ALBERT

Notes: A study is made of the hypothesis that the utility of a combination of goods is a weighted sum of Bernoullian Utilities for the separate goods. If the utility of money, at given prices for the goods, is defined as the maximum utility of goods attainable with it, it follows from this hypothesis that the utility of money also has Bernoullian form. Investigation is made of the admissibility of the hypothesis on given expediture data, and of the index-number theory that can be founded on it. It is also considered how the utility of money under-goes transformation as prices change.

Notes: The anthocyanin pigments of Bing cherries (Prunus avium L. var. Bing) were extracted with 1% methanolic HCl, partially purified by extraction from an n-butanol-ether mixture with water, and then separated by paper chromatography with various solvents. The anthocyanins were identified by, Rf values, sugar moiety, alkaline degradation products of the aglycone, partial acid hydrolysis, and absorption spectra. The major pigments were shown to be cyanidin 3-rutinoside and cyanidin 3-glucoside. Also present were small amounts of cyanidin, peonidin, peonidin 3-gucoside, and peonidin 3-rutinoside. The fluorescence spectra of the anthocyanin pigments, when excited with an incident light at 300 mμ, can be used to differentiate the anthocyanins. The cyanidin-containing pigments have a characteristic fluorescence peak at 520 mμ, whereas the peonidin ones exhibited a peak at 610 mμ.

Notes: The formation of volatile bases and volatile acids during heat processing of albacore tuna loin sections was studied, using a closed system swept with nitrogen gas. The cell containing the tuna was heated gradually to 100°C, and the volatile acids and bases were trapped in standardized solutions. During the first 80 min of heating, at precooking temperatures, volatile acid evolved exceeded by threefold the slight amounts of volatile base (less than 0.5 mcq per 1000 g). Later during the heating cycle equal amounts of volatile acids and bases were formed.The ratio of sulfur to iron responded directly to the initial vacuum present in canned tuna. At high vacuum the ratio was 0.575. Sulfur was absent from the black deposits when the cans were sealed without evacuation, even when high levels of cystine were added. In commercially packed shrimp the sulfur to iron ratio was 0.322, which is consistent with a deposit of mixed oxides of iron, combined with ferrous sulfide. Addition of acetic acid (a volatile acid) at 10 mM per can suppressed the formation of black deposits at all closing vacuums in a model system containing added cysteine, while the addition of ammonium hydroxide (volatile base) or no addition resulted in the formation of black deposits at 26 inches Hg of closing vacuum.

Notes: Ethyl trans:2-cis:4-decadienoate was identified as a flavor component of Bartlett pear. The acid moiety was synthesized and found to be identical with that isolated from Bartlett pear. Quantities of this acid sufficient for sensory evaluations have been isolated from the seed oil of Sapium sebiferum. This latter source has been used to synthesize a series of esters whose odors are remarkably pear-like.

Notes: The aroma intensities of pear essences correlate well with the intensities of their absorptions at 263-267 mμ. This absorption is due to esters of 2,4-decadienoie acid which have been identified as character impact compounds of Bartlett pear aroma. Essences concentrated by reflux or bubble-plate columns suffered aroma loss and/or degradation. Flash vaporization techniques did not degrade aroma, and the resulting concentrates could be rediluted without apparent change.

Notes: When yolk plasma was frozen for 24 hr between −20 and −25°C, the thawed mass had a pasty consistency. After freezing and thawing plasma, only 15% of the total lipoproteins were soluble in 10% NaCl. The two lipoproteins fractions, FLPL1, and FLPL2, isolated from the salt-soluble material had chemical and physical properties similar to those for native plasma lipoproteins LPL1, and LPL3. With papin treatment, heated FLPL2, was degraded to the extent that all of the nitrogenous constituents were soluble in TCA solution. The influence of freezing LPL2 solutions at various pH values on the physical properties of the thawed solutions was examined.

Notes: Reflectance measurements of foods and food products can serve as rapid nondestructive indicators of quality. The problem of sample presentation to photoelectric reflectance units is easily solved with opaque, non-light-transmitting samples. With translucent materials, problems arise relating to internal light transmission and consequent light loss through trapping. A method of overcoming these problems is suggested, involving the application of Kubelka-Munk colorant layer analyses. Appleberry-applesauce mixtures with color differences controlled by addition of red food coloring, and artificial systems consisting of agar, cellulose, and controlled increments of yellow food dye, were evaluated subjectively and objectively. Direct measurement of deep layers of samples by photoelectric tristimulus colorimetry was not as successful in ranking the samples as was the visual panel. The measurement of thin layers of sample backed by white standard plaques increased the separation of successive samples in color space to conform closely to visual experience.

Notes: Rabbits were studied to determine the degree of variation among carcasses treated alike, and the time course of development and resolution of rigor as measured by changes in the force required to shear the cooked longissimus dorsi. A technique was developed for obtaining shears perpendicular to the muscle fibers. Carcasses with similar histories were found quite uniform except for measures related to fat content. Cooking losses were related primarily to moisture content rather than fat content. When half carcasses stored 0, 2, 4, 6, 12 or 24 hr at 5°C were compared, the cooking losses were less at 0 and 24 hrs than at the intermediate times. Shear force decreased with each increase of storage time from 2 to 12 hr. The data on pH and shear indicate that rabbit carcasses handled in this manner pass through the development and resolution of rigor within 12 hr.

Notes: Spores of two suspensions of Bacillus stearothermophilus strain M were heat-shocked in monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides. The concentration had significant effects. The dominant significant trend was for reduced counts with increased concentrations of carbohydrate. These significant effects are thought to he associated with osmotic pressure. It would appear, therefore, that there was considerable difference in the osmosensitivity of spores in these populations. Spores were activated as well as suppressed when heated in plant extracts. Pea, spinach, and corn extracts tended to suppress spore germination, and green bean extract stimulated spore germination.

Notes: The kinetics of chlorophyll degradation in spinach purée were studied over the temperature range 260—300°F, using thermal-death-time tubes heated in a constant-temperature oil bath. Pigments were separated by column chromatography, and their concentrations determined spectrophotometrically. A semilogarithmic (first-order) plot of the residual pigment vs. time was used to illustrate the thermal degradation rate (TDR). Although the major portions of the TDR curves were apparently linear, several abnormalities were observed during the initial test intervals. Regression coefficients were computed for the linear portions and used to compute the various thermo-dynamic functions characteristic of the degradation reactions. The following values respectively represent the average determinations for chlorophylls a and b. The TDR constant k, (2.3/D, D, D being decimal reduction time in sec), 1.1 × 10−2 and 0.52 × 10−2 sec−1; the temperature coefficient Q10 (log−1 18/z, z being °F affecting 10-fold change in k, or D), 1.58 and 1.26; the activation energy E, 143 and 35 Kcal mole−1; the enthalpy H, 142 and 34 Kcal mole−1; the free energy & Delta;F, 29 and 32 Kcal mole−1; and the entropy & Delta;S, 268 and 5 cal deg−1 mole−1.

Notes: A polarographic method for determining the mixed enzyme glucose oxidase and catalase is presented. By appropriate adjustment of the parameters of the reaction the activity of the catalase can be determined under simultaneous elimination of the glucose oxidase, or simultaneous determination of the total activity of the mixed enzyme and the eatalase can he carried out. This makes possible a quick orientation about the contents of hydrogen peroxide and oxygen at arbitrarily chosen time intervals. Furthermore, the method enables one to determine the change of activity when a long-term effect of a sufficient amount of oxygen takes place.

Notes: Peroxide apparently occurring in freshly prepared sausage was traced to the catalytic effect of chlorophyll in the sage after fat extraction. The extracts were exposed to ordinary laboratory illumination a day before analysis. No peroxide appeared in extracts of the pork fat alone, nor in extracts of the sage alone. But mixtures of fat extract with sage extract developed peroxide. Extracts of green leafy material from other species and purified chlorophyll likewise developed peroxide with fat extracts. This effect is ascribed to the porphyrin structure. Extracts containing fat and chlorophyll should be kept in the dark until peroxide estimation.

Notes: At least 3, and probably 4, distinct myoglobins were detected in bovine muscle by their different mobilities on starch-gel electrophoresis. The 3 major components, labeled Mb IA, Mb Ib, and Mb Ib and respectively comprising 10–15, 2–5, and 80–88% of the total myoglobin, were separated and isolated on DEAE cellulose columns employing a stepwise development technique. Various purification and separation procedures are discussed.

Notes: Experimenters involved with sensory difference tests have long used the triangle test as a basic procedure. In some circumstances, they have augmented the basic triangle test through obtaining “degree-of-difference” scores between the supposed odd sample and the pair of like samples. A companion paper gives a method of formally utilizing these scores in the analysis of these modified triangle tests when a computer is available. This paper summarizes the method and gives the results of applications of the modified triangle test to experimental data.

Notes: Shear-force values were determined with the Warner-Bratzler shear machine on cores obtained by two methods from steaks from longissimus dorsi (LD) and biceps femoris (BF) muscles cooked to 61 and 80°C. One-half-inch cores were cut either parallel with the muscle fibers or perpendicular to the cut surface of the steak without regard to orientation of the fibers. The LD and BF muscles did not react in the same manner to changes in coring method. Method of coring made a large difference in shear values in LD at 80°C. With one exception shear values of paired steaks from the same muscle with cores cut parallel were more closely related than shear values of cores from within the same steak cut differently.

Notes: Examination of 12 commercial frozen bean packs showed two forms of color deterioration. The first resulted in conversion of chlorophyll to pheophytin, and the second caused destruction of both chlorophyll and pheophytin. It is shown that both forms of degradation may be related to the process of fat peroxidation. The conversion of chlorophyll to pheophytin may occur during the anaerobic initiation stage of fat peroxidation. Destruction may occur during the aerobic propagation stage.

Notes: About 90% of the hydrogen sulfide (H2S) produced by heated chicken muscle comes from muscle protein. To identify specific H2S precursors, the identity, quantity, and H2Sproducing capability of sulfur compounds in chicken muscle were investigated. The only sulfur compounds found in muscle nonprotein were methionine, taurine, and glutathione. Of these, only glutathione produced H2S. Therefore the principal H2S precursor in chicken muscle nonprotein is sulfur, occurring as eystine and/or cysteine in the tripeptide glutathione. Since the only sulfur compounds reported in chicken muscle protein are methionine, cystine, and/or cysteine, and since methionine does not produce H2S, the sulfur in the H2S produced by muscle protein must also come from cystine and/or cysteine. Glutathione gives off H2S about 180 times as fast as does chicken muscle protein, but, because there is approximately 1 to 2 thousand times as much protein as glutathione in muscle, protein is the principal H2S precursor. Since cystine plus cysteine, sulfur in protein and in glutathione is the only H2S precursor, the rate of H2S evolution from heated chicken muscle can be approximately predicted from its cystine content.

Notes: Free and bound water were determined by a modified hydraulic-press method in raw and cooked steaks from two beef muscles, longissimus dorsi (LD) and biceps femoris (BF). One-inch steaks from each muscle were cooked to final internal temperatures of either 61, 68, 74, or 80°C. LD and BF had similar percentages of free and bound water in raw steaks and in steaks cooked to either 61 or 68°C. LD contained a higher percentage of free water at 74 and 80°C. Losses of free and bound water and weight were evident at each increase of temperature. Dimensional measurements made on steaks at different temperatures indicated that LD became shorter, wider, and thinner and BF became longer, narrower, and thinner at 61, 68, and 74°C. A large percent of the total change in either free and bound water or in dimensions of steaks occurred between 74 and 80°C. Subjective scores for juiciness and softness indicated drier and harder meat at each increase of temperature. Scores for softness to tongue and cheek were more consistently correlated with free water than any other subjective measure. Possible relationships between the changes brought about by cooking were discussed.

Notes: A method is described for the separation and quantitative determination in a variety of foods of the following 5′-nucleotides; eytidine-5′-phosphate, adenosine-5′-phosphate, uridine-5′-phosphate, inosine-5′-phosphate, and guan-osine-5′-phosphate. This procedure employs a Dowex 1 ion-exchange resin in the formate form to adsorb and concentrate the nucleotides from an aqueous extract of the food sample. The nucleotides are separated and eluted in the order previously given by means of a gradient elution system, consisting of water—formic acid-sodium formate. The method gives complete resolution of the 5′-nucleotides from each other, but not from their corresponding 2′- and 3′-forms. Therefore, following chromatographic separation, the 5′-nucleotides are determined calorimetrically in the presence of the 2′- and 3′-nncleotides by oxidation with periodate and reaction of the oxidation products with 2, 4-dinitrophenylhydrazine.

Notes: Radiosensitivity of S. typhimurium increased as a function of irradiation temperature from 32 to 130°F. The greatest effect of temperature during irradiation occurred at temperatures above 110°F. Rate of bacterial destruction was significantly greater when the ionizing energy and thermal energy were applied simultaneously than when they were applied consecutively.

Notes: The effect of freezing Clostridiuna perfringens in chicken gravy was examined. Two means were used in inoculating the gravy: 1) inoculum- of C. perfringens was allowed to grow in the gravy for 6 hr; and 2) spores produced in Ellner's medium and dried on sterile soil were added to the gravy. In both cases, the gravy was then held in the frozen state (–17.7°C) for 180 days. When growth was permitted in the gravy, a maximum of 4.29% and 3.69% of viable cells survived for 90 and 180 days, respectively. When spores dried on soil were added to the gravy, maximum survival was 37.9% at 90 days and 10.9% at 180 days.

Notes: Study of the incidence of putrefactive anaerobic spores in fresh and cured pork trimmings and in canned pork luncheon meat from several commercial meat packing plants in Iowa indicated that the level of contamination was very low. The mode of putrefactive anaerobic spores in fresh pork trimmings was less than 0.18 per gram and less than 1 per gram in cured pork trimmings and canned pork luncheon meat. The maximum spore count found in any sample tested was 51 spores per gram. Spore counts on samples from different plants were similar.

Notes: The radiosensitizing activity of a series of naphthalene derivatives against Streptococcus faecalis and Escherichia coli was examined to determine the essential molecular substituents and configurations required for effective sensitization when the compounds and organisms were irradiated with Co60 gamma rays. In general, compounds with hydroxyl or amino groups in the ortho and para positions, such as 1-amino-2-naphthol and 4-amino-1-naphthol, were particularly effective sensitizers for S. faecalis irradiated in air or in anoxia. E. coli was particularly sensitive to 4-amino-1-naphthol and 5-amino-1-naphthol when irradiated in anoxia, and less sensitive in air. Both organisms displayed marked sensitivity when irradiated with iodoacetic acid in air and in anoxia. It was determined that the bacteria and chemicals must be irradiated together for maximal radiosensitization to take place, for it was possible to almost eliminate radiosensitization by washing the cell-chemical suspension prior to irradiation.

Notes: A method for mathematical determination of contribution coefficients for the sensory scoring of food-stuffs was presented and a regression equation for the over-all product quality on the basis of canned ham specified. Using the afore-mentioned method, quality factors decisive for the overall quality of the evaluated product may be also determined.

Notes: This paper demonstrates how orthogonal polynomials are constructed and used when the treatment levels have unequal, rather than equal, replications. These polynomials are applied to hypothetical data on shear force of broccoli stems cooked for four cooking times with unequal replications. The variation for between cooking times (treatment levels) is broken down into independent regression components to determine the simplest regression curve appropriately representing the data. Also illustrated is how to calculate a regression equation in terms of orthogonal polynomials for treatment levels with unequal replications.

Notes: The first stage of this test is the attempt to identify the odd member of a coded AAB or ABB triad formed of samples of two materials, A and B, that are to be sensorily compared. The second stage is a ranking decision on the selected item with regard to the specific sensory quality or to preference. When the materials, and consequently the samples, are heterogeneous, the sameness of the duplicates cannot be guaranteed, and a sampling distribution must be postulated before valid inferences can be made. A probabilistic model of the test is constructed. Experimental data on tenderness of poultry meats are shown to fit this model.

Notes: Six anthocyanins were isolated from Cabernet Sauvignon grapes. Four major and one minor pigment were identified by paper chromatography, color reactions, and spectroscopy. The four major anthocyanins were identified as delphinidin-3-monoglucoside, petunidin-3-monoglucoside, malvidin-3-monoglncoside, and malvidin-3-monoglueoside acetylated with chlorogenic acid. Malvidin-3-monoglucoside was the most abundant pigment of the grapes. One of the minor pigments was identified as petunidin.

Notes: Two techniques of odor testing, olfactometrie vs. sniffing, were compared with propionic acid used for the test odor. The olfactometer was more rapid and reliable as a technique for odor testing. Subjects appeared more sensitive by the sniff-method, hut there were discrepancies in the data. The vapor phase above solutions of propionic acid in mineral oil was studied with propionic acid-l-C14. Evidence is presented for the existence of non ideal solutions. The significance of these data is discussed in terms of present techniques for odor testing, and their implications for future olfactory investigation.

Notes: The effect of time and temperature on the shear patterns of small cylinders from individual choice-grade beef semitendinosus muscles, heated for several hours at 1°C intervals between 50 and 90°C is described. Beef semitendinosus muscle undergoes a marked decrease in shear, approximately one-half completed in 11 min at 58°C. This change in shear is a time-temperature rate process having a very high temperature dependence. Minimum shear values were obtained in the range of 60–64°C after heating for 30–60 min. In this time-temperature range the collagen shrinkage reaction is completed quickly while the hardening associated with higher heating temperatures is avoided. Relatively large differences, attributed to undefined biological differences, were noted in the shear versus heating time patterns for semitendinosus muscle cylinders from different animals.

Notes: High inter-personal variability has been noted in the taste qualities people report for solutions of sodium benzoate. This study sought to determine whether such variability occurs with other substances and to assess the role of learning in development of the response. 24 S's replicated ratings of the intensity of sweet, salt, sour, and bitter in solutions representing 3 concentrations each of 4 familiar and 4 unfamiliar substances. Significant interpersonal variability was found for all substances. It' was lower for the familiar substances (sucrose, salt, citric acid, and caffein) than for the unfamiliar ones (sodium benzoate, monosodium glutamate, potassium chloride, ammonium chloride, and a “model” solution). Thus, learning appears to be important.

Notes: The acid-soluble organic phosphates of cow milk were obtained by tri-chloroacetic acid extraction or by dialysis and separated by ion exchange chromatography. Recovery in the eluate was 90–100% of the phosphates adsorbed by the resin. Approximately 90% of the phosphate fraction was sugar monophosphate. Small amounts of possible nucleotide monophosphates and of several more acidic phosphates were detected. N-Acetylglucosamine-l-phosphate, fructose-6-phosphate, galactose-l-phosphate, and glucose-6-phos-phate were identified and their quantity determined.

Notes: Oxidation of the sulfur amino acids by autoxidizing lipids was studied in a model system consisting of an amino acid dispersed in cold-pressed, molecularly distilled menhaden oil (20–80% w/w). Under all conditions investigated, cysteine was oxidized completely to cystine. Preliminary results suggest that at 110°C the oxidation follows first-order kinetics for at least the first 8 hr. A specific reaction rate constant of 0.25 per hour was calculated. When fatty acids were added to the system, cystine was oxidized to its thiosulfinate ester. When the fatty acid-cystine ratio was 1:2, oxidation of cystine was a maximum. No oxidation of cystine occurred unless either a fatty acid, volatile organic acid, or ethanol was added. Under the conditions investigated, methionine was not oxidized to either its sulfoxide or its sulfone.

Notes: Spores of Bacillus subtilis var. niger and B. stearothermophilus irradiated in nitrogen were killed in greater numbers in the presence of vitamin KC, 4.amino-1-naphthol, or 2-amino-1-naphthol than when irradiated without chemical. When irradiation was performed in air, the chemicals were without effect, or even protective. Spores of both organisms were particularly sensitive when irradiated in nitrogen with 4-amino-1-naphthol.Irradiation of Micrococcus radiodurans in anoxia with these naphthol derivatives gave losses in cell recovery that resulted in much lower populations than could he attributed to chemical toxicity per se. These chemicals were found to be toxic to a yeast that had been isolated from frozen orange juice when the preparations were in buffer of pH 7.0 and 4.0. When the yeast was suspended in orange juice, on the other hand, the chemicals were neither toxic nor radiosensitizers. Milk was also found to interfere with the bactericidal and radiolethal activities of these chemicals. Sulfhydryl compounds were shown to decrease radiolethal action.

Notes: A highly trained taste panel was used to establish the concentrations of fructose, glucose, and lactose equivalent in sweetness to sucrose at threshold and suprathreshold concentrations. The same panel established the sourness of lactic, tartaric, and acetic acids equivalent to that of citric acid at threshold and suprathreshold concentrations. There was no relation between pH, total acidity, and relative sourness. Results obtained from determinations made in water solutions agreed favorably with values reported in the literature. The threshold measurements are considered to be of limited value since the relative taste intensity of these compounds is not a constant but is materially affected by the absolute concentration chosen for comparison. The presence of a slight bitterness in glucose, and a slight, unidentifiable flavor in lactose, appeared to influence the threshold determinations. When the sweetness of sucrose and fructose were compared in pear nectar, fructose was less sweet than sucrose at all concentrations (1.0–20.0% sucrose). Increasing the total acidity of the pear nectar had little or no effect on the relative sweetness of these two sugars.

Notes: A review has been made of published information on the phage groups and types of staphylococci concerned in food-borne intoxication. It revealed that the majority belonged to phage group III with the types 6 and 47, either alone or, with others, being the most common. In Great Britain the yearly incidence of food-borne intoxication, from 1950 to 1962, due to strains of phage group III ranged from 64.5 to 94.7%.In food handlers incriminated in outbreaks the nose was the most common focus of infection, and the hand came next.Meat and milk were the foods most commonly incriminated. Group III phages lysed 64.3% of strains found in meat and 58.1% of those in milk. Group IV phage lysed nine times as many milk-borne as meat-borne strains, which were also quite common in milk taken direct from cows, with and without mastitis or abnormal secretion.The meager data on staphylococcal contamination of “wholesome” food, meat, milk and fish, were tabulated. A high proportion of these strains were untypable, but one-fourth to one-third of the strains were lysed by phages of Group III.The results of phage typing of staphylococci from milk, dairy workers, market milk and dairy products were summarized. Phages obtained from strains of human and animal origin have been used for typing purposes. Of the phages in the “international set” obtained from staphylococci of human origin, 42D, Group IV, lysed more strains than any other phage. A set of phages of bovine origin has not yet been internationally recognized.About two-thirds of the strains obtained from bovine mastitis but three-fourths of strains front normal milk were lysed by the typing phages employed. Group III phages lysed two-and-one-half times as many strains from normal as from mastitis secretion.Cheese, butter, butter-milk, skim milk, cream, ice cream, kefir, and dried and condensed milk have yielded staphylococci lysed mainly by phages of Groups III and IV.Dairy workers, veterinary surgeons, and farmers have yielded strains similarly lysed. Some of the people in these groups as well as the animals they tended have suffered clinical disease processes, due to strains with identical phage reactions.Phage-typable strains have been found in the noses of cattle, in dogs, pigs and chickens; their human attendants have, in some cases, carried identical strains.The proportion of staphylococci, lysed by the 52/52A/80/81 complex of phages has shown a twofold increase in hospitalized human patients and a two-and-one-half increase in animals in the last few years. Staphylococci lysed by this complex are regarded as particularly invasive in and pathogenie for man.No comparison has appeared on the frequency distribution of staphylococci among the phage groups from food-borne intoxication and food handlers. A comparison was therefore made of such reported strains from: i) food causing intoxication; ii) the nose; iii) the feces; and iv) superficial lesions of apparently healthy persons. The main features were: a) the low proportion of strains lysed by phages of Group 111 in ii, iii, and iv; b) the low proportion of untypable strains, especially in i.Systematic phage typing of staphylococci from wholesome food, food incriminated in intoxication outbreaks, hospital patients and the general population in defined geographical areas is recommended. Sites such as the nose, hands, feces, and perineum of healthy people and disease processes in hospitalized patients should be searched for staphylococci, which then should be typed by the use of a standard technique with the aid of the international set of phages from strains of human origin, augmented, where necessary, by phages from strains of animal origin.In addition to the international set of “human” phages, it would be useful to establish and use an international set of phages of animal, especially bovine, origin.Phage typing cannot be used to determine whether a given staphylococcus has produced or can be induced to produce enterotoxin; but is an excellent means of assisting in determining whether staphylococci from victims of food-borne intoxication, suspected food and suspected food handlers are related.

Notes: Age-associated changes in the chemical composition of bovine biceps femoris muscle were studied. Veal muscle had significantly lower Kjeldahl nitrogen and higher moisture contents than muscle from the three older age groups studied. Muscle from veal and from the oldest group (cows, 10 years) possessed less fat than muscle from the two intermediate groups (steers, 1–2 years, and cows, 5 years). A modified procedure for determination of hydroxyproline and its use directly on mean hydrolysates are described. Use of this technique failed to reveal any significant differences in the hydroxyproline content, and presumably the connective-tissue content, of muscle from the four groups. Warner-Bratzler shear-force values of cores from biceps femoris steaks from the three oldest groups indicated that tenderness decreased with age. A method is given for isolation of large quantities of connective tissue from biceps femoris. Chemical analyses of these connective-tissue residues are presented, and the possibility is discussed that the veal connective tissue contains large amounts of reticulin.

Notes: Mycelia of three species of morel mushrooms, Morchella crassipes, M. esculenta, and M. hortensis, were grown in submerged culture in a glucose-ammonium phosphate-corn steep liquor medium. The dried mycelia were subjected to proximate analyses and amino acid determinations. A commercial morel mushroom powder was also analyzed for the same constituents. The dry samples contained 22.8–51.0% protein and 2.18–7.55% fat, depending upon the species. Amino aeid contents were similar to those reported in the literature for other fungi.

Notes: There were no significant differences in consumer preferences between different levels of salt (from 1.5 to 3%) in hams, but there was a significant difference in preference between levels of sugar. Hams having 2% sugar were preferred significantly over hams containing no sugar, 1% sugar, and 3% sugar. There were no significant preferences in the interactions between salt and sugar levels. Preferences for neither salt nor sugar were linear. It appears that the balanced lattice design is an efficient model that may be used to guide the presentation of a large number of treatments to members of large-scale consumer panels.

Notes: Green vegetable tissue was analyzed for chlorophyll and chlorophyll derivatives before and after subjecting the tissue to differential blanching treatments representative of those used in commercial food processing, and to a brining treatment. The plant material studied was okra, snapbeans, turnip greens, and pickling cucumbers. Blanching at 180°F promoted the rapid formation of chlorophyllides and pheophorbides in certain tissue in addition to pheophytins, which were formed in all blanching studies.

Notes: The role of enzymes as agents for the restoration of fresh food flavor in processed foods is embodied in the “flavorese” concept of Hewitt et al. (1956). The experimental validity of this concept has been tested by adding a vegetable enzyme fraction to food prepared from the same or phylogenetically related vegetable. The flavor of the enzyme-treated processed food approached that of the fresh vegetable hut was not identical with it. In general, addition of enzyme tended to over-emphasize certain notes of the natural flavor. Odor changes were more readily detected than changes in taste. Both the qualitative and quantitative aspects of the flavor changes were affected by the processing of the vegetables, by the method and source of enzyme preparation, and by the conditions under which the alterations in flavor occurred. These results are discussed in light of the enzymology underlying the flavor changes.

Notes: Paper electrophoretic separation of pigments in beet extracts and in intact tissue was investigated. Pigments in an extract were separated into 9 distinct bands upon electrophoresis with 0.15M pyridine-citric acid buffer, pH 4.5. A technique is presented for the re-electrophoresis of pigments in paper section of an electrophoretogram. Using a Veronal buffer (pH 8.6) during re-electro-phoresis, heterogeneity of the pigments in major red and major yellow bands was displayed. Under specific conditions, beet pigments in a thin section of tissue could be resolved by electrophoresis.

Notes: The gross chemical composition of the Rongelapese diet indicates that it is low in fat, protein, and ash hut fairly high in carbohydrate. The variation in gross chemical composition of the diets examined may be accounted for by the broad variability of the different diets. The habitat of the Rongelapese probably does not demand a high-energy diet, which may partially justify the lower fat intake. Levels of calcium and phosphorus seem below the minimum required for maintenance of a proper calcium-phosphorus balance. The diet seems adequate in magnesium and potassium but slightly low in sodium. The nickel, cobalt, and copper contents seem high in the Rongelap rations, manganese content is low, and iron and zinc compare favorably with minimum daily requirements.Hight levels of cobalt-60 and zinc-65 are associated with each other and with rations containing local fish. The higher levels of strontium-90 and cesium-137 are found where local fruit was consumed. Coconut contributes little strontium-90, and pandanus the most. Rations with higher zinc-65 also contain higher levels of stable zinc, indicating that local sea foods may be the main source of zinc in the diet. Cesium-137, strontium-90, and cobalt-60 show no definite correlation with stable potassium, calcium, and cobalt, respectively. There is probably a net addition of minerals to Rongelap soils from imported foods.

Notes: Mullets (Mugil dussumieri), Bombay ducks (Harpodon nehereus), and groupers (Epinephalus malabaricus) were stored in crushed ice at about 2°C, and changes in pH, glycogen, lactic acid, inorganic phosphorus, creatine phosphate, ATP, acid-soluble and Ba-acetate non-precipitable ribose, and TMA were studied. Though glycogen decreased and lactic acid increased throughout, no direct relation was observed, and measurable quantities of glycogen were present at the end of the experiment. Inorganic phosphorus increased slowly, and creatine phosphate and ATP decreased, the former at a more rapid rate. The Ba-acetate non-precipitable ribose and the ratio of non-precipitable ribose to acid-soluble ribose increased continuously. TMA values rose slowly, but were quite low even at the end of the experiment.

Notes: The muscle of trawl-caught haddock, lemon sole, and plaice contained little adenosine 5′-triphosphate (ATP) and much inosine 5′-monophosphate (IMP) at death. ATP, adenosine 5′-diphosphate (ADP), and adenosine 5′-monophosphate (AMP) changed rapidly after the fish died. IMP was lost from the muscle more slowly, with liberation of inosine, which was, in turn, degraded to hypoxanthine. A little adenine was formed by an alternative pathway of ATP degradation in lemon sole. A relatively high initial level of guanine was found in plaice muscle. Traces of xanthine were detectable in spoiling muscle from the three species. Implications of the findings arc discussed in relation to quality testing and flavor changes in iced fish.

Notes: Analysis by gas-liquid chromatography of the terpene hydrocarbon fraction of the essential oil obtained by steam distillation of the fruit of Schinus molle L. revealed 11 components. Capillary columns and flame ionization detection increased resolution and permitted tentative identification of 6 additional terpene hydrocarbons not hitherto reported in the oil. The compounds found were: α-pinene, β-pinene, -α-phellandrene, β-phellandrene, myrcene, D-limonene, camphene, p-cymene, and three unidentified constituents. These components were tentatively identified by calculating relative corrected retention volumes and comparing these with values for known terpene hydrocarbons. The three stationary liquid phases used yielded data that lend credence to the tentative assignment of peak identities.

Notes: A procedure for color measurement that can be used in quality determination of dried fruits is described and evaluated for accuracy and reproducibility. Rates of darkening, based on this analytical procedure, are shown for raisins and golden raisins at 50, 70, and 90°F. The apparent activation energies for the browning reaction in these fruits are calculated.

Notes: Difference thresholds for 4 organic acids, determined at a reference concentration of 0.615 (as g of tartaric acid per 100 ml), were found to be ±0.13 g per 100 ml for tartaric, ±0.18 g per 100 ml for citric, ±0.10 g per 100 ml for fumaric, and ±0.13 g per 100 ml for adipic. The response reaction of the panel to these acids appeared to be to molar concentration rather than to pH or normality when dealing with near-threshold amounts added to a highly buffered medium.When the acids were compared directly by addition of equal molar amounts of each, to a wine (equal to 0.20 g tartaric acid per 100 ml on a molar basis), citric acid was judged most sour, fumaric and tartaric about equal, and adipic the least sour. Preference, data indicated trends in favor of citric and tartaric acids over fumaric and adipic acids.

Notes: Changes were determined in total and water-soluble calcium and magnesium content and in the pectic substances of Bartlett pears during maturation and storage. The data indicate a change in metabolic processes when the fruit is removed from the tree. In maturing fruit, about 48% of calcium and 65% of magnesium are present in soluble form. Both cations generally decreased during maturation. The Mg/Ca ratio varied with growing conditions and may be related to soil composition. The data indicate that mare, total pectin, water-soluble pectin, total calcium, and total magnesium arc correlated with firmness. The relationship of soluble calcium and magnesium to firmness is radically different in detached fruit from that in fruit on the tree. Analyses of data indicate that the “bound” calcium and magnesium are present in concentrations far greater than the total available carboxyl groups of pectin, and that protopecin content is not related to calcium- or magnesium-bound pectinic acid chains. In detaching ripening fruit, when a general breakdown begins there is a good correlation of all data with firmness.

Notes: An apparatus was developed to study the extensibility and elasticity characteristics of muscle fibers before and during the onset of rigor mortis. A variable load (weight) was applied to a muscle specimen held in a chamber under controlled conditions maintained by a thermostatically regulated cartridge heater, cooling coil, and gas inlet. A solenoid cell, energized by a cyclic timer, was used to release and apply the load in a direction longitudinal to the vertically mounted specimen. A lever attached to the specimen-loading, system transmitted the extensibility and elasticity of the specimen to the armature of a differential transformer. The output voltage, from the secondary transformer winding was directly proportional to displacement of the armature. This AC output signal was rectified and transferred to a DC recording microammeter. The time course of rigor mortis was not influenced by loading and unloading interval or size of muscle strip, and was found to be temperature-dependent, being prolonged as temperature was decreased. The white fibers of the semitendinosus muscle were found to have a considerably longer delay phase than the red fibers. The relations between the time course of rigor mortis and the ultimate properties of the muscle were discussed.

Notes: Some organic chemical compounds were detected in milk by a simple, direct chromatographic analysis of head-space vapors. After modifying the head-space gas-sampling technique by saturating the aqueous solution with sodium sulfate and increasing the amplification of the chromatographic hydrogen flame detector electrometer, some organic compounds were detected at less than 0.1 ppm concentration in milk. Samples of fresh and stored raw milk, with and without off-flavors, were analyzed successfully. Some volatile chemical compounds developed during storage at 2°C. Off-flavors were characterized by the development of certain chromatographic peaks. Chromatograms were recorded for analyses of rancid, oxidized, sunlight-oxidized, and high-acid milks. A number of chromatographic peaks were characterized as carbonyl from their reaction with hydroxylamine. Acetaldehyde, propionaldehyde, acetone, and 2-butanone were identified. An indication of the concentration of some of these peaks was obtained by analyzing solutions of 0.1 ppm acetaldebyde, propionaldehyde, and 2-hexanone added to water and to milk.

Notes: The sodium 2,6-dichlorohenzenoneindophenol method (Method A) and the diazotized 4-methoxy-2-nitroaniline method (Method B) for measuring reduced ascorbic acid in frozen peas were compared. A randomized incomplete block design with 12 replications for each of the two methods of ascorbic acid analysis was used. Very highly significant differences in ascorbic acid values were obtained between Methods A and B, with Method A always the higher.

Notes: Variations in the apparent dissociation constants of ethyl acetate for several different samples of banana pulp are noted. It is hypothesized that the variations might he due to the involvement of coupled reactions that supply or delete one or more of the reacting species at a rate faster than that at which the tissue esterases function to establish equilibrium. In the same samples, the constants for methyl acetate and iso-amyl acetate remained relatively constant.

Notes: This paper describes the separation and partial identification of 10 volatile fatty acids present in apple wine. The acidic fraction was prepared by “stripping” the wine in a rising film evaporator and separating the volatile acids from the strippings by appropriate pH adjustment, steam distillation and extraction. When the volatile acids of apple wine were examined by gas chromatography, using Ucon 50-HB-2000 and Uconnonpolar, ten distinct peaks were revealed. In addition the volatile acids were methylated with diazomethane, and the composition of the methyl ester fractions was studied by gas chromatography using diethylene glycol succinate and Carbowax-400.

Notes: Two related glycoflavones (flavonoids A and B) have been isolated from commercial wheat germ samples, where they occur to the extent of some Q.2–0.3%. Each consists of an apigenin nucleus to which is attached a highly hydroxylated glycosyl-type side chain. Evidence from ultraviolet spectrophotometric studies and from similarities with known glycoflavones suggests that the side chain is in the & position. Short hydrolysis of flavonoid A splits off a molecule of sinapic acid, leaving flavonoid B, while more prolonged mineral acid treatment of both flavonoids leads to partial formation of a third glycoflavoue. In addition to the glycoflavones, ferulic acid and vanillic acid have been found in wheat germ in the free form. The presence of a methoxy hydroquinone glycoside has also been indicated.

Notes: With increase in temperature (61, 80, and 100°C), scores for ease of fragmentation and lack of adhesion between muscle fibers trended toward greater toughness in longissimus dorsi (LD) and toward greater tenderness in biceps femoris (BF). Of the two muscles, RF was the more easily fragmented and had less adhesion between muscle fibers at 80 and 100°C. Mealiness was not present at 61°C, but tended to be greater at 100 than at 80°C. BF was considerably more mealy than LD. These changes in tenderness are considered in relation to chemical and histological changes during aging reported by others.

Notes: Replicated scorings of 4 series of wines were made by 8 tasters with two different designs of presentation. Design 1 consisted of different wines with additives (each wine with four concentrations of additives was tasted as a block) and design 2 consisted of randomization of tastings over all wines and additives. In any one design, tasters did not react the same for any given series. The differences showed up in both mean scorings and in the variability of the scorings. When the design was broadened to include more diverse categories in a randomized fashion, the scorings became biased in rather unpredictable ways and the variability of the scorings increased in general, in some cases.

Notes: The taste interaction of suprathreshold solutions of sucrose and sodium chloride was determined by highly trained subjects using single- and paired-sample presentations. With both methods, the apparent saltiness of 0.12–3.240 sodium chloride was reduced by sucrose. In general, the sweetness of 0.75, 2.25, and 6.75% sucrose was enhanced by lower, and depressed by higher, salt additions. All levels of salt depressed the sweetness of 20.25% sucrose. Response to sweetness and saltiness varied with method of presentation. There was a large amount of variation in scoring attributable to differences between judges, hut reproducibility of judgment was much greater in the paired- than in the single-stimulus method.

Notes: Antibiotic activity in aged Liederkranz cheese was found to be produced by the aerobic microorganisms inhabiting its surface. Brevibacterium linens was the principal source of the antimicrobial agent(s). Yeast of the Candida type and, when present, some other microorganisms contributed minor antimicrobial activity. The antimicrobial agent(s) of aged Liederkranz cheese had the following properties: 1) dialysable through cellulose casing, 2) absorbed on Norit A at acid pH, 3) stable in acid and alkaline solutions ranging from pH 2.0 to 12.0 at 24° C, 4) destroyed within 20 hr in alkaline solution at pH 12 at room temperature, 5) in aqueous solution stable to heating at 121° C for 10 min at acid pH(pH〈5.0) but decreased activity at pH 5.0 to 8.5, 6) in agar medium of pH 6.8–7.0 activity remained after heating at 121° C for 45 min, 7) soluble in water, methanol, ethanol, and butanol, slightly soluble in acetone and insoluble in ethyl ether, carbon tetrachloride, chloroform and ethyl acetate, 8) inhibited growth of many gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria as well as several yeasts and molds, and 9) related to antibiotic from B. linens but distinct from nisin, an antibiotic commonly associated with dairy products. In a survey of market samples of cheeses to determine whether antibiotic activity was present, only surface-ripened cheeses with a brown smear made up of bacteria were found to contain antibacterial activity. Other types of cheeses which did not develop this brown smear did not possess this activity. It may be concluded that antibiotic activity is contained in the brown bacterial surface smear that develops during ripening.

Notes: The rate of browning of 20 sugars or sugar derivatives was followed by reflectance measurements of cookies and spectrophotometric measurements of browning of dilute buffered solutions of the sugars and glycine or lysine, heated at 114°C in an autoclave. Both in cookies and in solution, the order of decreasing reactivity for the pentoses was: ribose, xylose, and arabinose. Among the hexoses, galactose was the most reactive and rhamnose the least. Because the conditions of pH and presence of amino acids were varied, no over-all order of reactivity could be established for the other hexoses. Disaccharides with reducing groups, except melibiose, showed little reactivity. Sugars without reducing groups failed to exhibit browning.

Notes: Absolute taste thresholds for salt and sweetness were determined by a combination of ascending-series and rating-scale methods: for salt a value only very slightly under previous quoted figures was obtained, for sugar a value of .002 p/p was obtained. The results also permitted a scaling of each taste description on the rating-scales in terms of both j.n.d's above threshold and solution concentrations. Previous workers have doubted whether there is one single absolute threshold for taste: the present results suggest a number of thresholds in an ascending series may be defined operationally.

Notes: Efforts were continued in an attempt to assess quantitatively the behavior of certain cellular components while the spores were being exposed to moist heat, and to correlate such behavior with the thermal death reaction.Spores of Bacillus subtilis were preheated over prolonged intervals in an attempt to induce the release of cellular dipicolinic acid (DPA) without exercising serious loss of viability, and then to evaluate the subsequent effect of DPA release upon the thermal death rate of the preheated spores. At 45°C in 2.5mM PO4 buffer at pH 7, the net DPA released amounted only to 1.6 and 2.7% at the end of 20 and 30 hr. The treated spores exhibited no loss in viability and when heated at 98.5°C in 25mM PO4 buffer at pH 7, exhibited no differenee in their thermal death rates. Prolonging the heat treatment up to 9 days did not materially change the final results. To induce faster and greater DPA release, the above experiment was repeated at 80 and 90°C. At 80°C the net DPA released was 3.6 and 4.1% at the end of 3 and 8.5 hr, without loss in viability. However, the treated spores exhibited some reduction in their thermoresistance at 98.5°C. At 90°C greater amounts of DPA were released, but were associated with substantial loss in viability, and the surviving spores exhibited marked reduction in their thermoresistance at 98.5°C. These observations suggest the existence of DPA in more than one structural form; free or loosely bound to the spore structure and easily exuded upon mild heating or even standing under refrigeration; and a second more strongly bound form which required severe heating for its release. It is this latter form which might be associated with the mechanism of thermoresistance. Along with DPA, following the same pattern but at much higher rates, ninhydrin-positive material was exuded during sublethal heating at 80, 85, and 90°C. It was suggested that such material might be of similar nature to that exuded during germination of Bacillus species as described by Powell (1957).Spore suspensions of Bacillus coagulans (thermoacidurans) of varied thermostability were heated in 25mM phosphate buffer at pH 7, at 95°C and both the rate of death and DPA release were established. Results showed a difference in kinetics between the two reactions. Death progressed at higher rates than DPA release. Higher rates of death were associated with higher rates of DPA release. Spores of same strain were heated in both water and 10mM glyeylglycine, a death accelerating agent, at 100°C, sampled at intervals and analyzed for survival, dry weight, calcium, manganese, magnesium and DPA. Results showed the death of spores and their concurrent exudation of DPA and divalent cations were both markedly accelerated in the presence of glycylglyeine. The 25-min survival and exudate levels in glycylglyeine were near equivalent to those at the 65-min levels in water.The kinetics of death and the concurrent release of DPA and calcium were further assessed in more detail in 5mM phosphate buffer at pH 7 at 96 and 99°C using spores of B. coagulans (thermoacidurans). Death again progressed at a higher rate than that of either DPA or calcium release. Based on the molar ratio of Ca/DPA released in the supernataut, the initial ratio was always greater than 1, then rapidly dropped. and eventually plateaued at a value of less than 1. Similar patterns of death and calcium and DPA release were obtained for B. cereus when heated at 86°C.All of the above observations demonstrate the association of the thermal death reaction with the exudation of ninhydrin-positive material, DPA and divalent cations into the heating menstruum. The exact relationship between such cellular components and the spore mechanism of thermoresistance remains inconclusive.

Notes: The regeneration of spinach catalase was demonstrated during storage after heat inactivation. The occurrence of regeneration was influenced by the enzyme source, pH, heating conditions, and storage conditions. The change in catalase activity after heating was considered to represent the balance between enzyme regeneration and enzyme inactivation during storage.

Notes: Nona-2, 6-dienal, non-2-enal, hex-2-enal, and three saturated aliphatic aldehydes were isolated from cucumbers. Quantitative and qualitative aspects of the flavor of nona-2,6-dienal and non-2-enal were examined.

Notes: Using the interaction of carrageenan (Seakem type 5) with cetylpyridinium chloride as the type example, investigation was made of optimum conditions for the precipitation of carrageenan and its fractions by quaternary ammonium detergents. Found to be very critical factors for quantitative precipitation were the temperature and pH of the reaction medium. Comparatively, the amount of detergent cation bound by a particular sulfated hydrocolloid is indicative of its degree of sulfation.

Notes: The concentrations of 27 trace elements were determined in four meats: beef, pork, ham, and chicken. Because the concentrations of most of these elements were expected to be very small, the extremely sensitive method of neutron activation analysis was used in this study. Qualitative analyses were performed for 8 of the elements, and the concentrations of 19 elements were determined quantitatively. The quantitatively measured concentrations varied from ∼0.1% for phosphorus to ∼10−5 ppm for cerium. Most data are estimated to be accurate to ±10%. The results demonstrate the applicability of this analytical method to determination of the inorganic constituents in foods and related substances at a constant level of accuracy throughout the concentration ranges of practical interest.

Notes: Total lipids, lipid phosphorus, and total polyenes extracted from mullet tissues with chloroform-methanol show a progressive decrease in oxidizing mullet tissue. Thiobarbituric acid values from chloroform-methanol extracts of oxidized tissues are approx 30–50% of those obtained from the unextracted tissue. Much of the TBA-reactive material becomes concentrated in the inter-facial fluff during the washing of such extracts. Chloroform alone extracts only about 10% of the TBA-reactive material.