ALBERT

Notes: Distinct benefits have been obtained from the use of orthophotography in the initial planning of Scotland's sixth new town, to be located at Stonehouse, 29 km south east of Glasgow, due to a comprehensive approach to the mapping requirements. This paper discusses some of the details of the orthophotomapping project.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméL'orthophotographie s'est révélée d'un usage fort intéressant pour les études d'implantation de la sixième ville nouvelle d'Écosse (Stonehouse, 29 km au S.E. de Glasgow). On discute quelques aspects du projet d'orthophotoplan.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDeutliche Vorteile ergaben sich aus der Anwendung der Differentialent-zerrung bei der Vorplanung für Schottlands 6. neue Stadt, die in der Nähe von Stonehouse, 29 km südöstlich von Glasgow liegen soll, infolge der umfassenden Befriedigung der Anforderungen an die Kartenherstellung. Im Artikel werden einige Details des Orthophotokarten-Projektes diskutiert.

Notes: This paper describes work carried out jointly by the British Ship Research Association and the author to assess the value of photogrammetry in acquiring quality control measurements on large steel structures in the shipbuilding industry. In particular, the feasibility of using photogrammetry to resolve one of the problems of joining half ships afloat (that is the dimensional equivalence of the mating faces) is investigated.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Résumé On décrit le travail mené conjointement par la British Ship Research Association et l'auteur pour tester la valeur des méthodes photogrammétriques dans le contrôle de précision de grandes structures d'acier (industrie navale). En particulier on a cherché dans quelles mesure on pouvait utiliser la photogrammétrie pour vérifier la conformité de piéces devant entrer en jonction.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉Zusammenfassung Im Artikel werden die gemeinsam vom Autor und der British Ship Research Association durchgeführten Untersuchungen zwecks Eignung der Photogrammetrie bei Gütekontrollen grosser Stahlkonstruktionen im Schiffbau beschrieben. Insbesondere wurde die Anwendungsmöglichkeit der Photogrammetrie bei der Lösung einiger der beim Verbinden schwimmender halber Schiffe auftretenden Probleme untersucht (um die Grössenordnung der Aufnahmeobjekte zu veranschaulichen).

Notes: The Photogrammetric Society was honoured to be addressed by the Congress Director of the International Society for Photogrammetry during March 1974. Professor Halonen's lecture covered several aspects of current photogrammetric research in Finland. The following account contains contributions by two of his colleagues, J. Hakkarainen and H. Salmenperä, on specific aspects of lens distortion and block adjustment.

Notes: The current methods for describing and comparing shapes of teeth have a number of inadequacies which lead to inaccuracy and misinterpretation. A method is described which depends on co-ordinate information. Stereoscopic microphotography of teeth crowns is used to take co-ordinates of up to 600 points on the tooth surface. Mathematical surfaces are fitted to the co-ordinates by the method of least squares and analysed by trend surface analysis. The results show that this is a useful method of describing a complex shape, although there are problems which render comparison more difficult.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉RésuméLes méthodes qu'on utilise généralement pour décrire et comparer les formes des dents sont de par leur nature imprécises et peu sûres. On décrit une méthode basée sur l'utilisation de coordonnées tridimensionnelles. A partir de micro-stéréogrammes de couronnes dentaires, on relève les coordonnées de près de 600 points de la surface de la dent. Ce semis est ensuite lissé par des surfaces mathématiques et étudié par les méthodes de l'analyse des surfaces. On conclut qu'il s'agit d'une utile méthode de description d'une forme complexe, quoique les comparaisons de dent à dent restent difficiles.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉ZusammenfassungDie gegenwärtigen Methoden zur Beschreibung und zum Vergleich von Zahnformen weisen eine Reihe von Unzulänglichkeiten auf, die zu Ungenauig-keiten und Fehlinterpretationen führen. Es wird ein auf der Koordinatenin-formation beruhendes Verfahren beschrieben. Dabei wird die Stereomikro-photographie von Zahnkronen zur Ermittlung der Koordinaten von bis zu 600 Punkten auf der Zahnoberfläche angewendet. Die mathematische Oberfläche wird mit Hilfe der Methode der kleinsten Quadrate bestmöglich den gegebenen Koordinaten angepasst und durch Oberflächentrendanalyse überprüft. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass es sich um ein brauchbares Verfahren zur Beschreibung komplexer Formen handelt, obwohl es einige Probleme gibt, die den Vergleich erschweren.

Notes: Book Reviewed in this article:TERRAIN EVALUATION. By C. W. Mitchell.ENVIRONMENTAL REMOTE SENSING: APPLICATIONS AND ACHIEVEMENTS. By E. C. Barrett and L. F. Curtis.MULTILINGUAL DICTIONARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS IN CARTOGRAPHY. Compiled by the International Cartographic Association.THE EARTH FROM SPACE. By J. Bodechtel and H. G. Gierloff-Emden.CARTOGRAPHIC DESIGN AND PRODUCTION. By J. S. Keates.

Notes: In recent years analytical aerial triangulation in the Royal Australian Survey Corps has evolved to an advanced stage. Current procedures are described and future possibilities explored.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉Résumé Ces dernières années les techniques d'aerotriangulation analytique, dans le Royal Australian Survey Corps ont beaucoup progressé. On décrit les méthodes employées et on fait quelques prospective.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉Zusammensfassung In den letzten Jahren hat die analytische Aerotriangulation beim Royal Australian Survey Corps einen bedeutenden Stand ereicht. Die gegenwärtigen Technologien werden beschrieben und künftige Möglichkeiten untersucht.

Notes: The paper describes an experiment using three different methods for the production of control for topographic mapping from super-wide angle photography. The result showed that aerial triangulation by independent models observed on a Wild A9 would show economic advantages in cartographic effort required, control requirements, and accuracy attained in contouring. The experiment also indicated that great benefit in heighting accuracy is derived from the addition of tie strips flown at right angles to the main photographic cover at a suitable interval and that heights supplied by airborne profile recorder are not sufficiently accurate to be economically advantageous where close interval contours are a requirement.

Notes: The colour photograph requirements of the photogrammetrist and the photo-interpreter are not always compatible. The author puts forward suggestions for improving the quality and reducing the cost of photography for interpretation purposes, based on the use of 70 mm film cameras. He found supporting evidence for this point of view during his visit to the United States as the result of the award of a Winston Churchill Fellowship in 1969.

Notes: Book reviews in this article:INTRODUCTION TO THE ALGEBRA OF MATRICES WITH SOME APPLICATIONS. By E. H. Thompson.BIBLIOGRAPHIE DES SCHRIFTTUMS AUF DEM GEBIET DER FORSTLICHEN LUFTBILDAUSWERTUNG 1887–1968. By G. Hildebrandt.INFRARED SYSTEM ENGINEERING. By R. D. Hudson.ELEMENTARY SURVEYING. By R. C. Brinker.REFERENCE GUIDE OUTLINE: SPECIFICATIONS FOR AERIAL SURVEYS AND MAPPING BY PHOTOGRAMMETRIC METHODS FOR HIGHWAYS.INTERNATIONAL YEARBOOK OF CARTOGRAPHY (VOL. VIII, 1968). Editor K. Frenzel.MODERN MAPS AND ATLASES. By C. B. M. LOCK.USE OF STRIPS CONNECTED TO BLOCKS FOR LARGE SCALE MAPPING. Results of Experimental Research Organized by Commission B of the O.E.E.P.E. from 1959 to 1966. By M. Cunietti.PRINCIPLES OF HOLOGRAPHY. By H. M. Smith.LA PHOTOGRAMMÉTRIE DES PLANS TOPOGRAPHIQUES ET PARCEL-LAIRES. By B. DUBUISSON.

Notes: The central concern of this paper is with the treatment of human resources in dynamic applications of capital and growth accounting. Despite many advances, national accounting conventions still give biased profiles of the economy, but the time is ripe for experimentation with measures that can correct those biases and provide a more adequate base for assessment of long-term economic performance and prospects.In the first section, the logic and feasibility of forward and backward measures of formation of human capital in the simplest case (of full-time schooling) is examined in parallel with physical capital. In a dynamic economy, which is rarely if ever in equilibrium, these approaches complement each other; they are poor substitutes. In section two a number of conceptual and measurement issues are considered with particular reference to human-capital investment periods and the treatment of appreciation, depreciation and obsolescence of human versus physical capital. Here special attention is given to the extended periods of investments in human resources, which overlap with realization of returns, and to the processes and agencies through which postschool investments are made. The last section presents a brief statement concerning asymmetries in disequilibrium biases with respect to the formation of human relative to physical capital. Drawing upon section 1 with regard to forward and backward measures and section 2 with regard to the critical importance of postschool learning, new possibilities in contributions of national accounting to a dynamic analysis of economic development are suggested.

Notes: After giving a brief discussion of the biases that exist in the conventional estimation procedures followed in the construction of national accounts, this paper argues for restructuring of national accounts so as to treat human capital formation as investment rather than consumption and suggests that a beginning should be made in respect of schooling. The argument is based on the notion that “investment” or “capital” is that which yields future income streams and also on the rather obvious point that treating as consumption large outlays that really constitute investment distorts analyses of resource allocation, growth and income distribution, and obscures intersectoral relations. It is pointed out that the proposed restructuring of national accounts is more relevant and important for developing countries, many of which are embarked on investment planning. Another major point emphasized is that the input of students’time should be properly measured and included in the estimates of capital formation by schooling.To illustrate what these proposals imply, revision has been attempted of the estimates of (a) educational outlay (or activity in the education sector), (b) gross capital formation, and (c) gross national product, pertaining to the national accounts of a major developing country, namely India, for the years 1960–61 through 1965–66. The modified estimates, though first approximations and covering only a part of the human capital formation and having a systematically downward bias, nevertheless indicate an upward revision of the estimate of activity in the education sector by about 200 to 300 percent, of gross capital formation by about 50 percent and of the gross national product by 4 to 7 percent. These magnitudes show the substantial order of distortion involved in the conventional procedures.

Notes: This paper considers the properties of the Divisia, or chain-link, index, as they relate to the argument that this is the most appropriate index for use in studying the sources of economic growth. The great advantage of the Divisia index is alleged to be its “accuracy”, that is, its capacity to combine time series of prices and quantities to give a true reflection of the height of a utility or production function over time. The paper shows that there are circumstances where the confidence in the accuracy of the Divisia index is justified, but that the conditions required are very restrictive and typically do not obtain in the contexts where the Divisia index is used. Misplaced confidence in the Divisia index has led to errors of interpretation that might otherwise have been avoided, and has given rise to a distorted view of the process of economic growth.

Notes: This essay focuses on the problems of estimating the share of America's personal wealth in the hands of affluent individuals by a technique known as the estate multiplier method. Rather than exploring these problems in an empirical vacuum, we first present some results from the most recent estimates of the distribution of U.S. personal wealth.1 The estimates—for the year 1969—are then used as a basis for gauging the sensitivity of estate multiplier estimates to variations in approach.Section I presents new empirical findings dealing with the asset holdings of top wealth-holders and the super rich, and with the shares of specific assets owned by them. Also presented is information about the sex and marital status of the super rich.Section II discusses various technical aspects of the estate multiplier as applied to federal estate tax returns. The main concern is with the weighting process, but attention is paid to the fact that estate tax returns filed in a given year are not for decedents who died in that year or any single year, and to the problems of adjusting the face value of life insurance to cash surrender value.

Notes: The only periodic data available in Canada on the asset holdings and net worth of the household sector are data collected through a series of household surveys originally initiated in 1954. Some limited data on the holdings of financial claims by the personal and unincorporated business sector are available from flow of funds work. Data are unavailable for estimation from estate tax returns.The scope of the surveys has been expanded substantially so that the most recent survey obtained a very comprehensive list of asset holdings. The experience with Canadian surveys has been similar to that of other countries; surveys appear to underestimate asset holdings although the estimates are more reliable for widely held assets than for assets with a very skewed distribution. Nevertheless, the surveys appear to trace the accumulated distribution of personal savings over time to a considerable degree and provide useful cross-sectional trend data.Canadian data show that wealth is more unequally distributed among family units than is income although wealth appears to be more equally distributed between income groups than is income. Wealth is also very unequally distributed within the same income group. Over time, there appears to have been some movement towards a more equal distribution of asset holdings between income groups.

Notes: 〈blockFixed type="quotation"〉Man may work from sun to sun, But woman's work is never done. Anon.It has become almost a cliché that measured growth in the U.S. is being overstated. The classic on the subject is by Mishan [5], who argues persuasively that the (uncounted) externalities from production in industrialized economies are overtaking the production which these economies are counting. But externalities are not the only problems in measuring economic activity and economic growth. Two other problems of equal importance, but more amenable to measurement, are the distinction between final and intermediate production, and the quantification of nonmarket productive behavior. In this paper, we concentrate on one aspect of the measurement of nonmarket behavior—the value of production at home by housewives./〉Specifically, we will present estimates of the value of home based nonmarket production by housewives. These estimates will then be used to supplement various national product aggregates in order to calculate more accurate growth rates for the U.S. economy. We find that the value of nonmarket production by married women during the 1960's has averaged approximately thirty percent of the GNP and close to 40 percent of the national income. The inclusion of the nonmarket work of housewives in GNP would reduce the measured rate of growth of real GNP per potential worker by about ten percent, the exact amount depending on how the value of nonmarket work is estimated. Our estimates indicate a reduction in the absolute rate of growth of almost 0.25 percent.

Notes: This paper introduces two special issues of the Review devoted to income distribution theory and its empirical implementation. Most of the papers that will appear in these two issues were prepared for a special session on income distribution held during the Eleventh General Conference of the International Association for Research in Income and Wealth, held at Nathanya, Israel, in August 1969. The present issue contains theoretical papers; the following one will present more empirical work. This introductory paper is intended to indicate the relationships among the papers that follow, and to suggest possible future directions for work in this area. In the latter connection, the author discusses the use of microanalytic models applied to microdata sets dealing with individuals and households.

Notes: A positive theory of income distribution based on assumptions concerning the supply of and demand for each type of productive service is presented. The demand function of the organizers of production may be derived from the maximization of profits with the income scale and the production function as restrictions. A normative theory based on the maximization of a social utility or welfare function is also considered. In the normative theory, production functions and balance equations (some representing compartmentalization of factor markets) are introduced as restrictions and again an income scale results, this time maximizing social welfare. Empirical testing is also considered. The positive theory was developed in part to take into consideration the fact that personal income distributions can reasonably well be described by log normal distributions, and that skill parameters are often normally distributed. Limited testing of the influence of wealth, intelligence, education, and sex suggest that these account for only a small part of the variance in the income distribution. This suggests the need for further research.

Notes: Some writers have emphasised the adverse environmental and social effects of economic growth, while others have claimed that countries with higher levels of social well-being also tend to enjoy higher levels of per capita output. The aim of this study is to see what statistical light can be thrown on these issues by collating and comparing seventeen different social indicators for twenty countries in two bench-mark years, 1951 and 1969.Two methods of analysing data are employed. First, all the countries are ranked for each indicator in turn for a particular year. Each country is then given a score ranging from 1 to 20 for each indicator, and the scores aggregated over the indicators to obtain an overall ranking score for every country. Secondly, the data are subjected to a principal components analysis to examine the correlation between the indicators. The first principal component is a potential candidate for use as a social index number. Changes in these social variables are then related to the rate of economic growth, and no evidence is found of a negative correlation between economic growth and social development. On the contrary, the results suggest a positive correlation between the two, although the strength of this relationship may be diminishing. It is not claimed that the results are in any sense the most preferred test of the form of the relationship between economic growth and social welfare, which must be a matter for subjective evaluation; rather they are seen as a contribution to the body of empirical evidence on this subject.

Notes: The paper analyzes annual revisions of figures for G.N.P. and 8 of its components in 40 countries. It arrives at the conclusion that first estimates are very often significantly biased downwards, especially Private Consumption, Fixed Investment, G.D.P. and G.N.P. Also successive revisions are sometimes correlated (negatively in most cases). The distribution of revisions differ as between developed and developing countries.

Notes: This paper presents the results of applying the mortality multiplier approach to estate duty statistics in order to estimate the size distribution of personal wealth in the Republic of Ireland. It commences with an examination of the limitations of the estate duty statistics, a discussion of the problems involved in collecting the data, and a short consideration of the mortality multipliers used.Estimates are presented for the size distribution of personal wealth, and the distribution of wealth between age groups. Some comparisons are given with wealth in Northern Ireland, Great Britain and the U.S.A. Estimates of the components of personal capital were not found possible.Finally, preliminary estimates are made for the distribution of wealth among married and single persons, in order to provide the basis for an analysis of wealth possessed by wealth-owning units (defined as single males, single females and married couples). By making extreme assumptions, upper and lower limits are placed on the actual pattern of the size distribution of wealth by wealth-owning units.

Notes: The basic theme of Mr. Webster's practical and uncontentious paper is that unreliability undermines credibility. In the following comment specific issues he mentions will be considered in more detail to illustrate some of the principal general points made in his paper.

Notes: The author addresses himself first to the problem that summary measures of wage income inequality, computed for Kinshasa, the main urban area in Zaire, tend to overstate the degree of total labor income inequality among sharing units of comparable size. It is argued that this is true for two main reasons: (1) earnings from female commercial activity are not recorded in the available statistics; and (2) the 1960 UN definition of household upon which the measures of inequality are based understates the size of the actual sharing unit. Data taken from the 1967 Socio-Demographic Survey of Kinshasa and the 1970 household budget study are used to test these hypotheses regarding short-run income inequality.The policy observation is made that, while modernization of the commodity distribution system may provide a disincentive for sharing and a reduction in opportunities for female employment, investment in non-service sectors may equalize the secular income distribution for a given migration cohort. Evidence of unskilled migrants moving from service to non-service sector employment in response to increased labor demand is presented. This is accomplished by supplementing sample survey data with time series on aggregate employment by sector for Kinshasa.

Notes: The reliability of the quarterly national income and product (NIP) accounts of the United States is examined from several standpoints. First, possible sources of error in the quarterly NIP accounts are explored, the most important being the lack of appropriate data, seasonal adjustment errors, sampling errors and biases, and the nature of the U.S. statistical system. Next, four ways of assessing the reliability of the accounts are considered. The most weight is given to measures of revisions in early estimates of the quarterly NIP aggregates. Results of previous studies of revisions are reviewed, and a summary of a major study of revisions for the period 1947–71 is given. The other ways of assessing reliability which are examined are the effect of errors on economic policy making, analysis of the statistical discrepancy, and expert judgment on sources and methodology.The degree of accuracy is judged to be generally sufficient for the policy decisions for which the NIP estimates are used. The early estimates of a quarter's change in GNP almost always distinguish whether the ultimate estimate will be large or small and will usually distinguish whether the ultimate estimate will be larger or smaller than the preceding quarter. While the accuracy of the estimates has generally been sufficient, the accuracy for 1965 was judged insufficient by policymakers. There is some evidence that errors have been reduced over time.

Notes: Most developing countries have compiled national accounts on a regular basis only for the last few years. It has not yet been possible for them to collect many of the statistics necessary to obtain good coverage of their economic activities by methods which would generally be accepted as reliable. Consequently the checks on reliability imposed by the framework of the national accounts are often absent, and the accounts prepared contain many estimates of doubtful quality. These doubts can usually only be removed as statistics collected by better methods become available. This is proving to be a slow process, partly because of the shortage of trained statistical staff and the competing demands of social and demographic statistics and partly because of the inherent difficulties in collecting good statistics from small businesses and traditional households. The need to define traditional households as producers as well as consumers leads to our demanding extra information from this difficult sector. In addition it is often difficult for the national accounts statistician, and even more so for the user, to find out in the time available exactly how some of the statistics with which he is presented were obtained. When this cannot be done it is impossible to assess their reliability. Thus assessing the overall reliability of national accounts in developing countries for even a limited range of uses is at present largely a matter of personal judgment. The information necessary to make more objective assessments rarely exists and hence the problems which developed countries face in using such information are not yet within the experience of most developing countries.

Notes: This paper examines the wealth position of blacks relative to whites, on the basis of data in the Survey of Economic Opportunity. The analysis indicates that at the same levels of both income and wealth blacks consistently invest more in consumer durables, especially housing, than do whites. The paper then explores possible explanations for this finding, suggesting that these investment differences are not solely due to the income and wealth position of blacks, but may be due to a smaller set of investment opportunities institutionally fostered by discriminatory forces.

Notes: This paper reports on a study designed to improve the information on income flows and income distribution in the Netherlands national accounts by building a bridge between the national accounts and income tax statistics. The methods used are described in some detail, and the significance of the results obtained is discussed. The figures show rather substantial fluctuations in the share of proprietors relative to that of wage earners. This result is not unexpected, since the share of proprietors is much more sensitive to the level of economic activity, but it does limit the usefulness of the figures for short-run economic policy determination. In the longer run, however, they do show what the development of the average incomes of the various social groups has been, and to what extent government action has contributed to that development.

Notes: Has economic growth in developing countries led to increasing inequality in the size distribution of income? Following a brief review of the advantages and deficiencies of several traditional measures of income distribution, the author examines the evidence from Puerto Rico, Argentina, and Mexico in recent years. The findings suggest that the income shares received by the lower half and by the top 5 per cent of families in Puerto Rico and Mexico have declined from 1950 to 1963, while the income shares received by the bottom nine deciles of families in Argentina have also fallen during the same period. The rising Gini ratio and standard deviation of the logs of income, both indicating greater inequality, contrast with a declining coefficient of variation for all three countries.More detailed sectoral distributions for each year reveal greater equality within agriculture than non-agriculture for Puerto Rico and Mexico, while Argentina and the United States demonstrate less equality within agriculture. The trends in the countrywide distributions are consistent with the observation of the increasing differential between sectors, the increasing weight of the more unequal sector, and the increasing level of inequality within both sectors. These trends, however, are qualified by the particular set of measures which are applied to the data. Finally, the author speculates on possible explainations for these trends in terms of changes in the crop and industry mix.

Notes: The author attributes economic growth in Hungary to three factors: structural change, increase of employment, and productivity. On the basis of this he points out that in the 1950's the first two factors were responsible for nearly half of the economic growth. From the 1960's this tendency has changed; more and more importance has been taken by the increase of productivity. As the main source of economic growth is the increase of industrial productivity, in the further part of the study the author makes an attempt to break down the development of Hungarian industry into its components and to analyse their efficiency. Starting from the present conditions of industrial development he investigates what further increase of industry the resources accumulated till now and their probable growth will allow in the future.Taking into account the role of material and human resources the author draws the following conclusions.Industrial production will increase in the future at the same rate as productivity.The increase of industrial investment will probably be lessened, which postulates the greater increase of capital productivity as well as that productivity will increase at a higher rate than the capital-labour ratio.These conclusions assume an increase in the efficiency of industrial investment and an above average increase in the high-productivity branches.A further source of increasing productivity is accumulated human capital. The higher educational level is one of the guarantees for the ever-increasing role of productivity in economic growth in the future.

Notes: This paper compares preliminary estimates (available about four months after the close of the period to which they refer) with final estimates (available three years after the close of the period) for certain national accounting aggregates and some of their major components. It concludes that preliminary estimates are consistently low for gross domestic product, exports, and public consumption, whereas imports, private consumption, and gross capital formation may be either low or high. The best early estimates, in the sense of closest to the final figures, are those for gross domestic product, imports, and exports.

Notes: Economic realities can be described in national accounting only by certain approximative means and presumptions; therefore they cannot be measured with absolute accuracy. However, because of their great importance these investigations must fulfil as far as possible the reliability required for the economic control and planning of the national economy, in accordance with predetermined concepts and methods.The reliability of national accounting is favourable in Hungary, as they are based mostly (92 percent) on the bookkeeping data of enterprises, cooperatives and institutions. The bookkeeping system is uniform in all economic organizations, in conformity with central regulations, and it takes into account the demand of computations for national accounting.Despite these favourable conditions lesser or greater contradictions can be found in the national accounts every year. The absolute measure of the differences is not significant; however, if compared to the annual increase it results in uncertainty of 15 percent. The uncertainty is reduced by the fact that the sign of differences is the same every year.The author classifies the causes of uncertainty in national accounts into four groups: 1. problems of the time shift of the connected economic processes and of their accounting; 2. effect of the enterprise interests; 3. inadequacy of methodological regulation; 4. inaccuracy of data surveys and processing. The study deals with the special factors of inaccuracy occurring in constant price accounting. Inaccuracy of the most important aggregates, for instance that of the volume index of the national income, comes to 0.5-0.7 percent which results, in the case of a yearly 5 percent “real” increase in the index, in reliability limits of 10 to 15 percent.In the concluding part of the study the author points out that in Hungary the unexplored contradictions are not shown as “statistical discrepancy” but they are included in the various aggregates on the basis of considerations discussed in the study.

Notes: This article presents the results of a study of distributions of wage rates in approximately 250 trades, comprising 225,000 workers, in Copenhagen in the second quarter of 1951. It examines particularly the effects of heterogeneity within trades and aggregation upon the resulting distributions, both for individual trades and for all trades combined. Separate distributions are studied for men and women, for skilled and unskilled, and for three types of institutional wage payment systems.

Notes: This paper, the first of a two-part series, surveys the literature in the field of income and wage distributions. The author divides work in this area into two schools: the theoretic-statistical school, and the socio-logical school. Within each of these groups he reviews leading contributions. He then examines the work of Tinbergen, which, the author feels, fits into neither of the older classifications; rather, Tinbergen approaches the distribution of income as a problem in analyzing the supply of and demand for various attributes, such as intelligence, physical strength, ability to get along with people, etc. In conclusion, the author points out areas which he feels need further work. The paper is based upon the author's book in Danish, Indkomst-og lonfordelinger.

Notes: Capital gains are an important source of personal income in the United States but they are not included in the national accounts or the official estimate of personal income and saving. Individuals report their realized gains for tax purposes but the economic theorist would include both realized and accrued gains in income. National income theorists continue to debate whether capital gains should be included in income but, because of the many conceptual and statistical problems involved in estimating capital gains, no satisfactory estimates have been developed. Consequently, the debate has stayed mainly at the theoretical level. This paper deals with the methodology of estimating accrued capital gains. A simple analytical model is developed to estimate capital gains from data on market value and net acquisitions of an asset but the model can be adapted to incorporate asset prices directly. It is shown that the methods used for estimating accrued gains in the past are special cases of the model proposed in the paper. The model is then used for estimating gains accruing to individuals in the United States on their holdings of corporate stock, real estate and livestock during 1948–1964.During this period accrued gains have amounted to roughly five times the realized gains reported for tax purposes; corporate stock and real estate are the most important sources of capital gains and corporate stock accounts for almost two-thirds of all accrued gains. The paper goes on to examine the implications of these estimates for the existing series on personal income and saving in the United States. The inclusion of accrued gains would increase the variance in the official estimates but personal saving is affected more than personal income. The paper concludes with an evaluation of these results and some suggestions for further research.

Notes: In both political discussions and scientific literature the income distribution has come to occupy a central position for the consideration of social welfare and economic equalization. It has been assumed that an individual's income reflects his consumption opportunities and therefore his standard of living or economic welfare. The thesis of this paper is, however, that there are reasons for being quite pessimistic about drawing meaningful conclusions from income distribution data. As illustrated by the use of Swedish data, the distribution of income gives an extremely incomplete picture of the distribution of consumption for a wide variety of definitional and statistical reasons. The distribution of consumption, furthermore, cannot be transformed into a corresponding distribution of welfare, since there is no well defined concept of welfare. The treatment of public consumption in empirical analysis of the distribution of welfare also raises problems. The paper closes with the presentation of the conceptual basis for an alternative to the traditional method of analyzing the distribution of income.

Notes: There are serious questions about the social costs and benefits of extending the role of prices in the national accounts. The costs may be greater, and the benefits smaller, than is commonly supposed. Many important uses of price (and other) data do not require that these data be organized within an elaborate—or even any—framework of national accounts. Also, the basic price (and other) data are still too often very scanty and rough. Would it not be better to devote available resources to improving these data rather than trying to force them, prematurely, into an elaborated set of national accounts?

Notes: “The whole question of making inter-spatial comparisons between countries is a most complicated and hazardous business” (Mr. Campion); international comparisons of a particular value aggregate between countries present a difficult problem connected with the conversion of national value aggregates into a comparable magnitude. This paper presents an alternative approach in that an internationally comparable value aggregate for each country is prepared by the international average prices of commodities which are determined simultaneously with the partial exchange rates of national currencies to a standard currency. The calculated partial exchange rates are so defined as to reflect the purchasing power of national currencies in respect of the group of commodities selected. Consequently, the resulting value aggregate for international comparison has a quantity dimension, eliminating the effect due to the different purchasing power of national currencies in which original prices are quoted. The other methods of international comparison so far being used by other research workers, such as C. Clerk and M. Gilbert and his associates, are examined in the light of the properties of the present method and the crucial differences are delineated. Using the method proposed, an international comparison is made of the aggregate value of agricultural products for 11 selected countries in the world, with sub-divisions into two regions.

Notes: The objective of this paper is to provide a conceptual basis for separating social product and social factor input accounts into price and quantity components. Despite the essential similarity between concepts of real product and real factor input, the measurement of social factor outlay in constant prices is not well established in social accounting practice.Production accounts are constructed for the United States in current and constant prices, including social product and social factor outlay, for the period 1929–1967. The resulting estimates are applied to the measurement of total factor productivity and the study of the responsiveness of product and factor intensities to price changes.

Notes: Macroeconomic productivity in Israel is here conceived as comparison of output with factor inputs during given periods, and as creation of sustained capacity out of given resource increments. However, present social accounting practice prevents full implementation of this second approach.In contrast to nine European countries, only one third of the rapid growth rate of Israel in 1950–1965 is “explained” by the “Residual” because of relatively large infrastructural investments and of growth problems. One of these problems is inflationary pressures which caused productivity increases to restrain the rise of product prices by 30 per cent only below the rise of input prices. The real productivity gain accrued, in Israel and in the U.S.A. (1919–1957), nearly fully to labor because unit returns to capital remained constant whereas those to labor sharply rose.Some refinements of the statistical models are attempted by incorporating the utilization rates of labor and capital (for industry); and by measuring product from the uses, instead of from the income, side, adding the differences to the capital shares. This makes distributive factor shares nearly constant as postulated by Cobb-Douglas.In order to get a basis for appraising efficiency in creating long-term capacity, that part of product increments is measured which represents rises of p.c. final domestic uses and changes in the export surplus. This “net margin” formed in Israel one fifth and in the U.S.A. (1889–1913) much less of incremental product. Though in Israel one quarter, and in the U.S.A. over half (in 1919–1953) of the net margin went into sonsumption, large proportions of it presumably actually created human capacity. A comparison of product growth rates with population growth, and of the breakdown of the resulting p.c. product growth rates into full final uses, for Israel and two groups, of developed and less developed countries in the fifties shows, inter-alia, that in the L.D.C. only small proportions of their presumable capacity creation was financed by net capital inflows, thus imposing upon them domestic saving rates which presumably are too high to be sustainable.

Notes: Defining investment as outlays that increase income- and output-producing capacity, the author presents estimates of human investment in the United States 1929–69, comprising rearing costs, education, training, health, safety and mobility outlays. He develops an economic accounting framework to accommodate human investments and research and development in national and sector capital accounts, with appropriate adjustments to the current accounts to provide consistency. The associated balance sheets and wealth statements are also developed.The wealth and corresponding income estimates are used to compute rates of return on human, non-human, and total capital. In the business economy the average net rate of return on total capital was 10.6 percent in 1969, compared with 10.0 percent in 1929. The average and marginal rates of return on human capital were generally somewhat higher than on non-human capital throughout the period.

Notes: Radical changes, up and down, have taken place in the estimates of growth in total factor productivity in the U.S. made by different economists, or by the same economists at different times. If such estimates provide “some sort of measure of our ignorance,” as Abramovitz once put it, we seemed to be a lot less ignorant in 1927 (when Cobb and Douglas published their famous paper), or in 1967 (when Jorgenson and Griliches published theirs), than we were in the years between (when Schmookler, Abramovitz, Kendrick, and Denison completed their studies), or than we are today (when we have, or will soon have, revised estimates by Denison and by Kendrick, and new estimates by Christensen and Jorgenson). Viewed in this perspective, many questions may be raised about the significance of the current estimates that something like a third or more of the rate of increase in U.S. national output is “due” to increase in productivity, as well as about the concepts, data, and methods that underlie the estimates. A list of particular subjects worth considering for research is given and each is briefly discussed.

Notes: This paper examines the available evidence relative to the distribution of income in a developing country, Colombia, over a relatively long span of years, roughly from the mid-30s to the mid-60s, especially in the context of the argument that recent growth has been characterized by worsening distribution and stable or declining incomes for lower income groups. The basic conclusions are that income distribution within agriculture worsened throughout the period, while non-agricultural income probably worsened from the mid-30s to the early 50s, improved from then to the mid-60s, and then leveled off. During the period of improvement in non-agricultural income, it appears that the overall distribution also improved somewhat. Over the period as a whole, the main gainers have been the second and third deciles from the top; the top decile appears to have lost. The bottom two deciles also appear to have lost.

Notes: This paper examines two different approaches to the estimation of the size distribution of wealth. The first section describes new estimates for the distribution in Britain in 1968 using the estate method and discusses the sensitivity of the results to the main assumptions. The second section presents preliminary estimates using the investment data, a method which has not been widely used. In the final section the results obtained for the upper tail of the distribution from the two methods are compared.

Notes: There are both major philosophical and major econometric questions to be faced in the measurement of inequality of income. The scaling of different sizes and types of families can never be unique and may be a function of real income. However, even subjective guesses may be better than doing nothing. Demographic changes, such as the increase in pensioners with the increase in life expectancy, affects the distribution of income, and it seems desirable to estimate the separate effect of their influence. The extent to which the inequality of incomes is reduced by all taxes and benefits combined has remained remarkably constant in the U.K. over the period for which estimates have been made (1937–1967). The progressive effect of all taxes and benefits combined is largely the result of benefits (in cash and kind). The stability in the degree of inequality of original income is much more difficult to explain. A number of factors which reduce or increase inequality can be identified for further analysis.

Notes: In the introduction of the paper, Economic Accounts are defined as a set of statistics useful in economic analysis and region is defined as a province. The paper is divided into four sections the first of which contains a brief historical outline of the development of demands for provincial economic accounts and the Dominion Bureau of Statistics' response to these needs. Apart from a description of the more well-known conceptual difficulties, some of the fundamental problems of the usefulness and applicability of a national accounting framework to the regional scene are discussed. The resource problems of constructing analytically meaningful and reliable as well as spatially reconcilable regional accounts are described.Section II outlines the impact of present policies and problems on the development of regional statistics. It describes the reasons for the Bureau's desire to strengthen its data base in regional terms and the decision to await possible construction of regional accounts till the regional data base has been fleshed out in a more systematic manner. With the development of the latter, the ability, advantages and disadvantages of the provinces undertaking their own estimates must also be more fully explored. The third part of the paper deals with an over-view of work in Canada on provincial accounts carried out by organizations other than the Dominion Bureau of Statistics. Section IV gives a very summary description of the data gaps which exist in presently available regional statistics.

Notes: PRIM I is a numerical model which has been extensively used as a basis for an income policy in Norway in recent years. It is a static, cost-push, input-output model. Wage rates, agricultural prices, productivities and world market prices are treated as exogenous variables, and the model derives short-term changes in income shares and in the national price level from changes in these exogenous variables. A key feature of the model is a distinction between “exposed industries” which are subject to strong foreign price competition, and “sheltered industries” which are relatively free of such competition. These two groups of industries are found to react with very different pricing policies in response to increases in costs; furthermore, possibly for technological reasons, the export industries have greater scope than the majority of the sheltered industries for compensating cost increases through productivity gains. These two facts are shown to have important implications for a price and income policy. It is demonstrated, i.a. that the goal of a stable national price level is, in general, inconsistent with the maintenance of stable income shares when exchange rates are kept constant.

Notes: In a recent issue of the Review of Income and Wealth[1], Uma Datta Roy Choudhury presented some results on consumption and saving functions in India. While the study is interesting, some of the results are quite peculiar. Thus she reports a marginal propensity to save of 0.88 for the urban sector, an abnormally high figure. Other available evidence points to a much lower figure. Again she reports a negative marginal propensity to consume out of permanent income for urban households. This makes no economic sense. Furthermore her attempts at explaining urban consumption behaviour are not very successful. In this paper, we shall show that these suspicious results are the consequences of the measurement and definitions of the variables, and the specification of the functions. Once these shortcomings are removed, we obtain more satisfactory and more plausible results.In the first section we present a critique of Mrs. Roy Choudhury's article. In the second section we present our results. The last section summarizes the conclusions.

Notes: This paper compares the income distribution of Canada and the United States as well as other characteristics of the population such as the labour force and income trends in the two countries in the post-war years. In both countries family income distributions show similar degrees of inequality and similar movements in real incomes through time. However, an examination of Canadian data suggests that differences do exist in underlying patterns. For example, there are greater earnings differentials between skilled and unskilled workers in Canada than in the United States while on the other hand in the United States greater differences exist between family incomes with heads in different age groups than is the case in Canada.

Notes: The income distribution statistics which are based on income for a single year show a far larger inequality of income than actually exists. The distribution of annual incomes differs from the distribution of lifetime income partly because of short run fluctuations because of such things as sickness, unemployment, and unusual gains, and partly because different individuals are at different points in their life cycles. The vertical distribution of income can be considered to be the distribution of lifetime income. The horizontal distribution can be considered to be the differences arising in the current period due to short run fluctuations and differences in the age-income cycle of persons. The observed annual income distribution statistics are a mixture of the vertical and horizontal distributions. The estimation of the lifetime income distribution implies discounting, and also raises questions as to the treatment of transfers, subsidies, public investments and taxes. However, statistics based upon a mixture of the horizontal and vertical distributions of income are of no interest.

Notes: In both developed and developing countries, the national accounting statistician who wishes to establish a composite set of values in current and base year prices is faced with a series of difficulties arising from a lack of indicators which are adequate for relating quantities and values within the national accounting framework. Consequently, ad hoc solutions are extensively adopted and use is made of price data which in the majority of cases have been collected for completely different purposes. The inter-relationship of prices, quantities and values fundamental to the compatibility of the national accounts can therefore be, and often is, a rather tenuous one. In the case of many developing countries, the situation is accentuated by a very volatile behaviour of prices, a greater impact of price change and a much greater scarcity of useable statistical material. In addition, since structural change is frequently implicit in a development process, the pattern of values and of prices is often variable and irregular—this in turn creates problems in determining relative importance, in assigning weights and in imputing for prices of items not directly entering into the calculation of the indicators.This paper analyses the series which are most commonly available, it points out the major deficiencies or limitations and it attempts to formulate a few guide-lines for determining priorities called for in an integrated network of price statistics.

Notes: The paper discusses the role of prices in the framework of the new System of National Accounts (SNA) in terms of three major uses: (1) deflation, (2) price indicators, and (3) price analysis. Following a brief review of the price and quantity measures required by the new SNA with its emphasis on deflation of commodity flows and input-output accounts, in addition to the more conventional deflation of final demand categories, the paper discusses some of the conceptual, methodological and data problems involved in implementing the various uses of prices in the new SNA.Implementing the use of prices as deflators depends, in part, on the concept of output selected (national versus domestic; gross versus net), and which of six concepts of valuation, ranging from purchasers'value to true factor cost, is used. Some of the difficulties in deflating nonmarket flows (e.g., interplant transfers) and industry value added, based on the double deflation method, are discussed.In concept price deflators, which have shifting weights, cannot be used as price indicators, which should have fixed weights. In practice, this is often disregarded and the deflators are used as price indicators. The paper support the SNA recommendation for the development of price indexes with fixed weights to be used as price indicators, in addition to the implicit price deflators. Research in the United States indicates that differences in weights can result in different price measures for various subperiods, components of demand and sector output.Periodic revisions in weights to provide more current fixed weights for price and quantity indexes in each subperiod may minimize the problem but it introduces a new problem—lack of comparability with the constant price tables in the SNA which have fixed weights for the entire period.The new SNA provides a comprehensive and integrated framework for price analysis including the analysis of the structure of aggregate price changes, the industrial origin of final demand prices, and the impact of price change in one sector of the economy on the rest of the economy. Some major gaps which need to be overcome in order to implement the use of the new SNA for price analysis include the development of industry capital stock estimates, separate estimates of proprietors’income, reconciliation of value added and distribution share estimates, and the development of a wide variety of information to supplement the conventional input-output tables in the SNA.Implementing the various objectives of price measures within the framework of the accounts will require a number of improvements in existing price measures and expanding the scope of coverage. “List” prices should be superseded by “transactions” prices and better techniques and data need to be developed to provide for quality adjustment of prices. Coverage will need to be expanded to include services, freight rates, trade margins, government expenditures, and also fill in gaps for many manufactured products. Finally, where possible, use of unit values as price indexes or deflators, e.g., imports and exports, should be replaced by direct price measures.

Notes: The paper develops a descriptive history of the changing level and sources of income of the male population of Wisconsin from 1947 to 1959, as a preliminary step in building a model of income determination. The history is based on data from a one percent sample of the taxpaying population of Wisconsin from 1947 to 1959. Analysis of income sources received by male birth cohorts is followed by summary data on individual income variation.Changes in earnings of birth cohorts appear to be determined by changes in labor force participation, general productivity increases, and acquisition of skills. Education, as reflected in occupational status, appears to affect the initial level and lifetime profile of earnings; however, education has played a changing role in the dynamics of earnings.Movements in non-earned income appear to be determined by rising real yields on capital, accumulation of wealth, and possibly by asset conversion and selective migration and mortality favoring wealth holders. Cohort asset accumulation for the period seems to have been determined by the growth rate of earnings, life cycle contingencies, and the pattern of asset prices and yields during the period.Analysis of individuals’ incomes over the period reveals great heterogeneity of experience of individuals within birth cohorts and within occupations. This suggests that study of micro units is necessary to obtain behavioral information obscured in aggregate cohort data.

Notes: For horizontal layering and plane horizontal impulsive wavefronts it is theoretically possible to get rid of multiple reflections by a feedback procedure which can easily be derived using raypath philosophy. To reduce the increase of noise inherent in the method the precise theoretical formulae are altered in such a manner that a practical application becomes possible. For this purpose the autocorrelation will be used.Application of the new process to a CRP section where the shot geophone distances in the field had not been long enough to attenuate multiple reflections effectively gave favourable results.

Notes: Two in situ measurements of stress wave velocity in a granodiorite massif were made. Firstly, the velocities close to the source were investigated (for elimination of the influence of cracks), and secondly, the velocities in different horizontal directions over a large area were studied from the viewpoint of their dependence on the crack system of the medium. A correlation between the mutual orientation of the cracks and the maximum or minimum values of the stress wave velocities was obtained.

Notes: The technique of linear digital filtering as developed for the direct interpretation of Schlumberger and Wenner soundings (Ghosh 1971) has been applied here for the derivation of the resistivity transform function from the field dipole measurements as the first step in directly interpreting dipole data. Filter coefficients for this transformation have been worked out for the radial-polar, perpendicular and parallel (30°) arrays of dipole sounding. The procedure combines speed with accuracy.

Notes: Dipole soundings are more sensitive to noise caused by lateral and superficial inhomogeneities than Schlumberger soundings. However, the former are preferable for deep explorations in view of the relatively short cables required. The simple solution of carrying out the field work by means of dipole spreads, and to transform the dipole resistivity diagrams into Schlumberger ones by means of proper formulae would be valid only for smooth and regular curves; but often, owing to the presence of lateral noises, the dipole data show a considerable scatter. For such cases a “continuous dipole sounding” method is proposed for which all successive dipoles are contiguous, so that all parts of the profiles are covered and interpolation is not necessary. Obviously the moving dipoles have lengths proportional to their distances, so that they appear equal in the usual bilogarithmic scale. It follows that only polar-dipole arrays may be used. The transition from a dipole to the corresponding Schlumberger apparent resistivity diagram requires an integration constant which is not unequivocally determined. Therefore, the solution is not unique, but all possible derived Schlumberger diagrams have a common part. Similarly, they have some common interpretative results, which may be referred to the original dipole diagram obtained in the field.A special measurement technique is required since the dipole-dipole voltages to be determined are noticeably smaller than the Schlumberger ones. This is true also because dipole soundings are used for great depths and for long distances between the two dipoles.

Notes: Basic requirements for a seismic reflection system using a moderate-power controlled source are discussed. General considerations and computer modelling show promise for geophysical prospecting, especially at low penetration and very high noise level. For many applications, ranging from mineral and water prospecting, to civil and military engineering, and even archeology, a relatively cheap, small and portable device of this kind might be more convenient than conventional explosive sources or sophisticated controlled sources of the vibroseis type. The use of a simple, low frequency periodic signal facilitates rapid data processing procedures and suggests that the mechanical generator will be very simple and cheap.

Notes: A method is described to transform a dipole sounding curve, obtained with any one of the common dipole arrays over a horizontally layered earth, to the form of a Schlumberger sounding curve. Starting from the general expression which relates the dipole apparent resistivity to the Schlumberger apparent resistivity and its derivative with respect to the spacing, it is possible with some approximations to derive an easy numerical computation procedure in order to perform the transformation. The applicability of the method is discussed briefly.

Notes: Approximate deconvolution by means of Wiener filters has become standard practice in seismic data-processing. It is well-known that addition of a certain percentage of noise energy to the autocorrelation of the signal wavelet leads to a filter that does not increase, or even reduces, the noise level on the seismogram. This noise addition will, in general, cause a minimum phase signal to become mixed phase. A technique is presented for the calculation of the optimum-lag shaping filter for a contaminated signal wavelet. The advantages of this method over the more conventional approach are that it needs less arithmetic operations and that it automatically gives the filter with the optimum combination of shaping performance and noise reduction.

Notes: A set of parabolae is defined to approximate the observed gravity profile for specifying the lateral density variation in a two dimensional causative body. This variation separates the “biased” as well as “unbiased” residual anomaly structure. The method may be directly incorporated into existing numerical and graphical techniques of interpretation for subsequent delineation of structural configuration. The simple relations derived by inspection of the observed gravity profile permit universal application of the technique and in particular for the determination of the size and shape of sub-shelf structures. The suitability of the method in various problems of two dimensional interpretation has been indicated through an illustration of the Godavari Basin (India).

Notes: Decomposition of IP discharge curve into a sum of exponentials yields more information than present practice does. Such a work was performed, as a beginning, by hand, plotting the ordinates on semi logarithimic paper. It gave, according to the cases, two or three exponentials, each with an amplitude Ai and the time constant τi.Three examples of ground prospection are given, the third of which shows an anomaly, unnoticed with present technique but obvious on a profile curve with A1/A2 in ordinates.A computer processing technique is described which yields directly the time constants τi by seeking a differential equation which the IP voltage satisfies; the order of the equation is set arbitrarily. On a practical prospection record with only two exponentials, the assumption that the differential equation does not depend on charge duration (everything else being equal) has been checked (the shape of the curves would depend on boundary conditions). The assumption roughly holds for charge durations from 5 seconds to 40 seconds. We hope that a larger number of exponentials will yield better results.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉SommaireLa décomposition de la courbe de décharge en une somme d'exponentielles permet d'en tirer plus d'information que la pratique actuelle. Un tel travail a été fait, pour commencer, à la main en portant les ordonnées sur papier logarithmique; il a fourni, suivant les cas, deux ou trois exponentielles avec, pour chacune d'elles, le coefficient Ai et la constante de temps τi.On donne trois exemples de prospection sur le terrain, dont le dernier comporte une anomalie, inaperçue avec la technique actuelle, mais bien mise en évidence en traçant la courbe de A1/A2 le long du profil.On donne ensuite une technique de calcul sur ordinateur des τi, en recherchant l'équation différentielle à laquelle obéit la tension ΔVPP enregistrée, l'ordre de cette équation étant fixé arbitrairement. On a cherchéà vérifier sur un enregistrement de terrain, avec. deux exponentielles seulement, l'hypothèse suivant laquelle l'équation différentielle ne dépend pas de la durée de charge (toutes choses égales d'ailleurs). L'hypothèse se trouve grossièrement vérifiée pour les durées de charge allant de 5 secondes à 40 secondes, et nous espérons qu'un plus grand nombre d'exponentielles donnera de meilleurs résultats.

Notes: The conventional seismic technique is subject to a recording time following each transmission of energy, in which it is forbidden to release any new pulse. The recording time depends on the deepest reflection of interest, and is often 10 seconds or more in actual practice. To each transmission corresponds one record, i.e. a fixed amount of data which cannot be increased in a given time.Pulse coding allows us to go beyond this limit, by transmitting several times during the normal recording time. The procedure gives as many records as there are pulses, but they overlap, each event being repeated every time there is a pulse. It is possible to process the composite record back to its usual appearance with all events in their proper place if the time breaks are accurately known and make up a code such that the unavoidable noise generated by the process be kept, on the final section, below the ambient noise. The processing is quite similar to that of records made from vibrating sources, though faster in practice.The additional information can be devoted to a saving of time and money as the same profile may be recorded in a shorter time; or to an improvement of quality of the section due to a higher order of coverage, a multiplication of the ray paths and a closer sampling of the reflectors. It is also possible to record information in several planes at the same time, and to work out a 3-dimensional restitution, without loss of production.The process applies to all kinds of sources provided they can be triggered according to the code with sufficient accuracy. Depending on the source and conditions of implementation, the method benefits from other advantages such as better resolution, increased flexibility, and better coupling.Two different names have been given to the process, Sosie and Seiscode, which apply to slightly different parameters for the sequence of pulses. Sosie is more useful at sea, while the normal scope for Seiscode is onshore. Both names are trademarks for SNPA.

Notes: Two-layer type curves of apparent frequency effect for the Wenner configuration are presented. The formulation is based on the normal definition of frequency effect in terms of resistivities measured at different frequencies plus the definition of apparent resistivity over two horizontal layers as a function of first and second layer resistivities. The use of these type curves in the interpretation of multilayer apparent frequency-effect curves is described and some field examples are given.

Notes: In this paper properties of the discrete zero-phase time function are derived and compared with related properties of the discrete minimum-phase time function.The two-sided minimum-length signal is introduced and it is derived that, for any given amplitude spectrum, the two-sided minimum-length signal and the signal with zero-phase spectrum are identical signals. A comparison is made between the one-sided minimum-length signal (minimum-phase signal) and the two-sided minimum-length signal (zero-phase signal).A computational scheme is discussed which determines the zero-phase correspondent of a given signal.A method is proposed to compute zero-phase least-square inverse filters. The efficiency of minimum-phase and zero-phase least-square inverse filters is shown on signals with different phase properties.A criterion is derived which determines whether a symmetric time function has the zero-phase property. The close relationship with the minimum-phase criterion is discussed.Finally the relationship between signal length and resolving power is illustrated on numerical examples.

Notes: Empirical equalities derived from time domain induced polarization scale modelling with the gradient array over simple geometries, and from the potential field functions for equivalent simple charge configurations are similar. The function for the dyke like body is analogous to the magnetic case allowing both total and vertical magnetic field interpretation techniques to be applied to gradient array chargeability anomalies.

Notes: A checking method of digital multiple elimination and of deconvolution processing using computers and based on optical autocorrelation is first presented. Comparison between autocorrelograms before and after a single or several processing steps allows to estimate, on one hand, the strength of the deconvolution obtained, known by the study of the central parts which is in fact the signal autocorrelation, on the other hand, the multiple elimination given by the study of side parts of the autocorrelogram.Further, an optical deconvolution procedure, is presented. For this, it is supposed that the signal is known and optically reproduced in the same way as the one of a trace. This is achieved by sphero-cylindrical optics allowing trace to trace processing. Deconvolution is carried out in the spectral domain by inserting a filter in the Fourier plane of the optical unit, the transmission law of which expresses the Fourier transform of the antisignal. This filter device introduces a holographic technique called Fourier holography, in such a way phases as well as amplitudes are preserved.Several results are presented from a synthetic section and also from field sections.

Notes: The separation of regional from local gravity anomalies by means of the application of two-dimensional linear filters is analyzed. It was found that optimization of the filter in the least squares sense leads to filters that produce strong localized concentrations of the error, which may erroneously be interpreted as anomalies. For this reason the maximum absolute value of the error is a more important criterion for the quality of the filter than the root mean square error. This maximum absolute error is minimized by the minimax filter. Intermediate filters are derived which give a transition zone which comes appreciably closer to that of the optimal filter at only a small price in terms of increase of the maximum absolute error.

Notes: Cable feathering is defined as the angle between a line connecting the cable end points and the line of the seismic profile. It is shown that an average reflection point map is more accurate than a shot point location map for geologic interpretation. Geologic resolution is degraded by feathering and this degradation is a function of the number of channels recorded. Feathering in areas of dipping reflectors produces non-standard normal move-out because the depth points are not common, and the perpendicular distances to the reflecting surfaces vary among traces in the c.d.p. gather. An example of a profile shot across a large river is discussed.

Notes: First, we review briefly the principle of the method, the computation of theoretical curves for a layered earth, and the recording technique in use in our surveys.The case history deals with an area covered with overthrust nappes (marls of Miocene age), which had slid on a Triassic sole, obscuring the geological picture.The magnetotelluric survey followed those of gravity and aeromagnetics and preceded the seismic one from North to South, it displayed a shallow and gently dipping basin, a major fault system, and a deep basin with a thick resistive layer, often underlying a conducting one.The seismics, and later the drilling of a well East of the profile, confirmed these features; in particular, the thick resistive layer was revealed to be Jurassic; only its thickness had been slightly overestimated. This fact lead the people in charge of the operations to ask for a reinterpretation synthesis of magnetotellurics, seismics and gravity, the results of which are also presented.

Notes: When the fixed-source electromagnetic method is applied the quantities measured are influenced by the resistivity of the whole environment. This occurs mostly in the cases of measurements in areas with prevailing high resistivities, and if a weathered layer with considerably lower resistivity than that of the original rock has been formed near the surface. For this reason it is important to be acquainted with the properties of the two-layer ground with an overlying conductive layer.In the present paper attention will be drawn to theoretical calculations connected with the field of the homogeneous ground and that of the two-layer ground.

Notes: Results of rock magnetic investigations and magnetic field measurements in the Logar Valley, Afghanistan, are presented. Rock magnetic investigations on samples of the ore and the country rock have demonstrated that the chromite is strongly magnetic, whereas the country rock has proved predominantly non-magnetic, partly weakly magnetic. The isanomalic maps show strong anomalies of some 1000 γ above the known chromite occurrences. Anomalies of the country rock amounting to some 100 γ have been observed only above basic dikes. The measured anomalies have been interpreted quantitatively by 2- and 3-dimensional models. This interpretation is demonstrated and the question of chromite detection discussed. Model graphs are used to investigate in detail whether the extension in depth of ore bodies can be estimated.

Notes: This work deals with a theoretical investigation of the magnetotelluric sounding where the horizontal layers of a geological section do not have a sharp but a transitional boundary. The ratio of the horizontal electric to the horizontal magnetic components gives a measure of “Cagniard impedance”, which together with the phase relationship between them, enables one to determine the subsurface geometry and the true resistivities.Utilising the principle of similitude a set of Resistivity Master Curves and the corresponding phase relationships are presented here for the case where the lower half-space is infinitely resistive. The relation between the relative transition thickness and the cut-off period is illustrated.

Notes: A point source or a dipole source of electric current, placed on a randomly layered semi-infinite medium, produces an inhomogeneous random potential field on the surface. The variance of the random potential, normalized with reference to the normal field (that is, a field due to a point source or a dipole source on a homogeneous medium), falls off inversely as the distance from the source. The conductivity of the layers is assumed to vary randomly about a mean value (unity) such that the variations can be represented by a zero mean homogeneous random function. Further the variations are assumed to be small compared to the mean so that the first order perturbation is adequate. The analysis shows that the dipole field is more sensitive than the single pole field to the conductivity variations.

Notes: Book reviewed in this article:F. Link, Eclipse Phenomena in AstronomyMarine Geophysical Researches–an International Journal for the Study of the Earth Beneath the SeaM. K. Polshkov (editor): Exploration Geophysics, Vol. 48

Notes: The relationship between porosity and formation factor in unconsolidated homogeneous and anisotropic sediments without granule-liquid interaction is investigated by introducing a parametric model that simulates a variable cellular structure.In this hypothesis, porosity φ and F-factor are calculated for some fixed values of the parameter, solving numerically two integral expressions.From these calculations the form of the function φ=f(F), corresponding to the proposed model, has been deduced. This relation is in very good agreement with Archie's empirical law for unconsolidated sands which requires that F=φ--1,3. Therefore it seems that the validity of Archie's law is theoretically confirmed for the unconsolidated sediments considered in this paper.

Notes: In a previous publication (Koefoed 1968) a function called the “raised kernel function” has been introduced as an intermediate function in the interpretation of resistivity sounding data, and methods have been described both for the determination of the raised kernel function from the apparent resistivity function, and for the determination of the layer distribution from the raised kernel function.In the present paper a procedure is described by which the second step in this interpretation method–i.e. the determination of the layer distribution from the raised kernel function–is considerably accelerated. This gain in interpretation speed is attained by the use of a standard graph for a function which defines the reduction of the raised kernel function to a lower boundary plane.

Notes: Despite the use of CDP and digital methods the Zechstein base is still the deepest horizon in the vast salt-dome basin of Central Europe for which continuous information can be obtained by reflection seismics. Thus in North-western Germany, in addition to reflection seismics, the refraction seismic method has been increasingly used for a reliable survey of deeper horizons.The first part of the paper deals with the investigation of the various possibilities and limitations of refraction seismics with regard to the investigation of Pre-Zechstein layers in a basin with a tectonically very complicated overburden. The recording techniques specially developed for continuous profiling of the desired refraction seismic arrivals and the data processing methods are described.The main problems of interpretation are then discussed, in particular with regard to depth representation. The advantages and disadvantages of the various methods, e.g. Gardner's, Hales' and Wyrobek's, and of the wave-front method, are compared. On account of the tectonically complicated overburden Thornburgh's wave-front method proved to be the most useful.In a further section the various possibilities for velocity determinations are mentioned, e.g. Wyrobek's determination of the overburden velocity, for which the wave-front method automatically furnishes the necessary corrections to a deep datum.Finally, some examples are given for the results obtained, including some incidental information on the deeper crust.

Notes: Two alternative types of diagrams are shown which allow the direct conversion of readings taken by certain types of proton magnetometers into magnetic field strength. The accuracy of these diagrams is discussed and found to satisfy the requirements.

Notes: In order to locate relatively optimum sites for drilling exploratory holes for fresh water, an electrical resistivity survey was conducted along the new Mahukona-Kawaihae Road on the west flank of the Kohala Mountain. Two resistivity soundings made at the same stations, using the Schlumberger electrode configuration, determined an a spacing of 275 feet for horizontal profiling with the Wenner array.The correlation coefficient of the elevation to profile data was 0.41. A procedure for removing elevation effect from observed apparent resistivity was developed. Based on the reduced resistivity profile, four relatively optimum sites for additional exploration, such as by drilling, are specified. There is no specific interpretation of the data that can definitely indicate the occurrence of large underground reservoirs of fresh water anywhere along the profile. This is because the interpretation of horizontal profiling data is essentially relative and not absolute.

Notes: Elimination of shooly larvae increased grass yields daring the September feeding period. Increases were usually less than 10% bat in one case, where growth was abnormally slow, die increase was over 30% and in another, where the larval population was atypically dense, it was almost 60%. The effects of damage were not cumulative daring the feeding period; and at the end of this period insecticidreated plots sometimes gave lower yields than untreated plots. Fertilizer increases had a much greater effect on yield than did control of larvae and, where N was applied at 75 kg/ha (67 lb/ac) in spring, the additional effect of larval control was usually negligible. It is suggested that shoot-fly damage may be more serious in other localities.When turf containing shoot-fly larvae was ploughed, Oscinella spp. re-established themselves more successfully than others in seedling ryegrass bat did not damage the new sward appreciably.