approach to different scales of heterogeneities in the radarfacies evaluation by using distinct antennas and therefore, reaching different resolutions and penetrations. The resulting integration from different antennas allows three different attenuant and eight reflective radarfacies to be defined permitting a better approach to the real extension of the pool areas. These results have permitted to decipher the horizontal and vertical facies changes and the identification of a scarcer development of pool deposits than expected in the studied system.

Description: Two novel transient controlled source electromagnetic methods called circular electrical dipole (CED) and differential electrical dipole (DED) are theoretically analysed for applications in shallow marine environments. 1-D and 3-D time-domain modelling studies are used to investigate the detectability and applicability of the methods when investigating resistive layers/targets representing hydrocarbon-saturated formations. The results are compared to the conventional time-domain horizontal electrical dipole (HED) and vertical electrical dipole (VED) sources. The applied theoretical modelling studies demonstrate that CED and DED have higher signal detectability towards resistive targets compared to TD-CSEM, but demonstrate significantly poorer signal amplitudes. Future CED/DED applications will have to solve this issue prior to measuring. Furthermore, the two novel methods have very similar detectability characteristics towards 3-D resistive targets embedded in marine sediments as VED while being less susceptible towards non-verticality. Due to the complex transmitter design of CED/DED the systems are prone to geometrical errors. Modelling studies show that even small transmitter inaccuracies have strong effects on the signal characteristics of CED making an actual marine application difficult at the present time. In contrast, the DED signal is less affected by geometrical errors in comparison to CED and may therefore be more adequate for marine applications.

Description: An L-configured, three-component short period seismic array was deployed on the Ross Ice Shelf, Antarctica during November 2014. Polarization analysis of ambient noise data from these stations shows linearly polarized waves for frequency bands between 0.2 and 2 Hz. A spectral peak at about 1.6 Hz is interpreted as the resonance frequency of the water column and is used to estimate the water layer thickness below the ice shelf. The frequency band from 4 to 18 Hz is dominated by Rayleigh and Love waves propagating from the north that, based on daily temporal variations, we conclude were generated by field camp activity. Frequency–slowness plots were calculated using beamforming. Resulting Love and Rayleigh wave dispersion curves were inverted for the shear wave velocity profile within the firn and ice to ~150 m depth. The derived density profile allows estimation of the pore close-off depth and the firn–air content thickness. Separate inversions of Rayleigh and Love wave dispersion curves give different shear wave velocity profiles within the firn. We attribute this difference to an effective anisotropy due to fine layering. The layered structure of firn, ice, water and the seafloor results in a characteristic dispersion curve below 7 Hz. Forward modelling the observed Rayleigh wave dispersion curves using representative firn, ice, water and sediment structures indicates that Rayleigh waves are observed when wavelengths are long enough to span the distance from the ice shelf surface to the seafloor. The forward modelling shows that analysis of seismic data from an ice shelf provides the possibility of resolving ice shelf thickness, water column thickness and the physical properties of the ice shelf and underlying seafloor using passive-source seismic data.

Description: We present an algorithm to recover the Bayesian posterior model probability density function of subsurface elastic parameters, as required by the full pressure field recorded at an ocean bottom cable due to an impulsive seismic source. Both the data noise and source wavelet are estimated by our algorithm, resulting in robust estimates of subsurface velocity and density. In contrast to purely gradient based approaches, our method avoids model regularization entirely and produces an ensemble of models that can be visualized and queried to provide meaningful information about the sensitivity of the data to the subsurface, and the level of resolution of model parameters. Our algorithm is trans-dimensional and performs model selection, sampling over a wide range of model parametrizations. We follow a frequency domain approach and derive the corresponding likelihood in the frequency domain. We present first a synthetic example of a reservoir at 2 km depth with minimal acoustic impedance contrast, which is difficult to study with conventional seismic amplitude versus offset changes. Finally, we apply our methodology to survey data collected over the Alba field in the North Sea, an area which is known to show very little lateral heterogeneity but nevertheless presents challenges for conventional post migration seismic amplitude versus offset analysis.

Description: A novel application of seismic interferometry (SI) and Marchenko imaging using both surface and borehole data is presented. A series of redatuming schemes is proposed to combine both data sets for robust deep local imaging in the presence of velocity uncertainties. The redatuming schemes create a virtual acquisition geometry where both sources and receivers lie at the horizontal borehole level, thus only a local velocity model near the borehole is needed for imaging, and erroneous velocities in the shallow area have no effect on imaging around the borehole level. By joining the advantages of SI and Marchenko imaging, a macrovelocity model is no longer required and the proposed schemes use only single-component data. Furthermore, the schemes result in a set of virtual data that have fewer spurious events and internal multiples than previous virtual source redatuming methods. Two numerical examples are shown to illustrate the workflow and to demonstrate the benefits of the method. One is a synthetic model and the other is a realistic model of a field in the North Sea. In both tests, improved local images near the boreholes are obtained using the redatumed data without accurate velocities, because the redatumed data are close to the target.

Description: The effect of the selection of different nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) relaxation times for permeability estimation is investigated for a set of fully brine-saturated rocks acquired from Cretaceous carbonate reservoirs in the North Sea and Middle East. Estimators that are obtained from the relaxation times based on the Pythagorean means are compared with estimators that are obtained from the relaxation times based on the concept of a cumulative saturation cut-off. Select portions of the longitudinal ( T 1 ) and transverse ( T 2 ) relaxation-time distributions are systematically evaluated by applying various cut-offs, analogous to the Winland-Pittman approach for mercury injection capillary pressure (MICP) curves. Finally, different approaches to matching the NMR and MICP distributions using different mean-based scaling factors are validated based on the performance of the related size-scaled estimators. The good results that were obtained demonstrate possible alternatives to the commonly adopted logarithmic mean estimator and reinforce the importance of NMR-MICP integration to improving carbonate permeability estimates.

Description: Static time-delay corrections are frequency independent and ignore velocity variations away from the assumed vertical ray path through the subsurface. There is therefore a clear potential for improvement if the finite frequency nature of wave propagation can be properly accounted for. Such a method is presented here based on the Born approximation, the assumption of surface consistency and the misfit of instantaneous phase. The concept of instantaneous phase lends itself very well for sweep-like signals, hence these are the focus of this study. Analytical sensitivity kernels are derived that accurately predict frequency-dependent phase shifts due to P -wave anomalies in the near surface. They are quick to compute and robust near the source and receivers. An additional correction is presented that re-introduces the nonlinear relation between model perturbation and phase delay, which becomes relevant for stronger velocity anomalies. The phase shift as function of frequency is a slowly varying signal, its computation therefore does not require fine sampling even for broad-band sweeps. The kernels reveal interesting features of the sensitivity of seismic arrivals to the near surface: small anomalies can have a relative large impact resulting from the medium field term that is dominant near the source and receivers. Furthermore, even simple velocity anomalies can produce a distinct frequency-dependent phase behaviour. Unlike statics, the predicted phase corrections are smooth in space. Verification with spectral element simulations shows an excellent match for the predicted phase shifts over the entire seismic frequency band. Applying the phase shift to the reference sweep corrects for wavelet distortion, making the technique akin to surface consistent deconvolution, even though no division in the spectral domain is involved. As long as multiple scattering is mild, surface consistent finite frequency phase corrections outperform traditional statics for moderately large velocity contrasts, also in the case of a free surface with topography. The kernels could also be used to update the velocity model, if one has knowledge of (wave propagation related only) surface consistent phase operators.

Description: The seislet transform has been demonstrated to have a better compression performance for seismic data compared with other well-known sparsity promoting transforms, thus it can be used to remove random noise by simply applying a thresholding operator in the seislet domain. Since the seislet transform compresses the seismic data along the local structures, the seislet thresholding can be viewed as a simple structural filtering approach. Because of the dependence on a precise local slope estimation, the seislet transform usually suffers from low compression ratio and high reconstruction error for seismic profiles that have dip conflicts. In order to remove the limitation of seislet thresholding in dealing with conflicting-dip data, I propose a dip-separated filtering strategy. In this method, I first use an adaptive empirical mode decomposition based dip filter to separate the seismic data into several dip bands (5 or 6). Next, I apply seislet thresholding to each separated dip component to remove random noise. Then I combine all the denoised components to form the final denoised data. Compared with other dip filters, the empirical mode decomposition based dip filter is data-adaptive. One only needs to specify the number of dip components to be separated. Both complicated synthetic and field data examples show superior performance of my proposed approach than the traditional alternatives. The dip-separated structural filtering is not limited to seislet thresholding, and can also be extended to all those methods that require slope information.

Description: Noise interferometry is the process by which approximations to acoustic Green's functions, which describe sound propagation between two locations, are estimated by cross-correlating time series of ambient noise measured at those locations. Noise-interferometry-based approximations to Green's functions can be used as the basis for a variety of inversion algorithms, thereby providing a purely passive alternative to active-source ocean acoustic remote sensing. In this paper we give an overview of results from noise interferometry experiments conducted in the Florida Straits at 100 m depth in December 2012, and at 600 m depth in September/October 2013. Under good conditions for noise interferometry, estimates of cross-correlation functions are shown to allow one to perform advanced phase-coherent signal processing techniques to perform waveform inversions, estimate currents by exploiting non-reciprocity, perform time-reversal/back-propagation calculations and investigate modal dispersion using time-warping techniques. Conditions which are favourable for noise interferometry are identified and discussed.

Description: In this paper, we consider a new spectral finite volume method (FVM) for the elastic wave equations. Our new FVM is based on a piecewise constant approximation on a fine mesh and a high-order polynomial reconstruction on a coarser mesh. Our new method is constructed based on two existing techniques, the high-order FVM and the spectral FVM. In fact, we will construct a new method to take advantage of both methods. More precisely, our method has two distinctive features. The first one is that the local polynomial reconstructions are performed on the coarse triangles and the reconstruction matrices for all the coarse triangles are the same. This fact enhances the parallelization of our algorithm. We will present a parallel implementation of our method and show excellent efficiency results. The second one is that, by using a suitable number of finer triangles with a coarse triangle, we obtain an overdetermined reconstruction system, which can enhance the robustness of the reconstruction process. To derive our scheme, standard finite volume technique is applied to each fine triangle, and the high-order reconstructed polynomials, computed on coarse triangles, are used to compute numerical fluxes. We will present numerical results to show the performance of our method. Our method is presented for 2-D problems, but the same methodology can be applied to 3-D.

Description: At the heart of the full waveform inversion (FWI) implementation is wavefield extrapolation, and specifically its accuracy and cost. To obtain accurate, dispersion free wavefields, the extrapolation for modelling is often expensive. Combining an efficient extrapolation with a novel gradient preconditioning can render an FWI implementation that efficiently converges to an accurate model. We, specifically, recast the extrapolation part of the inversion in terms of its spectral components for both data and gradient calculation. This admits dispersion free wavefields even at large extrapolation time steps, which improves the efficiency of the inversion. An alternative spectral representation of the depth axis in terms of sine functions allows us to impose a free surface boundary condition, which reflects our medium boundaries more accurately. Using a newly derived perfectly matched layer formulation for this spectral implementation, we can define a finite model with absorbing boundaries. In order to reduce the nonlinearity in FWI, we propose a multiscale conditioning of the objective function through combining the different directional components of the gradient to optimally update the velocity. Through solving a simple optimization problem, it specifically admits the smoothest approximate update while guaranteeing its ascending direction. An application to the Marmousi model demonstrates the capability of the proposed approach and justifies our assertions with respect to cost and convergence.

Description: Spectral induced polarization (SIP) data are commonly analysed using phenomenological models. Among these models the Cole–Cole (CC) model is the most popular choice to describe the strength and frequency dependence of distinct polarization peaks in the data. More flexibility regarding the shape of the spectrum is provided by decomposition schemes. Here the spectral response is decomposed into individual responses of a chosen elementary relaxation model, mathematically acting as kernel in the involved integral, based on a broad range of relaxation times. A frequently used kernel function is the Debye model, but also the CC model with some other a priorly specified frequency dispersion (e.g. Warburg model) has been proposed as kernel in the decomposition. The different decomposition approaches in use, also including conductivity and resistivity formulations, pose the question to which degree the integral spectral parameters typically derived from the obtained relaxation time distribution are biased by the approach itself. Based on synthetic SIP data sampled from an ideal CC response, we here investigate how the two most important integral output parameters deviate from the corresponding CC input parameters. We find that the total chargeability may be underestimated by up to 80 per cent and the mean relaxation time may be off by up to three orders of magnitude relative to the original values, depending on the frequency dispersion of the analysed spectrum and the proximity of its peak to the frequency range limits considered in the decomposition. We conclude that a quantitative comparison of SIP parameters across different studies, or the adoption of parameter relationships from other studies, for example when transferring laboratory results to the field, is only possible on the basis of a consistent spectral analysis procedure. This is particularly important when comparing effective CC parameters with spectral parameters derived from decomposition results.

Description: Viability for the development of an engineered geothermal system (EGS) in the oilsands region near Fort McMurray, Alberta, is investigated by studying the structure of the Precambrian basement rocks with magnetotellurics (MT). MT data were collected at 94 broad-band stations on two east–west profiles. Apparent resistivity and phase data showed little variation along each profile. The short period MT data detected a 1-D resistivity structure that could be identified as the shallow sedimentary basin underlain by crystalline basement rocks to a depth of 4–5 km. At lower frequencies a strong directional dependence, large phase splits, and regions of out-of-quadrant (OOQ) phase were detected. 2-D isotropic inversions of these data failed to produce a realistic resistivity model. A detailed dimensionality analysis found links between large phase tensor skews (~15°), azimuths, OOQ phases and tensor decomposition strike angles at periods greater than 1 s. Low magnitude induction vectors, as well as uniformity of phase splits and phase tensor character between the northern and southern profiles imply that a 3-D analysis is not necessary or appropriate. Therefore, 2-D anisotropic forward modelling was used to generate a resistivity model to interpret the MT data. The preferred model was based on geological observations of outcropping anisotropic mylonitic basement rocks of the Charles Lake shear zone, 150 km to the north, linked to the study area by aeromagnetic and core sample data. This model fits all four impedance tensor elements with an rms misfit of 2.82 on the southern profile, and 3.3 on the northern. The conductive phase causing the anisotropy is interpreted to be interconnected graphite films within the metamorphic basement rocks. Characterizing the anisotropy is important for understanding how artificial fractures, necessary for EGS development, would form. Features of MT data commonly interpreted to be 3-D (e.g. out of OOQ phase and large phase tensor skew) are shown to be interpretable with this 2-D anisotropic model.

Description: Deep geological repositories, isolated from the geosphere by an engineered bentonite barrier, are currently considered the safest solution for high-level radioactive waste (HLRW) disposal. As the physical conditions and properties of the bentonite barrier are anticipated to change with time, seismic tomography was suggested as a viable technique to monitor the physical state and integrity of the barrier and to timely detect any unforeseen failure. To do so, the seismic monitoring system needs to be optimized, and this can be achieved by conducting numerical simulations of wave propagation in the repository geometry. Previous studies treated bentonite as an elastic medium, whereas recent experimental investigations indicate its pronounced viscoelastic behaviour. The aims of this contribution are (i) to numerically estimate the effective attenuation of bentonite as a function of temperature T and water content W c , so that synthetic data can accurately reproduce experimental traces and (ii) assess the feasibility and limitation of the HLRW repository monitoring by simulating the propagation of sonic waves in a realistic repository geometry. A finite difference method was utilized to simulate the wave propagation in experimental and repository setups. First, the input of the viscoelastic model was varied to achieve a match between experimental and numerical traces. The routine was repeated for several values of W c and T , so that quality factors Q p ( W c , T ) and Q s ( W c , T ) were obtained. Then, the full-scale monitoring procedure was simulated for six scenarios, representing the evolution of bentonite's physical state. The estimated Q p and Q s exhibited a minimum at W c = 20 per cent and higher sensitivity to W c , rather than T , suggesting that pronounced inelasticity of the clay has to be taken into account in geophysical modelling and analysis. The repository-model traces confirm that active seismic monitoring is, in principle, capable of depicting physical changes in the bentonite barrier. However, the locations of sources and receivers relative to the tunnel need to be optimized to achieve best sensitivity to the changes. It was also observed that first arrivals do not necessarily represent the most informative part of the signal; thus the time windows of the analysis need to be selected, accounting for the geometry of the acquisition system. This contribution should be considered as a next step towards the development of a numerical approach to aid in the design and optimization of a non-intrusive monitoring system in HLRW repositories.

Description: Variations in self-potentials (SP) measured at surface during pumping of a heterogeneous confined fractured rock aquifer have been monitored and modelled in order to investigate capabilities and limitations of SP methods in estimating aquifer hydraulic properties. SP variations were recorded around a pumping well using an irregular grid of 31 non-polarizing Pb-PbCl 2 that were referenced to a remote electrode and connected to a commercial multiplexer and digitizer/data logger through a passive lowpass filter on each channel. The lowpass filter reduced noise by a factor of 10 compared to levels obtained using the data logger's integration-based sampling method for powerline noise suppression alone. SP signals showed a linear relationship with water levels observed in the pumping and monitoring wells over the pumping period, with an apparent electrokinetic coupling coefficient of –3.4 mV · m –1 . Following recent developments in SP methodology, variability of the SP response between different electrodes is taken as a proxy for lateral variations in hydraulic head within the aquifer and used to infer lateral variations in the aquifer's apparent transmissivity. In order to demonstrate the viability of this approach, SP is modelled numerically to determine its sensitivity to (i) lateral variations in the hydraulic conductivity of the confined aquifer and (ii) the electrical conductivity of the confining layer and conductive well casing. In all cases, SP simulated on the surface still varies linearly with hydraulic head modelled at the base on the confining layer although the apparent coupling coefficient changes to varying degrees. Using the linear relationship observed in the field, drawdown curves were inferred for each electrode location using SP variations observed over the duration of the pumping period. Transmissivity estimates, obtained by fitting the Theis model to inferred drawdown curves at all 31 electrodes, fell within a narrow range of (2.0–4.2) x 10 –3 m 2 · s –1 and were consistent with values measured in the pumping and monitoring wells. This approach will be of particular interest where monitoring wells are lacking for direct measurement, and SP on the surface can be used to quickly estimate hydraulic properties.

Description: We present a numerical algorithm for 3-D electromagnetic (EM) simulations in conducting media with general electric anisotropy. The algorithm is based on the finite-difference discretization of frequency-domain Maxwell's equations on a Lebedev grid, in which all components of the electric field are collocated but half a spatial step staggered with respect to the magnetic field components, which also are collocated. This leads to a system of linear equations that is solved using a stabilized biconjugate gradient method with a multigrid preconditioner. We validate the accuracy of the numerical results for layered and 3-D tilted transverse isotropic (TTI) earth models representing typical scenarios used in the marine controlled-source EM method. It is then demonstrated that not taking into account the full anisotropy of the conductivity tensor can lead to misleading inversion results. For synthetic data corresponding to a 3-D model with a TTI anticlinal structure, a standard vertical transverse isotropic (VTI) inversion is not able to image a resistor, while for a 3-D model with a TTI synclinal structure it produces a false resistive anomaly. However, if the VTI forward solver used in the inversion is replaced by the proposed TTI solver with perfect knowledge of the strike and dip of the dipping structures, the resulting resistivity images become consistent with the true models.

Description: We develop a procedure to invert time domain induced polarization (IP) data for inductive sources. Our approach is based upon the inversion methodology in conventional electrical IP (EIP), which uses a sensitivity function that is independent of time. However, significant modifications are required for inductive source IP (ISIP) because electric fields in the ground do not achieve a steady state. The time-history for these fields needs to be evaluated and then used to define approximate IP currents. The resultant data, either a magnetic field or its derivative, are evaluated through the Biot-Savart law. This forms the desired linear relationship between data and pseudo-chargeability. Our inversion procedure has three steps: (1) Obtain a 3-D background conductivity model. We advocate, where possible, that this be obtained by inverting early-time data that do not suffer significantly from IP effects. (2) Decouple IP responses embedded in the observations by forward modelling the TEM data due to a background conductivity and subtracting these from the observations. (3) Use the linearized sensitivity function to invert data at each time channel and recover pseudo-chargeability. Post-interpretation of the recovered pseudo-chargeabilities at multiple times allows recovery of intrinsic Cole-Cole parameters such as time constant and chargeability. The procedure is applicable to all inductive source survey geometries but we focus upon airborne time domain EM (ATEM) data with a coincident-loop configuration because of the distinctive negative IP signal that is observed over a chargeable body. Several assumptions are adopted to generate our linearized modelling but we systematically test the capability and accuracy of the linearization for ISIP responses arising from different conductivity structures. On test examples we show: (1) our decoupling procedure enhances the ability to extract information about existence and location of chargeable targets directly from the data maps; (2) the horizontal location of a target body can be well recovered through inversion; (3) the overall geometry of a target body might be recovered but for ATEM data a depth weighting is required in the inversion; (4) we can recover estimates of intrinsic and that may be useful for distinguishing between two chargeable targets.

Description: The extraction of spectral information in the inversion process of time-domain (TD) induced polarization (IP) data is changing the use of the TDIP method. Data interpretation is evolving from a qualitative description of the subsurface, able only to discriminate the presence of contrasts in chargeability parameters, towards a quantitative analysis of the investigated media, which allows for detailed soil- and rock-type characterization. Two major limitations restrict the extraction of the spectral information of TDIP data in the field: (i) the difficulty of acquiring reliable early-time measurements in the millisecond range and (ii) the self-potential background drift in the measured potentials distorting the shape of the late-time IP responses, in the second range. Recent developments in TDIP acquisition equipment have given access to full-waveform recordings of measured potentials and transmitted current, opening for a breakthrough in data processing. For measuring at early times, we developed a new method for removing the significant noise from power lines contained in the data through a model-based approach, localizing the fundamental frequency of the power-line signal in the full-waveform IP recordings. By this, we cancel both the fundamental signal and its harmonics. Furthermore, an efficient processing scheme for identifying and removing spikes in TDIP data was developed. The noise cancellation and the de-spiking allow the use of earlier and narrower gates, down to a few milliseconds after the current turn-off. In addition, tapered windows are used in the final gating of IP data, allowing the use of wider and overlapping gates for higher noise suppression with minimal distortion of the signal. For measuring at late times, we have developed an algorithm for removal of the self-potential drift. Usually constant or linear drift-removal algorithms are used, but these algorithms often fail in removing the background potentials present when the electrodes used for potential readings are previously used for current injection, also for simple contact resistance measurements. We developed a drift-removal scheme that models the polarization effect and efficiently allows for preserving the shape of the IP responses at late times. Uncertainty estimates are essential in the inversion of IP data. Therefore, in the final step of the data processing, we estimate the data standard deviation based on the data variability within the IP gates and the misfit of the background drift removal Overall, the removal of harmonic noise, spikes, self-potential drift, tapered windowing and the uncertainty estimation allows for doubling the usable range of TDIP data to almost four decades in time (corresponding to four decades in frequency), which will significantly advance the applicability of the IP method.

Description: Surface nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a unique geophysical method due to its direct sensitivity to water. A key limitation to overcome is the difficulty of making surface NMR measurements in environments with anthropogenic electromagnetic noise, particularly constant frequency sources such as powerlines. Here we present a method of removing harmonic noise by utilizing frequency domain symmetry of surface NMR signals to reconstruct portions of the spectrum corrupted by frequency-domain noise peaks. This method supplements the existing NMR processing workflow and is applicable after despiking, coherent noise cancellation, and stacking. The symmetry based correction is simple, grounded in mathematical theory describing NMR signals, does not introduce errors into the data set, and requires no prior knowledge about the harmonics. Modelling and field examples show that symmetry based noise removal reduces the effects of harmonics. In one modelling example, symmetry based noise removal improved signal-to-noise ratio in the data by 10 per cent. This improvement had noticeable effects on inversion parameters including water content and the decay constant T 2 *. Within water content profiles, aquifer boundaries and water content are more accurate after harmonics are removed. Fewer spurious water content spikes appear within aquifers, which is especially useful for resolving multilayered structures. Within T 2 * profiles, estimates are more accurate after harmonics are removed, especially in the lower half of profiles.

Description: In this work, we study seismoelectric conversions generated in the vadose zone, when this region is traversed by a pure SH wave. We assume that the soil is a 1-D partially saturated lossy porous medium and we use the van Genuchten's constitutive model to describe the water saturation profile. Correspondingly, we extend Pride's formulation to deal with partially saturated media. In order to evaluate the influence of different soil textures we perform a numerical analysis considering, among other relevant properties, the electrokinetic coupling, coseismic responses and interface responses (IRs). We propose new analytical transfer functions for the electric and magnetic field as a function of the water saturation, modifying those of Bordes et al. and Garambois & Dietrich, respectively. Further, we introduce two substantially different saturation-dependent functions into the electrokinetic (EK) coupling linking the poroelastic and the electromagnetic wave equations. The numerical results show that the electric field IRs markedly depend on the soil texture and the chosen EK coupling model, and are several orders of magnitude stronger than the electric field coseismic ones. We also found that the IRs of the water table for the silty and clayey soils are stronger than those for the sandy soils, assuming a non-monotonous saturation dependence of the EK coupling, which takes into account the charged air–water interface. These IRs have been interpreted as the result of the jump in the viscous electric current density at the water table. The amplitude of the IR is obtained using a plane SH wave, neglecting both the spherical spreading and the restriction of its origin to the first Fresnel zone, effects that could lower the predicted values. However, we made an estimation of the expected electric field IR amplitudes detectable in the field by means of the analytical transfer functions, accounting for spherical spreading of the SH seismic waves. This prediction yields a value of 15 μV m –1 , which is compatible with reported values.

Description: In recent years, marine controlled source electromagnetics (CSEM) has found increasing use in hydrocarbon exploration due to its ability to detect thin resistive zones beneath the seafloor. It is the purpose of this paper to evaluate the physics of CSEM for an ocean whose electrical thickness is comparable to or much thinner than that of the overburden using the in-line configuration through examination of the elliptically polarized seafloor electric field, the time-averaged energy flow depicted by the real part of the complex Poynting vector, energy dissipation through Joule heating and the Fréchet derivatives of the seafloor field with respect to the subseafloor conductivity that is assumed to be isotropic. The deep water (ocean layer electrically much thicker than the overburden) seafloor EM response for a model containing a resistive reservoir layer has a greater amplitude and reduced phase as a function of offset compared to that for a half-space, or a stronger and faster response. For an ocean whose electrical thickness is comparable to or much smaller than that of the overburden, the electric field displays a greater amplitude and reduced phase at small offsets, shifting to a stronger amplitude and increased phase at intermediate offsets and a weaker amplitude and enhanced phase at long offsets, or a stronger and faster response that first changes to stronger and slower, and then transitions to weaker and slower. These transitions can be understood by visualizing the energy flow throughout the structure caused by the competing influences of the dipole source and guided energy flow in the reservoir layer, and the air interaction caused by coupling of the entire subseafloor resistivity structure with the sea surface. A stronger and faster response occurs when guided energy flow is dominant, while a weaker and slower response occurs when the air interaction is dominant. However, at intermediate offsets for some models, the air interaction can partially or fully reverse the direction of energy flux in the reservoir layer toward rather than away from the source, resulting in a stronger and slower response. The Fréchet derivatives are dominated by preferential sensitivity to the reservoir layer conductivity for all water depths except at high frequencies, but also display a shift with offset from the galvanic to the inductive mode in the underburden and overburden due to the interplay of guided energy flow and the air interaction. This means that the sensitivity to the horizontal conductivity is almost as strong as to the vertical component in the shallow parts of the subsurface, and in fact is stronger than the vertical sensitivity deeper down. However, the sensitivity to horizontal conductivity is still weak compared to the vertical component within thin resistive regions. The horizontal sensitivity is gradually decreased when the water becomes deep. These observations in part explain the success of shallow towed CSEM using only measurements of the in-line component of the electric field.

Description: Joint inversion and time-lapse inversion techniques of geophysical data are often implemented in an attempt to improve imaging of complex subsurface structures and dynamic processes by minimizing negative effects of random and uncorrelated spatial and temporal noise in the data. We focus on the structural cross-gradient (SCG) approach (enforcing recovered models to exhibit similar spatial structures) in combination with time-lapse inversion constraints applied to surface-based electrical resistivity and seismic traveltime refraction data. The combination of both techniques is justified by the underlying petrophysical models. We investigate the benefits and trade-offs of SCG and time-lapse constraints. Using a synthetic case study, we show that a combined joint time-lapse inversion approach provides an overall improvement in final recovered models. Additionally, we introduce a new approach to reweighting SCG constraints based on an iteratively updated normalized ratio of model sensitivity distributions at each time-step. We refer to the new technique as the Automatic Joint Constraints (AJC) approach. The relevance of the new joint time-lapse inversion process is demonstrated on the synthetic example. Then, these approaches are applied to real time-lapse monitoring field data collected during a quarter-scale earthen embankment induced-piping failure test. The use of time-lapse joint inversion is justified by the fact that a change of porosity drives concomitant changes in seismic velocities (through its effect on the bulk and shear moduli) and resistivities (through its influence upon the formation factor). Combined with the definition of attributes (i.e. specific characteristics) of the evolving target associated with piping, our approach allows localizing the position of the preferential flow path associated with internal erosion. This is not the case using other approaches.

Description: Geophysical inversion should ideally produce geologically realistic subsurface models that explain the available data. Multiple-point statistics is a geostatistical approach to construct subsurface models that are consistent with site-specific data, but also display the same type of patterns as those found in a training image. The training image can be seen as a conceptual model of the subsurface and is used as a non-parametric model of spatial variability. Inversion based on multiple-point statistics is challenging due to high nonlinearity and time-consuming geostatistical resimulation steps that are needed to create new model proposals. We propose an entirely new model proposal mechanism for geophysical inversion that is inspired by texture synthesis in computer vision. Instead of resimulating pixels based on higher-order patterns in the training image, we identify a suitable patch of the training image that replace a corresponding patch in the current model without breaking the patterns found in the training image, that is, remaining consistent with the given prior. We consider three cross-hole ground-penetrating radar examples in which the new model proposal mechanism is employed within an extended Metropolis Markov chain Monte Carlo (MCMC) inversion. The model proposal step is about 40 times faster than state-of-the-art multiple-point statistics resimulation techniques, the number of necessary MCMC steps is lower and the quality of the final model realizations is of similar quality. The model proposal mechanism is presently limited to 2-D fields, but the method is general and can be applied to a wide range of subsurface settings and geophysical data types.

Description: Electromagnetic responses reflect the interaction between applied electromagnetic fields and heterogeneous geoelectrical structures. Quantifying the relationship between multiscale electrical properties and the observed electromagnetic response is therefore important for meaningful geologic interpretation. We present here examples of near-surface electromagnetic responses whose spatial fluctuations appear on all length scales, are repeatable and fractally distributed, supporting the notion of a ‘rough geology’ exhibiting multiscale hierarchical structure. Bounded by end member cases from homogenized isotropic and anisotropic media, we present numerical modelling results of the electromagnetic responses of textured and spatially correlated, stochastic geologic media, demonstrating that the electromagnetic response is a power law distribution, rather than a smooth response polluted with random, incoherent noise as commonly assumed. Our modelling results show that these electromagnetic responses due to spatially correlated geologic textures are examples of fractional Brownian motion. Furthermore, our results suggest that the fractal behaviour of the electromagnetic responses is correlated with degree of the spatial correlation, the contrasts in ground conductivity, and the preferred orientation of small-scale heterogeneity. In addition, the EM responses acquired across a fault zone comprising different lithological units and varying wavelengths of geologic heterogeneity also support our inferences from numerical modelling.

Description: The oceanic lithosphere in the Bay of Bengal (BOB) formed 80–120 Ma following the breakup of eastern Gondwanaland. Since its formation, it has been affected by the emplacement of two long N-S trending linear aseismic ridges (85°E and Ninetyeast) and by the loading of ca . 20-km of sediments of the Bengal Fan. Here, we present the results of a combined spatial and spectral domain analysis of residual geoid, bathymetry and gravity data constrained by seismic reflection and refraction data. Self-consistent geoid and gravity modelling defined by temperature-dependent mantle densities along a N–S transect in the BOB region revealed that the depth to the lithosphere–asthenosphere boundary (LAB) deepens steeply from 77 km in the south to 127 km in north, with the greater thickness being anomalously thick compared to the lithosphere of similar-age beneath the Pacific Ocean. The Geoid-Topography Ratio (GTR) analysis of the 85°E and Ninetyeast ridges indicate that they are compensated at shallow depths. Effective elastic thickness ( T e ) estimates obtained through admittance/ coherence analysis as well as the flexural modelling along these ridges led to the conclusions: (i) 85°E Ridge was emplaced in off-ridge environment ( T e  = 10–15 km); (ii) the higher T e values of ~25 km over the Afanasy Nikitin Seamount (ANS) reflect the secondary emplacement of the seamount peaks in off-ridge environment, (iii) that the emplacement of the Ninetyeast Ridge north of 2°N occurred in an off-ridge environment as indicated by higher T e values (25–30 km). Furthermore, the admittance analysis of geoid and bathymetry revealed that the admittance signatures at wavelengths 〉800 km are compensated by processes related to upper mantle convection.

Description: Varied applications of seismic interferometry have arisen in the last decade; however, the potential of the method to improve reflection seismic processing in hardrock environments has not explicitly been regarded. Therefore, in this paper we investigate the potential of retrieving the first arrivals originally hindered by high noise level in the exploitation of controlled-source data acquired over the iron-oxide apatite-rich deposit at Grängesberg (Sweden) and its mining-induced structures. The supervirtual first arrivals retrieved using interferometry methodologies allowed first breaks to be picked more extensively than in the original data. Revised static corrections significantly improved the linearity of the first arrivals and continuity of reflections in the source gathers. Especially, reflections considerably enhanced in the source gathers stacked constructively in the final section. Comparison with geological data, supported by traveltime forward modelling, indicates that these reflections represent the unmined part of the deposit. Other reflections at shallower depth are interpreted as anthropogenic faults possibly located at lithological contacts. Tomographic inversion was also run using the augmented traveltime data. The greater resolution and penetration of this new tomographic image allowed better bridging with the results of the reflection seismic section. Velocity anomalies depict the presence of mining-induced structures and a potential ‘Brewery fault’, which is believed to put at risks an urban area. Even though the potential of first-arrival retrieval seems to be case-dependent, this study illustrates that interferometry may substantially improve the accuracy of static corrections and subsequent stack for hardrock imaging, as well as in the penetration and resolution of traveltime tomograms.

Description: The Arctic continental margin contains large amounts of methane in the form of methane hydrates. The west Svalbard continental slope is an area where active methane seeps have been reported near the landward limit of the hydrate stability zone. The presence of bottom simulating reflectors (BSRs) on seismic reflection data in water depths greater than 600 m suggests the presence of free gas beneath gas hydrates in the area. Resistivity obtained from marine controlled source electromagnetic (CSEM) data provides a useful complement to seismic methods for detecting shallow hydrate and gas as they are more resistive than surrounding water saturated sediments. We acquired two CSEM lines in the west Svalbard continental slope, extending from the edge of the continental shelf (250 m water depth) to water depths of around 800 m. High resistivities (5–12 m) observed above the BSR support the presence of gas hydrate in water depths greater than 600 m. High resistivities (3–4 m) at 390–600 m water depth also suggest possible hydrate occurrence within the gas hydrate stability zone (GHSZ) of the continental slope. In addition, high resistivities (4–8 m) landward of the GHSZ are coincident with high-amplitude reflectors and low velocities reported in seismic data that indicate the likely presence of free gas. Pore space saturation estimates using a connectivity equation suggest 20–50 per cent hydrate within the lower slope sediments and less than 12 per cent within the upper slope sediments. A free gas zone beneath the GHSZ (10–20 per cent gas saturation) is connected to the high free gas saturated (10–45 per cent) area at the edge of the continental shelf, where most of the seeps are observed. This evidence supports the presence of lateral free gas migration beneath the GHSZ towards the continental shelf.

Description: Full waveform inversion (FWI) is a promising technique for inverting a high-resolution subsurface velocity model. The success of FWI highly depends on a fairly well initial velocity model. We propose a method for building a good initial velocity model that can be put into the FWI framework for inverting a nearly perfect velocity structure. We use a well log interpolated velocity model as a high-fidelity initial model for the subsequent FWI. The interpolation problem is solved via a least-squares method with a geological structural regularization. In order to obtain the geological structure of subsurface reflectors, an initial reverse time migration (RTM) with a fairly realistic initial velocity model is conducted, and the local slope of subsurface structure is roughly calculated from the RTM image. The well log interpolated initial velocity model can be very close to the true velocity while containing a small velocity anomaly or oversmoothing caused by the imperfect velocity interpolation. The anomaly and oversmoothing effect can be compensated during the subsequent FWI iterations. We use a relatively simple-layered model and the more complicated Marmousi velocity model to demonstrate the applicability of the proposed approach. We start from a very smooth velocity model and obtain a nearly perfect FWI result which is much better than the traditional FWI result without the velocity interpolation. The migrated images from the RTM method using different velocity models are also compared to further confirm the effectiveness of the proposed framework. Regarding the field deployment, we suggest that future drilling of exploration wells can be seismic-oriented, which can help fully utilize the information of well logs for building initial subsurface velocity model and will facilitate a wide application of the proposed methodology.

Description: Series of experiments were performed to study the spectral induced polarization (SIP) response of sands fully saturated with water, into which gaseous CO 2 or N 2 was injected, in the frequency range 0.5 Hz–20 kHz. Three main observations were made. (1) SIP parameters were always most affected by gas injection when the frequency of the injected signal was in the intermediate range (1 〈 f  〈 20 kHz). This point emphasizes the interest of broadening the frequency range of SIP surveys toward intermediate frequencies. It also implies that more work is needed in order to understand and quantify the parasitic effects that occur at this frequency range (EM coupling and electrode polarization). (2) Through all the experiments performed, we were able to distinguish the parameters variations caused by a reduction of the water saturation level (invasion of a resistive gas phase in the porous space) from those resulting from dissolution processes (increase of the electrical conductivity of the saturating water). (3) The quadrature conductivity '', which is mainly linked to the capacitive properties and inductive response of the media, always shows relative variations stronger than the resistivity of the media, hence demonstrating the interest of the additional information provided by the SIP method as against the classical resistivity method.

Description: The intermediate frequency range 10 2 –10 5  Hz forms the transition range between the spectral induced polarization frequency domain and the dielectric spectroscopy frequency domain. Available experimental data showed that the spectral induced polarization response of sands fully saturated with water was particularly sensitive to variations of the saturating water electrical conductivity value in the intermediate frequency range. An empirical and a mechanistic model have been developed and confronted to this experimental data. This confrontation showed that the Maxwell Wagner polarization alone is not sufficient to explain the observed signal in the intermediate frequency range. The SIP response of the media was modelled by assigning relatively high dielectric permittivity values to the sand particle or high effective permittivity values to the media. Such high values are commonly observed in the dielectric spectroscopy literature when entering the intermediate frequency range. The physical origin of these high dielectric permittivity values is discussed (grain shape, electromagnetic coupling), and a preliminary study is presented which suggests that the high impedance values of the non-polarizable electrodes might play a significant role in the observed behaviour.

Description: We describe a multihomogeneity theory for source-parameter estimation of potential fields. Similar to what happens for random source models, where the monofractal scaling-law has been generalized into a multifractal law, we propose to generalize the homogeneity law into a multihomogeneity law. This allows a theoretically correct approach to study real-world potential fields, which are inhomogeneous and so do not show scale invariance, except in the asymptotic regions (very near to or very far from their sources). Since the scaling properties of inhomogeneous fields change with the scale of observation, we show that they may be better studied at a set of scales than at a single scale and that a multihomogeneous model is needed to explain its complex scaling behaviour. In order to perform this task, we first introduce fractional-degree homogeneous fields, to show that: (i) homogeneous potential fields may have fractional or integer degree; (ii) the source-distributions for a fractional-degree are not confined in a bounded region, similarly to some integer-degree models, such as the infinite line mass and (iii) differently from the integer-degree case, the fractional-degree source distributions are no longer uniform density functions. Using this enlarged set of homogeneous fields, real-world anomaly fields are studied at different scales, by a simple search, at any local window W , for the best homogeneous field of either integer or fractional-degree, this yielding a multiscale set of local homogeneity-degrees and depth estimations which we call multihomogeneous model. It is so defined a new technique of source parameter estimation (Multi-HOmogeneity Depth Estimation, MHODE), permitting retrieval of the source parameters of complex sources. We test the method with inhomogeneous fields of finite sources, such as faults or cylinders, and show its effectiveness also in a real-case example. These applications show the usefulness of the new concepts, multihomogeneity and fractional homogeneity-degree, to obtain valid estimates of the source parameters in a consistent theoretical framework, so overcoming the limitations imposed by global-homogeneity to widespread methods, such as Euler deconvolution.

Description: In this paper, two separate but related goals are tackled. The first one is to demonstrate that in some saturated rock textures the non-linear behaviour of induced polarization (IP) and the violation of Ohm's law not only are real phenomena, but they can also be satisfactorily predicted by a suitable physical-mathematical model, which is our second goal. This model is based on Fick's second law. As the model links the specific dependence of resistivity and chargeability of a laboratory sample to the injected current and this in turn to its pore size distribution, it is able to predict pore size distribution from laboratory measurements, in good agreement with mercury injection capillary pressure test results. This fact opens up the possibility for hydrogeophysical applications on a macro scale. Mathematical modelling shows that the chargeability acquired in the field under normal conditions, that is at low current, will always be very small and approximately proportional to the applied current. A suitable field test site for demonstrating the possible reliance of both resistivity and chargeability on current was selected and a specific measuring strategy was established. Two data sets were acquired using different injected current strengths, while keeping the charging time constant. Observed variations of resistivity and chargeability are in agreement with those predicted by the mathematical model. These field test data should however be considered preliminary. If confirmed by further evidence, these facts may lead to changing the procedure of acquiring field measurements in future, and perhaps may encourage the design and building of a new specific geo-resistivity meter. This paper also shows that the well-known Marshall and Madden's equations based on Fick's law cannot be solved without specific boundary conditions.

Description: We present a new 3-D traveltime tomography code (TOMO3D) for the modelling of active-source seismic data that uses the arrival times of both refracted and reflected seismic phases to derive the velocity distribution and the geometry of reflecting boundaries in the subsurface. This code is based on its popular 2-D version TOMO2D from which it inherited the methods to solve the forward and inverse problems. The traveltime calculations are done using a hybrid ray-tracing technique combining the graph and bending methods. The LSQR algorithm is used to perform the iterative regularized inversion to improve the initial velocity and depth models. In order to cope with an increased computational demand due to the incorporation of the third dimension, the forward problem solver, which takes most of the run time (~90 per cent in the test presented here), has been parallelized with a combination of multi-processing and message passing interface standards. This parallelization distributes the ray-tracing and traveltime calculations among available computational resources. The code's performance is illustrated with a realistic synthetic example, including a checkerboard anomaly and two reflectors, which simulates the geometry of a subduction zone. The code is designed to invert for a single reflector at a time. A data-driven layer-stripping strategy is proposed for cases involving multiple reflectors, and it is tested for the successive inversion of the two reflectors. Layers are bound by consecutive reflectors, and an initial velocity model for each inversion step incorporates the results from previous steps. This strategy poses simpler inversion problems at each step, allowing the recovery of strong velocity discontinuities that would otherwise be smoothened.

Description: Iterative substitution of the coupled Marchenko equations is a novel methodology to retrieve the Green's functions from a source or receiver array at an acquisition surface to an arbitrary location in an acoustic medium. The methodology requires as input the single-sided reflection response at the acquisition surface and an initial focusing function, being the time-reversed direct wavefield from the acquisition surface to a specified location in the subsurface. We express the iterative scheme that is applied by this methodology explicitly as the successive actions of various linear operators, acting on an initial focusing function. These operators involve multidimensional crosscorrelations with the reflection data and truncations in time. We offer physical interpretations of the multidimensional crosscorrelations by subtracting traveltimes along common ray paths at the stationary points of the underlying integrals. This provides a clear understanding of how individual events are retrieved by the scheme. Our interpretation also exposes some of the scheme's limitations in terms of what can be retrieved in case of a finite recording aperture. Green's function retrieval is only successful if the relevant stationary points are sampled. As a consequence, internal multiples can only be retrieved at a subsurface location with a particular ray parameter if this location is illuminated by the direct wavefield with this specific ray parameter. Several assumptions are required to solve the Marchenko equations. We show that these assumptions are not always satisfied in arbitrary heterogeneous media, which can result in incomplete Green's function retrieval and the emergence of artefacts. Despite these limitations, accurate Green's functions can often be retrieved by the iterative scheme, which is highly relevant for seismic imaging and inversion of internal multiple reflections.

Description: Employing dynamic reciprocity can be an effective tool to simplify the calculation of elastic wavefields for borehole problems and to check the results. We analytically obtain the reciprocity relations for the elastodynamic fields generated by multipole sources in a fluid–solid configuration: if the multipole sources are located in the fluid, the particle displacement due to a dipole source is reciprocal to the particle acceleration due to a single force; the fluid pressure due to a dipole source is reciprocal to the particle acceleration due to a monopole source; the particle displacement due to a quadrupole source is reciprocal to the spatial partial derivative of the particle acceleration due to a single force; the fluid pressure due to a quadrupole source is reciprocal to the spatial partial derivative of the particle acceleration due to a monopole source. These relations are tested by numerical experiments for different borehole problems, including acoustic logging, single-well imaging and vertical seismic profiling. A reciprocity test can be used as a quick check of a finite-difference algorithm and the implementation of the sources, although it cannot detect errors due to improper discretization of the interfaces.

Description: The area of the 9.1-km-deep Continental Deep Drillhole (KTB) in Germany is used as a case study for a geothermal reservoir situated in folded and faulted metamorphic crystalline crust. The presented approach is based on the analysis of 3-D seismic reflection data combined with borehole data and hydrothermal numerical modelling. The KTB location exemplarily contains all elements that make seismic prospecting in crystalline environment often more difficult than in sedimentary units, basically complicated tectonics and fracturing and low-coherent strata. In a first step major rock units including two known nearly parallel fault zones are identified down to a depth of 12 km. These units form the basis of a gridded 3-D numerical model for investigating temperature and fluid flow. Conductive and advective heat transport takes place mainly in a metamorphic block composed of gneisses and metabasites that show considerable differences in thermal conductivity and heat production. Therefore, in a second step, the structure of this unit is investigated by seismic waveform modelling. The third step of interpretation consists of applying wavenumber filtering and log-Gabor-filtering for locating fractures. Since fracture networks are the major fluid pathways in the crystalline, we associate the fracture density distribution with distributions of relative porosity and permeability that can be calibrated by logging data and forward modelling of the temperature field. The resulting permeability distribution shows values between 10 –16 and 10 –19 m 2 and does not correlate with particular rock units. Once thermohydraulic rock properties are attributed to the numerical model, the differential equations for heat and fluid transport in porous media are solved numerically based on a finite difference approach. The hydraulic potential caused by topography and a heat flux of 54 mW m –2 were applied as boundary conditions at the top and bottom of the model. Fluid flow is generally slow and mainly occurring within the two fault zones. Thus, our model confirms the previous finding that diffusive heat transport is the dominant process at the KTB site. Fitting the observed temperature–depth profile requires a correction for palaeoclimate of about 4 K at 1 km depth. Modelled and observed temperature data fit well within 0.2 °C bounds. Whereas thermal conditions are suitable for geothermal energy production, hydraulic conditions are unfavourable without engineered stimulation.

Description: This paper presents the results from the Deflo-hydroacoustic experiment in the Southern Indian Ocean using three autonomous underwater hydrophones, complemented by two permanent hydroacoustic stations. The array monitored for 14 months, from November 2006 to December 2007, a 3000 x 3000 km wide area, encompassing large segments of the three Indian spreading ridges that meet at the Indian Triple Junction. A catalogue of 11 105 acoustic events is derived from the recorded data, of which 55 per cent are located from three hydrophones, 38 per cent from 4, 6 per cent from five and less than 1 per cent by six hydrophones. From a comparison with land-based seismic catalogues, the smallest detected earthquakes are m b 2.6 in size, the range of recorded magnitudes is about twice that of land-based networks and the number of detected events is 5–16 times larger. Seismicity patterns vary between the three spreading ridges, with activity mainly focused on transform faults along the fast spreading Southeast Indian Ridge and more evenly distributed along spreading segments and transforms on the slow spreading Central and ultra-slow spreading Southwest Indian ridges; the Central Indian Ridge is the most active of the three with an average of 1.9 events/100 km/month. Along the Sunda Trench, acoustic events mostly radiate from the inner wall of the trench and show a 200-km-long seismic gap between 2 °S and the Equator. The array also detected more than 3600 cryogenic events, with different seasonal trends observed for events from the Antarctic margin, compared to those from drifting icebergs at lower (up to 50°S) latitudes. Vocalizations of five species and subspecies of large baleen whales were also observed and exhibit clear seasonal variability. On the three autonomous hydrophones, whale vocalizations dominate sound levels in the 20–30 and 100 Hz frequency bands, whereas earthquakes and ice tremor are a dominant source of ambient sound at frequencies 〈20 Hz.

Description: Seismic reflections from the oceanic water column contain information about ocean temperature and salinity. Even though seismic waveform inversion is effective for studying oceanic structure, its application is limited in the absence of sufficient direct temperature/velocity measurements. Here, two methods are developed to invert pre-stack seismic waveform data for temperature and salinity when independent temperature/velocity data are sparse or unavailable, allowing estimation of water-column temperature/salinity from any marine seismic reflection data set. The first method combines a genetic algorithm (GA) with non-linear least squares inversion, and the second method is a parallel implementation of a GA. Both methods produce results to an accuracy between 0 and 0.1 °C in estimating temperature when applied to a field data set from the South China Sea. Although the second approach is superior, it is computationally demanding and requires large parallel computers. The first approach runs extremely fast on parallel computers and can even be run on much smaller machines to provide results in a reasonable runtime. While both methods are viable choices for estimating temperature and salinity, the choice of one over the other will largely depend upon the available computational resources and the time frame within which the inversion needs to be completed.

Description: A new approach of seismoelectric imaging has been recently proposed to detect saturation fronts in which seismic waves are focused in the subsurface to scan its heterogeneous nature and determine saturation fronts. Such type of imaging requires however a complete modelling of the seismoelectric properties of porous media saturated by two immiscible fluid phases, one being usually electrically insulating (for instance water and oil). We combine an extension of Biot dynamic theory, valid for porous media containing two immiscible Newtonian fluids, with an extension of the electrokinetic theory based on the notion of effective volumetric charge densities dragged by the flow of each fluid phase. These effective charge densities can be related directly to the permeability and saturation of each fluid phase. The coupled partial differential equations are solved with the finite element method. We also derive analytically the transfer function connecting the macroscopic electrical field to the acceleration of the fast P wave (coseismic electrical field) and we study the influence of the water content on this coupling. We observe that the amplitude of the co-seismic electrical disturbance is very sensitive to the water content with an increase in amplitude with water saturation. We also investigate the seismoelectric conversions (interface effect) occurring at the water table. We show that the conversion response at the water table can be identifiable only when the saturation contrasts between the vadose and saturated zones are sharp enough. A relatively dry vadose zone represents the best condition to identify the water table through seismoelectric measurements. Indeed, in this case, the coseismic electrical disturbances are vanishingly small compared to the seismoelectric interface response.

Description: We analysed four newly retrieved tide gauge records of the 1998 July 17 Papua New Guinea (PNG) tsunami to study statistical and spectral properties of this tsunami. The four tide gauge records were from Lombrum (PNG), Rabaul (PNG), Malakal Island (Palau) and Yap Island (State of Yap) stations located 600–1450 km from the source. The tsunami registered a maximum trough-to-crest wave height of 3–9 cm at these gauges. Spectral analysis showed two dominant peaks at period bands of 2–4 and 6–20 min with a clear separation at the period of ~5 min. We interpreted these peak periods as belonging to the landslide and earthquake sources of the PNG tsunami, respectively. Analysis of the tsunami waveforms revealed 12–17 min delay in landslide generation compared to the origin time of the main shock. Numerical simulations including this delay fairly reproduced the observed tide gauge records. This is the first direct evidence of the delayed landslide source of the 1998 PNG tsunami which was previously indirectly estimated from acoustic T-phase records.

Description: For extensional wave propagation along a cylindrical pipe, there exists a natural stopband in the frequency range between the first and second modes. This study explores the feasibility and practicality of building a drill collar acoustic extensional-wave isolator by combining the stopbands of pipes of different thicknesses. Numerical modelling shows that this is indeed possible and a stopband of designated width can be obtained using an optimization procedure. Laboratory measurement on an optimized design further verified this concept. The result provides a viable approach for the acoustic isolation design of a logging while drilling acoustic tool.

Description: The Murray Ridge/Dalrymple Trough system forms the boundary between the Indian and Arabian plates in the northern Arabian Sea. Geodetic constraints from the surrounding continents suggest that this plate boundary is undergoing oblique extension at a rate of a few millimetres per year. We present wide-angle seismic data that constrains the composition of the Ridge and of adjacent lithosphere beneath the Indus Fan. We infer that Murray Ridge, like the adjacent Dalrymple Trough, is underlain by continental crust, while a thin crustal section beneath the Indus Fan represents thinned continental crust or exhumed serpentinized mantle that forms part of a magma-poor rifted margin. Changes in crustal structure across the Murray Ridge and Dalrymple Trough can explain short-wavelength gravity anomalies, but a long-wavelength anomaly must be attributed to deeper density contrasts that may result from a large age contrast across the plate boundary. The origin of this fragment of continental crust remains enigmatic, but the presence of basement fabrics to the south that are roughly parallel to Murray Ridge suggests that it separated from the India/Seychelles/Madagascar block by extension during early breakup of Gondwana.

Description: In conventional marine seismic surveys, due to the time-delayed reflections from the sea surface on both source and receiver sides, ghosts present in recorded seismograms and lead to both phase and spectrum distortions (especially near certain frequency notches). To achieve a high-quality broad-band image/velocity model with conventional reverse time migration (RTM)/full waveform inversion (FWI) that adopts a synthetic zero-phase source wavelet and absorbing surface condition during wavefield modelling, marine seismic data have to be pre-processed to remove ghost effects. However, seismic deghosting is not a trivial task. Instead of employing an external deghosting process, we propose a strategy to compensate for ghost effects during FWI and RTM, which consists of two parts: first, to address phase distortions due to ghost effects by means of obtaining an accurate source wavelet estimation and adopting an appropriate surface boundary condition in both forward and backward wave propagation to appropriately generate ghosts; secondly, to build a compensation operator in the adjoint state computation to mitigate spectrum distortions caused by dominant ghost effects. To demonstrate the success and robustness of the proposed strategy, we present both synthetic experiments and field examples, which suggest that this strategy can lead to successful applications of FWI/RTM directly on marine seismic data without an extra deghosting process.

Description: Seismic full waveform inversion (FWI) has been applied to simple elastic problems with certain symmetries, such as isotropic, transverse isotropic or vertical transversely isotropic media. In this study, the FWI concept is extended to the most general anisotropic case with 21 independent elastic material parameters and no symmetry plane (triclinic). Beside a short description of the 3-D finite-difference scheme to solve the forward problem and the FWI optimization algorithm, we present a sensitivity study for a simple anisotropic medium. This test problem consists of a homogenous triclinic anisotropic full space, which contains 21 spatially separated spheres. In each sphere one component of the elastic tensor deviates by 5 per cent from the background medium. The resolution of the different spheres, ambiguities between the different elastic parameters, as well as the effect of the acquisition geometry can be systematically investigated. Due to the high computational costs of the triclinic forward problem a few compromises have to be made regarding the acquisition geometries. Point sources are replaced by plane wave sources which lead to a limitation of incidence angles and therefore a strong decrease in resolution of the nondiagonal elastic tensor components. It is shown that, despite these limitations, a tomographic acquisition geometry would be able to resolve to some extent a monoclinic symmetry via FWI. Restricting the acquisition geometries (e.g. VSP combined with reflection seismic or reflection seismic only) significantly reduces the number of resolvable tensor elements in strict dependence of the covered incidence angles.

Description: Non-linear resonant coupling of edge waves can occur with tsunamis generated by large-magnitude subduction zone earthquakes. Earthquake rupture zones that straddle beneath the coastline of continental margins are particularly efficient at generating tsunami edge waves. Using a stochastic model for earthquake slip, it is shown that a wide range of edge-wave modes and wavenumbers can be excited, depending on the variability of slip. If two modes are present that satisfy resonance conditions, then a third mode can gradually increase in amplitude over time, even if the earthquake did not originally excite that edge-wave mode. These three edge waves form a resonant triad that can cause unexpected variations in tsunami amplitude long after the first arrival. An M ~ 9, 1100 km-long continental subduction zone earthquake is considered as a test case. For the least-variable slip examined involving a Gaussian random variable, the dominant resonant triad includes a high-amplitude fundamental mode wave with wavenumber associated with the along-strike dimension of rupture. The two other waves that make up this triad include subharmonic waves, one of fundamental mode and the other of mode 2 or 3. For the most variable slip examined involving a Cauchy-distributed random variable, the dominant triads involve higher wavenumbers and modes because subevents, rather than the overall rupture dimension, control the excitation of edge waves. Calculation of the resonant period for energy transfer determines which cases resonant coupling may be instrumentally observed. For low-mode triads, the maximum transfer of energy occurs approximately 20–30 wave periods after the first arrival and thus may be observed prior to the tsunami coda being completely attenuated. Therefore, under certain circumstances the necessary ingredients for resonant coupling of tsunami edge waves exist, indicating that resonant triads may be observable and implicated in late, large-amplitude tsunami arrivals.

Description: One interpretation of a seismic image is the instantaneous scattered wave response of a colocated pseudo-source and pseudo-receiver at each point in the subsurface model. If there is no model perturbation at a point then there will be no instantaneous scattered wave so nothing will be imaged; if something is imaged then there must be a perturbation at that location. By extension, so-called extended images (EIs) represent the full spatio-temporal response between offset subsurface pseudo-sources and pseudo-receivers which can be used to constrain elastic properties around each image point. However, one-sided illumination of the subsurface (from the Earth's surface), errors in the initial velocity model estimate, and the use of a linearized, single-scattering assumption (as is usual in seismic imaging) cause errors in EI gathers such as missing events, incorrect amplitudes, and spurious energy. By creating elastic (P-to-P and P-to-S) EIs in a synthetic example of subsalt imaging, we demonstrate the advantages of incorporating multiply scattered waves correctly by non-linear imaging, and of including transmitted waves by using two-sided receiver arrays, and discuss how the recently developed autofocussing methods could provide us with the various required subsurface wavefields. Pre- and post-imaging f–k filtering procedures are introduced to further improve the quality of the EIs by (explicitly or implicitly) limiting the directions of waves arriving at the subsurface pseudo-source and receiver survey line. These filters suppress strong linear events that arise from the erroneous interaction of near-horizontally propagating waves which are not naturally accounted for due to the lack of sources and receivers on either side of the imaging target. Finally, we analyse the sensitivity of elastic P-to-P EIs to errors in the migration velocity models and show that events in the EI are shifted in opposite directions when constructed using reflection or transmission data. In other words, velocity errors are mapped into the EIs differently in the case of one-sided from two-sided illumination. This leads to the potential for new methods of migration velocity analysis when surface and borehole seismic data are jointly acquired.

Description: Uncertainty estimation is a vital part of geophysical numerical modelling. There exist a variety of methods aimed at uncertainty estimation, which are often complicated and difficult to implement. We present an inversion technique that produces multiple solutions, based on bootstrap resampling, to create a qualitative uncertainty measure for 2-D magnetotelluric inversion models. The approach is easy to implement, can be used with almost any inversion code, and does not require access to the inversion software's source code. It is capable of detecting the effect of data uncertainties on the model result rather than just analysing the effect of model variations on the model response. To obtain uncertainty estimates for an inversion model, the original data set is resampled repeatedly and alternate data set realizations are created and inverted. This ensemble of solutions is then statistically analysed to determine the variability between the different solutions. The process yields interpretable uncertainty maps for the inversion model and we demonstrate its effectiveness to qualitatively quantify uncertainty in synthetic model tests and a case study.

Description: Electromagnetic (EM) imaging methods are useful tools for monitoring subsurface changes in pore-fluid content and the associated changes in electrical permittivity and conductivity. The most common method for georadar tomography uses a high frequency ray-theoretic approximation that is valid when material variations are sufficiently small relative to the wavelength of the propagating wave. Georadar methods, however, often utilize EM waves that propagate within heterogeneous media at frequencies where ray theory may not be applicable. In this paper we describe EM wave propagation 3-D Fréchet sensitivity kernels that capture the data sensitivity to material perturbations for a given source–receiver combination. Various data functional types are formulated that consider all three components of the electric wavefield and incorporate near-, intermediate- and far-field contributions. We show that EM waves exhibit substantial variations for different relative source–receiver component orientations. The 3-D sensitivities also illustrate out of plane effects that are not captured in 2-D sensitivity kernels and can influence results obtained using 2-D inversion methods to image structures that are in reality 3-D.

Description: This paper focuses on the modelling of fluid-filled poroelastic double porosity media under quasi-static and dynamic regimes. The double porosity model is derived from a two-scale homogenization procedure, by considering a medium locally characterized by blocks of poroelastic Biot microporous matrix and a surrounding system of fluid-filled macropores or fractures. The derived double porosity description is a two-pressure field poroelastic model with memory and viscoelastic effects. These effects result from the ‘time-dependent’ interaction between the pressure fields in the two pore networks. It is shown that this homogenized double porosity behaviour arises when the characteristic time of consolidation in the microporous domain is of the same order of magnitude as the macroscopic characteristic time of transient regime. Conversely, single porosity behaviours occur when both timescales are clearly distinct. Moreover, it is established that the phenomenological approaches that postulate the coexistence of two pressure fields in ‘instantaneous’ interaction only describe media with two pore networks separated by an interface flow barrier. Hence, they fail at predicting and reproducing the behaviour of usual double porosity media. Finally, the results are illustrated for the case of stratified media.

Description: The Okavango Delta of northern Botswana is one of the world's largest inland deltas or megafans. To obtain information on the character of sediments and basement depths, audiomagnetotelluric (AMT), controlled-source audiomagnetotelluric (CSAMT) and central-loop transient electromagnetic (TEM) data were collected on the largest island within the delta. The data were inverted individually and jointly for 1-D models of electric resistivity. Distortion effects in the AMT and CSAMT data were accounted for by including galvanic distortion tensors as free parameters in the inversions. By employing Marquardt–Levenberg inversion, we found that a 3-layer model comprising a resistive layer overlying sequentially a conductive layer and a deeper resistive layer was sufficient to explain all of the electromagnetic data. However, the top of the basal resistive layer from electromagnetic-only inversions was much shallower than the well-determined basement depth observed in high-quality seismic reflection images and seismic refraction velocity tomograms. To resolve this discrepancy, we jointly inverted the electromagnetic data for 4-layer models by including seismic depths to an interface between sedimentary units and to basement as explicit a priori constraints. We have also estimated the interconnected porosities, clay contents and pore-fluid resistivities of the sedimentary units from their electrical resistivities and seismic P -wave velocities using appropriate petrophysical models. In the interpretation of our preferred model, a shallow ~40 m thick freshwater sandy aquifer with 85–100 m resistivity, 10–32 per cent interconnected porosity and 〈13 per cent clay content overlies a 105–115 m thick conductive sequence of clay and intercalated salt-water-saturated sands with 15–20 m total resistivity, 1–27 per cent interconnected porosity and 15–60 per cent clay content. A third ~60 m thick sandy layer with 40–50 m resistivity, 10–33 per cent interconnected porosity and 〈15 per cent clay content is underlain by the basement with 3200–4000 m total resistivity. According to an interpretation of helicopter TEM data that cover the entire Okavango Delta and borehole logs, the second and third layers may represent lacustrine sediments from Paleo Lake Makgadikgadi and a moderately resistive freshwater aquifer comprising sediments of the recently proposed Paleo Okavango Megafan, respectively.

Description: Interpolation and random noise removal is a pre-requisite for multichannel techniques because the irregularity and random noise in observed data can affect their performances. Projection Onto Convex Sets (POCS) method can better handle seismic data interpolation if the data's signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is high, while it has difficulty in noisy situations because it inserts the noisy observed seismic data in each iteration. Weighted POCS method can weaken the noise effects, while the performance is affected by the choice of weight factors and is still unsatisfactory. Thus, a new weighted POCS method is derived through the Iterative Hard Threshold (IHT) view, and in order to eliminate random noise, a new adaptive method is proposed to achieve simultaneous seismic data interpolation and denoising based on dreamlet transform. Performances of the POCS method, the weighted POCS method and the proposed method are compared in simultaneous seismic data interpolation and denoising which demonstrate the validity of the proposed method. The recovered SNRs confirm that the proposed adaptive method is the most effective among the three methods. Numerical examples on synthetic and real data demonstrate the validity of the proposed adaptive method.

Description: Frequency-domain loop–loop electromagnetic (EM) methods are sensitive to the magnetic susceptibility of the Earth as well as its resistivity. Thus, inversion techniques have been used to simultaneously reconstruct both resistivity and susceptibility models from EM data. However, to take full advantage of inversion methods, calibration errors must be assessed and removed because ignoring them can result in misleading models. We present a multidimensional inversion method that jointly inverts EM and direct current (DC) resistivity data to derive offset errors as well as resistivity and susceptibility models, assuming that calibration errors can be represented by in-phase and quadrature offsets at each frequency. Addition of independent data such as DC data is effective for more accurately estimating the offsets, resulting in more reliable subsurface models. Synthetic examples involving small-loop EM data show that simultaneous inversion for resistivity and susceptibility is not stable, because of strong correlations between in-phase offset parameters and background susceptibility, but that the offsets are well determined when the data misfit is reduced rapidly in the early iteration step. Improvements achieved by joint inversion are mainly on the resistivity model. For airborne electromagnetic (AEM) data, the inversion process is stable, because AEM data are acquired using more loop–loop geometries and a wider range of frequencies. As a result, both the resistivity and susceptibility models are significantly improved by joint inversion.

Description: We have developed an efficient numerical scheme for 3-D electromagnetic (EM) simulations using an exponential finite-difference (FD) method with non-uniform grids. The method uses the set of exponential basis functions {1, exp [ ± ( x x + y y + z z )]}, where the exponents x , y and z must be chosen carefully depending on the simulation frequency and local node conductivity. The method achieves an approximation of the oscillatory and exponentially decaying EM fields that is better than that obtained via the low-degree polynomial fitting from standard FDs—and hence also leads to more accurate results. An important property of the exponential FD method is that it tends to the standard FD method when the exponents x , y and z tend to zero. We applied the standard and exponential FD methods to three marine controlled-source EM modelling scenarios: deep-water, shallow-water and intermediate water depth. For the deep-water scenario, we found that the proposed exponential FD method gave two to three times more accurate results as compared to the standard FD method on the same grid. For the shallow-water and intermediate water depth scenarios, the exponential FD method improved the accuracy of the upgoing fields; it gave 2–2.5 times more accurate results for the upgoing fields than the standard FD method on the same grid. Consequently, the method can achieve the same accuracy with a coarser grid and hence is faster than the standard FD method, as demonstrated using a frequency-domain iterative solver.

Description: Rocks in nature are multiphase composites of minerals and fluids with varying elastic properties. Predicting the effects that geochemical and geological processes, which lead to removal, alteration or substitution of one or more phases, have on seismic velocities is of considerable practical interest in geophysics. We present a new theory that quantifies the effect of replacing ‘one' or ‘more' phases (fluid or solid) on the elastic properties of multimineralic isotropic rocks. These new exact solutions relax the assumption of unchanging rock microstructure upon substitution of the pore-filling material. By developing equations that do not depend on this assumption, which is fundamental to conventional substitution theories, for example, Biot–Gassmann theory, we expand their range of applicability. Since the new exact solutions require usually unknown parameters, we also develop approximations that depend only on initial effective stiffness, elastic properties and volume fractions of constituents.

Description: We present 1D anisotropic inversion of magnetotelluric (MT) data as a potential tool for mapping structural permeability in sedimentary basins. Using 1D inversions of a 171 site, broadband MT data set from the Koroit region of the Otway Basin, Victoria, Australia, we have delineated an electrically anisotropic layer at approximately 2.5 to 3.5 km depth. The anisotropy strike is consistent between stations at approximately 160° east of north. The depth of anisotropy corresponds to the top depth of the Lower Cretaceous Crayfish Group, and the anisotropy factor increases from west to east. We interpret the anisotropy as resulting from north–northwest oriented, fluid-filled fractures resulting in enhanced electrical and hydraulic conductivity. This interpretation is consistent with permeability data from well formation tests. It is also consistent with the orientation of mapped faults in the area, which are optimally oriented for reactivation in the current stress field.

Description: A recent paper by Tarasov and Titov suggested that the Cole–Cole conductivity models should be preferred to the Pelton resistivity model in fitting induced polarization responses. Each model has four parameters: resistivity (or its inverse conductivity ), chargeability m , time parameter and frequency dependence c . Tarasov and Titov showed that in fitting experimental data, 3 of the parameters directly correspond across the two formulations, but that there is a difference between the Pelton and Cole–Cole model in that parameter is only the same at low frequency, but is an entangled function with m and c at high frequencies in the Pelton formulation. This claim of inconsistent was based on using the Pelton complex resistivity formulation and the Cole–Cole complex conductivity equation to analyse complex conductivity data as a function of frequency. However, if Pelton and Cole–Cole models are used to fit complex resistivity, rather than fitting conductivity, then it is the Cole–Cole model that has an entangled parameter at high chargeability m values. Simple testing shows that a Pelton model used to fit resistivity has all four model parameters directly corresponding with conductivity data fitted with a Cole–Cole model. The conclusion is that Cole–Cole and Pelton models in fact require identical independent parameters that can fit experimental or synthetic data, provided the Pelton resistivity formulation is restricted to fitting to resistivity data, and the Cole–Cole conductivity formulation is restricted to fitting conductivity results.

Description: Stratum quality factors ( P -wave and S -wave quality factors, Q p and Q s ) have gradually been utilized in the study of physical state of crust and uppermost mantle, tectonic evolution, hydrogeololgy, gas hydrates, petroleum exploration, etc. Different opinions of the seismic attenuation mechanism result in various approaches to estimate the P -wave and S -wave quality factors. Considering the viscoelasticity of the underground medium, the constitutive matrix of the Earth medium is written as the superposition of homogeneous background medium, elastic perturbation medium and viscoelastic perturbation medium. Under the hypothesis of Born integral and stationary phase approximation, the seismic reflectivity is initially raised in terms of P -wave and S -wave moduli, density, P -wave and S -wave quality factors. Furthermore, incorporating the complex seismic traces with the seismic wavelets at different offsets, a two-step inversion approach is proposed to estimate the P -wave and S -wave quality factors. The AVO/AVA Bayesian inversion approach is suggested to estimate the P -wave modulus and S -wave modulus with the real component of the pre-stack seismic data initially. Taking the estimated P -wave and S -wave moduli as prior information, the P -wave and S -wave quality factors are further estimated with the imaginary component of the complex pre-stack seismic data, which is the quadrature of the original data. Finally, synthetic examples demonstrate that the proposed approach is able to estimate P -wave and S -wave quality factors stably and properly, and two field data examples demonstrate that the proposed approach may work as an efficient approach to fluid identification.

Description: In this paper, we modelled the electrical transport behaviour of bimodal carbonate rocks from a reservoir in China using dual-pore networks. One basic assumption, generally supported by experimental data and microstructure observations in the reservoir samples, was that the low porosity, monomodal rocks had the same properties and structure as the microporous matrix of the high porosity, bimodal samples. We assumed that the matrix was homogeneous and always interconnected but that the connectivity and the pore size distribution of macropore system was randomly variable. Both pore systems were supposed to act locally as ‘in parallel’ electrical conductors, an approach previously used by Bauer et al. Hence, the effect of matrix properties, macropore size distribution and connectivity on electrical properties of bimodal rocks could be modelled and investigated. We simulated electrical current through 3-D, simple cubic and body-centred cubic networks with different coordination numbers, different pipe radius distributions of macropore system and different matrix properties. The main result was that the formation factor of dual-pore network obeyed a ‘universal’ scaling relationship (i.e. independent of lattice type). Based on this result, we extended the power-law model derived by Bernabé et al. for monomodal porous media. We developed methods for evaluating the scale-invariant pore structure parameters in the model using conventional core analysis and satisfactorily tested the proposed model against experimental data from the Chinese reservoir as well as some other previously published data sets.

Description: Asymptotic expressions are derived for electromagnetic fields induced by arbitrarily oriented electric and magnetic dipoles in a laterally isotropic stratified medium. Considering that the leading terms, which describe the airwave, decay in accordance with the same geometric law whether the source is a horizontal electric or magnetic dipole, it is suggested to use a transmitter, which combines these sources. It is shown that the airwave greatly diminishes if the amplitudes and phases of the horizontal current and magnetic moments of this transmitter are chosen to minimize the far-zone vertical magnetic field. A properly tuned combined transmitter will induce the electromagnetic field with a relatively small transverse electric mode. Raw electromagnetic data acquired with the combined transmitter will be more sensitive to parameters of the resistive reservoir than data acquired using the traditional horizontal electric dipole type of the transmitter.

Description: A Bayesian inversion methodology for identification of large-scale subsurface structures (strata) from controlled source electromagnetic data is developed. The Bayesian inverse problem is solved by sampling from the posterior probability distribution, using the ensemble Kalman filter. Prior knowledge is incorporated in the methodology by utilizing structural prior information from, for example, interpreted seismic data. A model-based, composite parametrization of the electric conductivity distribution is applied to represent the subsurface structures. The model-based representation also allows for estimation of variation of electric conductivity within each stratum. To enhance stability and reduce model nonlinearity, a reduced representation of structure boundaries and conductivity variation within each stratum is applied. Numerical experiments on various test cases show that the methodology is able to identify fairly complex subsurface conductivity distributions reasonably well, with and without a hydrocarbon reservoir present. These experiments included strata with weak conductivity contrast and the application of various prior probability distributions. Furthermore, the methodology shows the ability to (almost completely) remove a reservoir present in the prior model that is not present in the true model (‘false positive’).

Description: Non-linear inversion algorithms traverse a data misfit space over multiple iterations of trial models in search of either a global minimum or some target misfit contour. The success of the algorithm in reaching that objective depends upon the smoothness and predictability of the misfit space. For any given observation, there is no absolute form a datum must take, and therefore no absolute definition for the misfit space; in fact, there are many alternatives. However, not all misfit spaces are equal in terms of promoting the success of inversion. In this work, we appraise three common forms that complex data take in electromagnetic geophysical methods: real and imaginary components, a power of amplitude and phase, and logarithmic amplitude and phase. We find that the optimal form is logarithmic amplitude and phase. Single-parameter misfit curves of log-amplitude and phase data for both magnetotelluric and controlled-source electromagnetic methods are the smoothest of the three data forms and do not exhibit flattening at low model resistivities. Synthetic, multiparameter, 2-D inversions illustrate that log-amplitude and phase is the most robust data form, converging to the target misfit contour in the fewest steps regardless of starting model and the amount of noise added to the data; inversions using the other two data forms run slower or fail under various starting models and proportions of noise. It is observed that inversion with log-amplitude and phase data is nearly two times faster in converging to a solution than with other data types. We also assess the statistical consequences of transforming data in the ways discussed in this paper. With the exception of real and imaginary components, which are assumed to be Gaussian, all other data types do not produce an expected mean-squared misfit value of 1.00 at the true model (a common assumption) as the errors in the complex data become large. We recommend that real and imaginary data with errors larger than 10 per cent of the complex amplitude be withheld from a log-amplitude and phase inversion rather than retaining them with large error-bars.

Description: Seismic interferometry comprises a suite of methods to redatum recorded wavefields to those that would have been recorded if different sources (so-called virtual sources) had been activated. Seismic interferometry by cross-correlation has been formulated using either two-way (for full wavefields) or one-way (for directionally decomposed wavefields) representation theorems. To obtain improved Green's function estimates, the cross-correlation result can be deconvolved by a quantity that identifies the smearing of the virtual source in space and time, the so-called point-spread function. This type of interferometry, known as interferometry by multidimensional deconvolution (MDD), has so far been applied only to one-way directionally decomposed fields, requiring accurate wavefield decomposition from dual (e.g. pressure and velocity) recordings. Here we propose a form of interferometry by multidimensional deconvolution that uses full wavefields with two-way representations, and simultaneously invert for pressure and (normal) velocity Green's functions, rather than only velocity responses as for its one-way counterpart. Tests on synthetic data show that two-way MDD improves on results of interferometry by cross-correlation, and generally produces estimates of similar quality to those obtained by one-way MDD, suggesting that the preliminary decomposition into up- and downgoing components of the pressure field is not required if pressure and velocity data are jointly used in the deconvolution. We also show that constraints on the directionality of the Green's functions sought can be added directly into the MDD inversion process to further improve two-way multidimensional deconvolution. Finally, as a by-product of having pressure and particle velocity measurements, we adapt one- and two-way representation theorems to convert any particle velocity receiver into its corresponding virtual dipole/gradient source by means of MDD. Thus data recorded from standard monopolar (e.g. marine) pressure sources can be converted into data from dipolar (derivative) sources at no extra acquisition cost.

Description: The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the applicability and the effectiveness of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to identify a thin burnt soil layer, buried more than 2 m below the topographic surface at the Liangzhu Site, in Southeastern China. The site was chosen for its relatively challenging conditions of GPR techniques due to electrical conductivity and to the presence of peach tree roots that produced scattering. We completed the data acquisition by using 100 and 200 MHz antennas in TE and TM broadside and cross-polarized configurations. In the data processing and interpretation phase, we used GPR attribute analysis, including instantaneous phase and geometrical attributes. Validation analysis ground-truthing performed after the geophysical surveys, validated the GPR imaging, confirmed the electrical conductivity and relative dielectric permittivity (RDP) measurements performed at different depths, and allowed a reliable quantitative correlation between GPR results and subsurface physical properties. The research demonstrates that multiple antenna configurations in GPR data acquisition combined with attribute analysis can enhance the ability to characterize prehistoric archaeological remains even in complex subsurface conditions.

Description: We critically examine the performance of sequential geostatistical resampling (SGR) as a model proposal mechanism for Bayesian Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo (MCMC) solutions to near-surface geophysical inverse problems. Focusing on a series of simple yet realistic synthetic crosshole georadar tomographic examples characterized by different numbers of data, levels of data error and degrees of model parameter spatial correlation, we investigate the efficiency of three different resampling strategies with regard to their ability to generate statistically independent realizations from the Bayesian posterior distribution. Quite importantly, our results show that, no matter what resampling strategy is employed, many of the examined test cases require an unreasonably high number of forward model runs to produce independent posterior samples, meaning that the SGR approach as currently implemented will not be computationally feasible for a wide range of problems. Although use of a novel gradual-deformation-based proposal method can help to alleviate these issues, it does not offer a full solution. Further, we find that the nature of the SGR is found to strongly influence MCMC performance; however no clear rule exists as to what set of inversion parameters and/or overall proposal acceptance rate will allow for the most efficient implementation. We conclude that although the SGR methodology is highly attractive as it allows for the consideration of complex geostatistical priors as well as conditioning to hard and soft data, further developments are necessary in the context of novel or hybrid MCMC approaches for it to be considered generally suitable for near-surface geophysical inversions.

Description: The seismic properties of rocks are known to be sensitive to partial liquid or gas saturation, and to aligned fractures. P -wave anisotropy is widely used for fracture characterization and is known to be sensitive to the saturating fluid. However, studies combining the effect of multiphase saturation and aligned fractures are limited even though such conditions are common in the subsurface. An understanding of the effects of partial liquid or gas saturation on P -wave anisotropy could help improve seismic characterization of fractured, gas bearing reservoirs. Using octagonal-shaped synthetic sandstone samples, one containing aligned penny-shaped fractures and the other without fractures, we examined the influence of water saturation on P -wave anisotropy in fractured rocks. In the fractured rock, the saturation related stiffening effect at higher water saturation values is larger in the direction across the fractures than along the fractures. Consequently, the anisotropy parameter ‘ ’ decreases as a result of this fluid stiffening effect. These effects are frequency dependent as a result of wave-induced fluid flow mechanisms. Our observations can be explained by combining a frequency-dependent fractured rock model and a frequency-dependent partial saturation model.

Description: Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) has been widely used in environmental applications to study processes associated with subsurface contaminants and contaminant remediation. Anthropogenic alterations in subsurface electrical conductivity associated with contamination often originate from highly industrialized areas with significant amounts of buried metallic infrastructure. The deleterious influence of such infrastructure on imaging results generally limits the utility of ERT where it might otherwise prove useful for subsurface investigation and monitoring. In this manuscript we present a method of accurately modelling the effects of buried conductive infrastructure within the forward modelling algorithm, thereby removing them from the inversion results. The method is implemented in parallel using immersed interface boundary conditions, whereby the global solution is reconstructed from a series of well-conditioned partial solutions. Forward modelling accuracy is demonstrated by comparison with analytic solutions. Synthetic imaging examples are used to investigate imaging capabilities within a subsurface containing electrically conductive buried tanks, transfer piping, and well casing, using both well casings and vertical electrode arrays as current sources and potential measurement electrodes. Results show that, although accurate infrastructure modelling removes the dominating influence of buried metallic features, the presence of metallic infrastructure degrades imaging resolution compared to ERT imaging in the absence of infrastructure. However, it is possible to rectify this degradation in resolution through appropriate placement of electrodes.

Description: Wells and boreholes are routinely steel-cased in oil and gas fields and geological storage sites. There have been a number of studies on the effects of a steel-cased well on various electrical and electromagnetic (EM) geophysical methods. In this paper, we examine the use of a steel-cased well as a virtual vertical electric source for sensing deep localized resistive (e.g. CO 2 , oil and gas) and conductive (e.g. conductive-proppant-filled fractures) targets when concentric electric sources are grounded around the collar of the well. To simulate the casing effects, we present a 3-D finite-element time-domain (FETD) algorithm with tetrahedral elements. The FETD algorithm is designed to reduce memory usage in adaptive time stepping by utilizing parallel direct and iterative solvers appropriately together. To avoid a larger number of tiny elements required for discretizing a thin wall of the casing, the hollow casing is approximated with a rectangular prism. By not discretizing the thin wall of and the curvature of the round casing, the approximation not only reduces the number of unknowns by an order of magnitude but also improves overall mesh qualities. We show that surface EM responses over the hollow casing and the prism are practically the same. Through FETD modelling of a rectangular prism as an approximation of a steel casing, we demonstrate that a steel casing can serve as a conduit through which a high concentration of electrical currents can flow downward from the surface, interact with deep localized reservoirs/fractures and produce a measurable perturbation in the surface EM fields. Concentric electric sources can further improve both the sensitivity to the deep targets and the overall magnitude of surface EM fields.