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  • 1
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Naturalists, Molecular Biologists, and the Challenges of Molecular Evolution (1999)
    Springer
    Journal of the history of biology 32 (1999), S. 321-341 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-0387
    Keywords: molecular biology ; molecular evolution ; natural history ; phylogeny ; systematics
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , History
    Notes: Abstract Biologists and historians often present natural history and molecular biology as distinct, perhaps conflicting, fields in biological research. Such accounts, although supported by abundant evidence, overlook important areas of overlap between these areas. Focusing upon examples drawn particularly from systematics and molecular evolution, I argue that naturalists and molecular biologists often share questions, methods, and forms of explanation. Acknowledging these interdisciplinary efforts provides a more balanced account of the development of biology during the post-World War II era.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004660202226
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  • 2
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    “The Real Point is Control”: The Reception of Barbara McClintock's Controlling Elements (1999)
    Springer
    Journal of the history of biology 32 (1999), S. 133-162 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-0387
    Keywords: McClintock ; Barbara ; maize ; corn ; genetics ; transposable elements ; controlling elements ; gene expression regulation ; women scientists ; development
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , History
    Notes: Abstract In the standard narrative of her life, Barbara McClintock discovered genetic transposition in the 1940s but no one believed her. She was ignored until molecular biologists of the 1970s “rediscovered” transposition and vindicated her heretical discovery. New archival documents, as well as interviews and close reading of published papers, belie this narrative. Transposition was accepted immediately by both maize and bacterial geneticists. Maize geneticists confirmed it repeatedly in the early 1950s and by the late 1950s it was considered a classic discovery. But for McClintock, movable elements were part of an elaborate system of genetic control that she hypothesized to explain development and differentiation. This theory was highly speculative and was not widely accepted, even by those who had discovered transposition independently. When Jacob and Monod presented their alternative model for gene regulation, the operon, her controller argument was discarded as incorrect. Transposition, however, was soon discovered in microorganisms and by the late 1970s was recognized as a phenomenon of biomedical importance. For McClintock, the award of the 1983 Nobel Prize to her for the discovery of movable genetic elements, long treated as a legitimation, may well have been bittersweet. This new look at McClintock's experiments and theory has implications for the intellectual history of biology, the social history of American genetics, and McClintock's role in the historiography of women in science.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004468625863
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  • 3
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    The Specimen Dealer: Entrepreneurial Natural History in America's Gilded Age (2000)
    Springer
    Journal of the history of biology 33 (2000), S. 493-534 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-0387
    Keywords: natural history ; specimen dealers ; entrepreneurial natural history ; merchant naturalists ; natural history dealers ; taxidermy ; taxidermists ; collecting ; Henry A. Ward ; Frank B. Webster ; James M. Southwick ; Fred T. Jencks ; Frank H. Lattin
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , History
    Notes: Abstract The post-Civil War American natural history craze spawned a new institution – the natural history dealer – that has failed to receive the historical attention it deserves. The individuals who created these enterprises simultaneously helped to promote and hoped to profit from the burgeoning interest in both scientific and popular specimen collecting. At a time when other employment and educational prospects in natural history were severely limited, hundreds of dealers across the nation provided encouragement, specimens, publication outlets, training opportunities, and jobs for naturalists of all motivations and levels of expertise. This paper explores the crucial role that specimen dealers played in the larger natural history community. After briefly examining the development of local taxidermy shops in the mid-nineteenth century, it then traces the history of four large natural history dealerships established in the United States during the latter half of the century: Ward's Natural History Establishment, Frank Blake Webster's Naturalists' Supply Depot, Southwick & Jencks' Natural History Store, and Frank H. Lattin & Co. By the early twentieth century, changing tastes in interior design, the growth of the Audubon movement, and the dramatic expansion of alternate training and job opportunities for naturalists led many specimen dealers either to shift their emphasis or to shut their doors.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004856813466
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  • 4
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Seeing Patterns: Models, Visual Evidence and Pictorial Communication in the Work of Barbara McClintock (1999)
    Springer
    Journal of the history of biology 32 (1999), S. 163-195 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-0387
    Keywords: cytogenetics ; diagrams ; genetics ; illustrations ; McClintock ; models ; molecular biology ; photographs ; twentieth-century ; United States
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , History
    Notes: Abstract Barbara McClintock won the Nobel Prize in 1983 for her discovery of mobile genetic elements. Her Nobel work began in 1944, and by 1950 McClintock began presenting her work on “controlling elements.” McClintock performed her studies through the use of controlled breeding experiments with known mutant stocks, and read the action of controlling elements (transposons) in visible patterns of pigment and starch distribution. She taught close colleagues to “read” the patterns in her maize kernels, “seeing” pigment and starch genes turning on and off. McClintock illustrated her talks and papers on controlling elements or transposons with photographs of the spotted and streaked maize kernels which were both her evidence and the key to her explanations. Transposon action could be read in the patterns by the initiated, but those without step by step instruction by McClintock or experience in maize often found her presentations confusing. The photographs she displayed became both McClintock's means of communication, and a barrier to successful presentation of her results. The photographs also had a second and more subtle effect. As images of patterns arrived at through growth and development of the kernel, they highlight what McClintock believed to be the developmental consequences of transposition, which in McClintock's view was her central contribution, over the mechanism of transposition, for which she was eventually recognized by others. Scientific activities are extremely visual, both at the sites of investigation and in communication through drawings, photographs, and movies. Those visual messages deserve greater scrutiny by historians of science.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004420726771
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  • 5
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Bionomics: Vernon Lyman Kellogg and the Defense of Darwinism (1999)
    Springer
    Journal of the history of biology 32 (1999), S. 465-488 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-0387
    Keywords: bionomics ; experimental biology ; natural history ; natural selection ; Darwinism ; eclipse of Darwinism
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , History
    Notes: Abstract Bionomics was a research approach invented by British biological scientists in the late nineteenth century and adopted by the American entomologist and evolutionist Vernon Lyman Kellogg in the early twentieth century. Kellogg hoped to use bionomics, which was the controlled observation and experimentation of organisms within settings that approximated their natural environments, to overcome the percieved weaknesses in the Darwinian natural selection theory. To this end, he established abionomics laboratory at Stanford University, widely published results from his bionomic investigations, and encouraged other biological researchers to adopt bionomics.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004732920632
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  • 6
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Natural History and the Encyclopédie (2000)
    Springer
    Journal of the history of biology 33 (2000), S. 1-25 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-0387
    Keywords: natural history ; Buffon ; Encyclopédie ; Diderot ; Jaucourt ; Daubenton
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , History
    Notes: Abstract The general popularity of natural history in the eighteenth century is mirrored in the frequency and importance of the more than 4,500 articles on natural history in the Encyclopédie. The main contributors to natural history were Daubenton, Diderot, Jaucourt and d'Holbach, but some of the key animating principles derive from Buffon, who wrote nothing specifically for the Encyclopédie. Still, a number of articles reflect his thinking, especially his antipathy toward Linnaeus. There was in principle a natural tie between encyclopedism, with its emphasis on connected knowledge, and the task of natural historians who concentrated on the relationships among living forms. Both the encyclopedists and natural historians aimed at a sweeping overview of knowledge, and we see that Diderot's discussions of the encyclopedia were apparently informed by his reading of natural history. Most of the articles on natural history drew from traditional sources, but there are differences in emphasis and choice of subject, depending upon the author. Diderot's 300 contributions are often practical, interesting, and depend upon accounts from other parts of the world. Jaucourt, who wrote more articles on natural history than anyone else, followed in his footsteps. Daubenton's 900 articles reflected a more narrow, professional approach. His contributions concluded for the most part with Volume 8, and Jaucourt carried on almost single-handedly after that. While staking out traditional ground (description, taxonomy) and advancing newer theoretical views linked with Buffon, natural history in the Encyclopédie avoided almost completely the sentimentalism concerning nature that developed after Rousseau.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004736103768
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  • 7
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Ethology, Natural History, the Life Sciences, and the Problem of Place (1999)
    Springer
    Journal of the history of biology 32 (1999), S. 489-508 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-0387
    Keywords: ethology ; natural history ; practice ; place ; zoos ; Frédéric ; Cuvier ; Konrad Lorenz ; Niko Tinbergen
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , History
    Notes: Abstract Investigators of animal behavior since the eighteenth century have sought to make their work integral to the enterprises of natural history and/or the life sciences. In their efforts to do so, they have frequently based their claims of authority on the advantages offered by the special places where they have conducted their research. The zoo, the laboratory, and the field have been major settings for animal behavior studies. The issue of the relative advantages of these different sites has been a persistent one in the history of animal behavior studies up to and including the work of the ethologists of the twentieth century.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004780803794
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  • 8
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Marvelling at the Marvel: The Supposed Conversion of A.D. Darbishire to Mendelism (2000)
    Springer
    Journal of the history of biology 33 (2000), S. 315-347 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-0387
    Keywords: Mendelism ; biometry ; biometric-Mendelian controversy ; genetics ; mice breeding experiments ; conversion ; theory change ; epistemology of science
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , History
    Notes: Abstract The so-called “biometric-Mendelian controversy” has received much attention from science studies scholars. This paper focuses on one scientist involved in this debate, Arthur Dukinfield Darbishire, who performed a series of hybridization experiments with mice beginning in 1901. Previous historical work on Darbishire’s experiments and his later attempt to reconcile Mendelian and biometric views describe Darbishire as eventually being “converted”' to Mendelism. I provide a new analysis of this episode in the context of Darbishire’s experimental results, his underlying epistemology, and his influence on the broader debate surrounding the rediscovery and acceptance of Mendelism. Iinvestigate various historiographical issues raised by this episode in order to reflect on the idea of “conversion” to a scientific theory. Darbishire was an influential figure who resisted strong forces compelling him to convert prematurely due to his requirements that the new theory account for particularly important anomalous facts and answer the most pressing questions in the field.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004750216919
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  • 9
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Last Judgment: The Visionary Biology of J. B. S. Haldane (2000)
    Springer
    Journal of the history of biology 33 (2000), S. 457-491 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-0387
    Keywords: J. B. S. Haldane ; biology ; politics ; genetics ; evolution ; population genetics ; physiology ; Darwinism ; experimental biology ; eugenics ; Britain ; Russia ; India ; Soviet ; Communism ; socialism ; philosophy ; vision ; literature ; popularization ; religion ; human experimentation ; bioethics ; Venus ; Mars ; science fiction ; technocracy ; futurology ; H. G. Wells ; Julian Huxley ; Olaf Stapledon ; C. S. Lewis
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , History
    Notes: Abstract This paper seeks to reinterpret the life and work of J. B. S. Haldane by focusing on an illuminating but largely ignored essay he published in1927, “The Last Judgment” – the sequel to his better known work, Daedalus (1924). This astonishing essay expresses a vision of the human future over the next 40,000,000 years, one that revises and updates Wellsian futurism with the long range implications of the “new biology” for human destiny. That vision served as a kind of lifelong credo, one that infused and informed his diverse scientific work, political activities, and popular writing, and that gave unity and coherence to his remarkable career.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004891323595
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  • 10
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Sex Cells: Gender and the Language of Bacterial Genetics (2000)
    Springer
    Journal of the history of biology 33 (2000), S. 113-139 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-0387
    Keywords: bacteria ; bacteriology ; conjugation ; gender ; genetics ; language ; sex
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , History
    Notes: Abstract Between 1946 and 1960, a new phenomenon emerged in the field of bacteriology. “Bacterial sex,” as it was called, revolutionized the study of genetics, largely by making available a whole new class of cheap, fast-growing, and easily manipulated organisms. But what was “bacterial sex?” How could single-celled organisms have “sex” or even be sexually differentiated? The technical language used in the scientific press – the public and inalienable face of 20th century science – to describe this apparently neuter organism was explicit: the cells “copulated,” had “intimate contract,” “conjugal unions,” and engaged in “ménage ã trois” relationships. And yet, to describe bacteria as sexually reproducing organisms, the definition of sex itself had to change. Despite manifold contradictions and the availability of alternative language, the notion of sexually active (even promiscuous) single-celled organisms has persisted, even into contemporary textbooks on cell biology and genetics. In this paper I examine the ways in which bacteria were brought into the genetic fold, sexualized, and given gender; I also consider the issues underlying the durability of “bacterial sex.”
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004779902860
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  • 11
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Sex, Death, and Evolution in Proto- and Metazoa, 1876–1913 (2000)
    Springer
    Journal of the history of biology 33 (2000), S. 221-246 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-0387
    Keywords: August Weismann ; ciliates ; Clifford Dobell ; cytology ; death ; Emile Maupas ; evolution ; Herbert Spencer Jennings ; Otto Bütschli ; Paramecium ; rejuvenescence ; sex
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , History
    Notes: Abstract In the period 1875–1920, a debate about the generality and applicability of evolutionary theory to all organisms was motivated by work on unicellular ciliates like Paramecium because of their peculiar nuclear dualism and life cycles. The French cytologist Emile Maupas and the German zoologist August Weismann argued in the 1880s about the evolutionary origins and functions of sex (which in the ciliates is not linked to reproduction), and death (which appeared to be the inevitable fate of lineages denied sexual conjugation), an argument rooted in the question of whether the ciliates and their processes where homologous to other cellular organisms. In the beginning of the twentieth century, this question of homology came to be less important as the ciliates were used by the British protozoologist Clifford Dobell and the American zoologist Herbert Spencer Jennings to study evolutionary processes in general rather than problems of development and cytology. For them, homology mattered less than analogy. This story illustrates two partially distinct problems in evolutionary biology: first, the question of whether all living things have common features and origins; and second, whether their history and current nature can be described by identical mechanisms. Where Maupas (contra Weismann) made the ciliates qualitatively the same as all other organisms in order to create a cohesive evolutionary theory for biology, Jennings and Dobell made them qualitatively different in order to achieve the same end.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004740325150
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  • 12
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    T.H. Huxley's Criticism of German Cell Theory: An Epigenetic and Physiological Interpretation of Cell Structure (2000)
    Springer
    Journal of the history of biology 33 (2000), S. 247-289 
    Details
    ISSN: 1573-0387
    Keywords: cell theory ; morphology ; Thomas Henry Huxley ; physiology ; Schleiden-Schwann cell theory ; Romantic biology ; scientific zoology ; cytology ; preformationism ; natural history ; epigenesis ; Kernmonopol ; histology ; Albert von Kölliker ; embryology
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , History
    Notes: Abstract In 1853, the young Thomas Henry Huxley published a long review of German cell theory in which he roundly criticized the basic tenets of the Schleiden-Schwann model of the cell. Although historians of cytology have dismissed Huxley’s criticism as based on an erroneous interpretation of cell physiology, the review is better understood as a contribution to embryology. “The Cell-theory” presents Huxley’s “epigenetic” interpretation of histological organization emerging from changes in the protoplasm to replace the “preformationist” cell theory of Schleiden and Schwann (as modified by Albert vonKölliker), which posited the nucleus as the seat of organic vitality. Huxley’s views influenced a number of British biologists, who continued to oppose German cell theory well into the twentieth century. Yet Huxley was pivotal in introducing the new German program of “scientific zoology” to Britain in the early 1850s,championing its empiricist methodology as a means to enact broad disciplinary and institutional reforms in British natural history.
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
    URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1004881730937
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