ALBERT

Description: New biostratigraphic zonations, core descriptions, sandstone petrography, facies analysis, and seismic information are compared with published detrital and bedrock geo- and thermochronology to build a Cenozoic paleogeographic reconstruction of the Andean retroarc region of Colombia, encompassing the ancestral Central Cordillera, Middle Magdalena Valley, Eastern Cordillera, and Llanos basin. We identify uplifted sediment source areas, provenance domains, depositional environments, and thickness changes to propose a refined paleogeographic evolution of eastern Colombia. We conclude that Cenozoic evolution of the northernmost Andes includes (1) a period of contractional deformation focused in the Central Cordillera and Middle Magdalena Valley that may have started by the Late Cretaceous, although thermochronological data points to maximum shortening and exhumation during the late Paleocene; (2) a period of slower deformation rates or even tectonic quiescence during the middle Eocene; and (3) a renewed phase of contractional deformation from the late Eocene to the Pleistocene/Holocene expressed in provenance, bedrock thermochronology, and increased subsidence rates in the Llanos foreland. The sedimentary response in the Llanos foreland basin is controlled by source area proximity, exhumation and shortening rates, relationships between accommodation and sediment supply, as well as potential paleoclimate forcing. This new reconstruction changes the picture of Cenozoic basin evolution offered by previous reconstructions, providing an updated chronology of deformation, which is tied to a more precise understanding of basin evolution.

Description: In Colombia, palynology has been widely used as a biostratigraphic tool in oil exploration over the last two decades and, as a result of these efforts, an understanding of the chronostratigraphic range of thousands of palynomorph species is now available. Furthermore, because of their relative resistance to physical and chemical degradation, palynomorphs can often survive several tectonic-erosive cycles, allowing them to be used as unique tracers of long-term sedimentological changes. In this work, we use the palynological record from wells and outcrops in the Llanos foothills and the Llanos basin of Colombia to establish the intensity of Cenozoic reworking and its relationship to the tectonic evolution of the Colombian Andes. Using this approach, we were able to discern several tectonic episodes associated with the uplift of the Eastern Cordillera. We documented three periods of either faster erosion in the hinterland or more widespread areas being eroded in the catchment areas (late Paleocene–early Eocene, early to mid Miocene and Pliocene) and two periods of tectonic quiescence (mid-Eocene and mid–late Miocene). These periods correlate well with the deposition of different elements of the petroleum systems in the Llanos basin of Colombia (seals and reservoirs).

Description: Physical and geochemical characteristics of produced petroleum from the central region of the Llanos basin, Colombia, were analyzed to understand the petroleum charge history and alteration processes. Petroleum properties in the study area are the result of the complex charge history of the oil fields. The amount of gas in fluids is controlled by the migration distance from the late or, possibly, the current generation kitchen located beneath the foothill deformation zone. Gas influx decreases toward the foreland domain, as indicated by lower values of the gas–oil ratio and saturation pressure. The API gravity of the oil samples is mainly controlled by the intensity of biodegradation. Marine-sourced oils accumulated in shallow reservoirs of the foreland prior to the onset of Andean deformation. Those fluids were subjected to different levels of biodegradation, depending on the time they remained at reservoir temperatures lower than 80°C (176°F) and before being buried to their maximum depth. Geochemical data suggest multiple charge pulses from different source kitchens of two main types of source rocks, as well as different biodegradation levels. The proposed petroleum charge and alteration model allows prediction of the temperature history of a reservoir and the most likely physical properties of the petroleum at a specific location. The model can be used as an exploration tool to assess the risk of charge prior to drilling in unexplored areas of the basin.

Description: The Llanos basin, located in the eastern region of Colombia, northwestern South America, is an Andean foreland basin between the Eastern Cordillera (Colombian Andes) and the Guyana Precambrian shield. The basin is the latest stage of a complex multiphase evolution that began in the Paleozoic at the latest. A Paleozoic–Pleistocene basin evolution model is presented based on a regional, two-dimensional, industry seismic data set and well-log observations for the southern part of the basin. Five tectono-stratigraphic sequences were identified: (1) lower Paleozoic depocenters preserved along inverted Neoproterozoic basement blocks; (2) an upper Paleozoic marine sequence folded and faulted in the late Paleozoic during assembly of Pangea; (3) Upper Cretaceous–Paleocene shallow marine sediments deposited in a distal foreland basin related to uplift of the Western and Central Cordilleras of Colombia, the sequence pinches out against a Paleozoic hinge or foreland bulge area; (4) an Eocene–Miocene foreland basin related to uplift of the Eastern Cordillera resulting in a wedge geometry; and (5) Pliocene–Pleistocene fluvial deltaic rocks overfilling the foreland basin. Reactivation of Paleozoic structures occurs at the top of this sequence with the development of anticlinal structures. Present-day stress fields indicate that subduction of the Nazca plate beneath South America may be responsible for reactivation of Paleozoic structures. Inversion of north–south structures with the Neoproterozoic basement is interpreted to be responsible for the Paleozoic and Pleistocene deformation, whereas Cenozoic deformation is related to the two main stages of foreland development of the basin. To the east, where the Paleoproterozoic basement is present, no deformation is interpreted.

Description: In the present study, stratigraphic data from cores and outcrop sections are integrated with data on thermal maturity, organic facies, and thermochronometric information to reconstruct the tectonic and associated petroleum system evolution of the eastern foothills thrust belt along the Colombian Eastern Cordillera, one of the most prolific hydrocarbon provinces in northern South America. Sedimentary and tectonic burial of the foreland autochthon caused maturation of the Coniacian to Santonian shallow marine Chipaque Formation, resulting in successive and diachronous episodes of hydrocarbon migration and trapping. One-dimensional and two-dimensional maturation modeling indicates that oil generation from the Chipaque Formation began at the Paleocene-Eocene boundary (55 Ma) in the southern parts of what is now the Eastern Cordillera and progressed to the north. By the late Oligocene, tectonic inversion of the Eastern Cordillera exhumed most of these kitchens, terminating the oil generation from the Chipaque Formation. Kitchens migrated northward and eastward during the Oligocene and early Miocene. Because of the absence or subsequent erosion of traps, it is likely that the southernmost source rocks expelled most of their oil without any appreciable accumulation. Our modeling indicates that there were two important kitchens during the Cenozoic. The larger of the two was located in the present-day Eastern Cordillera, and it was most productive in the late Eocene–early Oligocene. The second kitchen, which generated oil throughout the Neogene, was located in the foredeep of the Llanos basin, adjacent to the mountain front. Considerable amounts of oil from this recent pulse have accumulated in both deep and shallow reservoirs along the eastern foothills. The modeled reservoir charge history also explains the substantial biodegradation of oils in reservoirs that are today much too deep to support the process. Biodegradation must have occurred when the reservoirs were shallower and at cooler temperatures, and they remained active until the reservoirs were buried to depths where temperatures were high enough to prevent further bacterial activity.

Description: In this paper, we demonstrate a workflow for constructing kinematic restorations in complex foothill areas devoid of growth strata and other indicators for the chronology of deformation. Our initial reconstructions utilize thermochronometric data, a well-documented structural geometry, and a first-order conversion of exhumation rates into tectonic rates. We then utilize models obtained from the new in-house–developed software FetKin to build a first version of the thermokinematic restoration. The FetKin approach is geared primarily toward testing and further calibration and refinement of the kinematic restoration, based on the extent to which the model result agrees with thermochronometric data from the study area in the form of both discrete ages and inverse-modeled time–temperature envelopes. This analysis also provides rates of shortening and time–temperature paths throughout the model space that can be used to make first-order predictions of when different source rocks entered the oil window. These capabilities are demonstrated in a pilot case study along a cross section in the Colombian Eastern Cordillera. The improved confidence in the reconstruction that this technique provides allows us to show increasing shortening rates in this part of the Andes during the Neogene reaching up to 5 mm/yr (0.20 in./yr) by the Pliocene, and constrain the timing of generation from the most important oil kitchens for the Eastern Cordillera-Llanos basin petroleum system. This approach, therefore, proves to be a useful method for creating high-resolution and high-fidelity kinematic restorations.

Description: FetKin is a C++ program for forward modeling thermochronological ages on a two-dimensional geological cross section. Modeled ages for various thermochronometers are computed from time–temperature histories that result from coupling the modeled kinematics of deformation obtained from commercial software for balanced reconstructions (2DMove) and a finite element computation of temperatures. Additional capabilities include the ability to accommodate (1) a smooth change of topological relief; (2) the influence of variation in rock physical properties; and (3) multikinetic modeling of fission-track ages and length distributions, as well as apatite and zircon (U-Th)/He and muscovite $$^{40}\mathrm{Ar}/^{39}\mathrm{Ar}$$ systems. A joint first-order analysis of the impact of erosion parameters and material properties improves age predictions and allows for a more complete analysis of observed cooling ages based on their modeled thermal histories. Thus, this paper presents a new software tool that has been developed as a basic support for the methodological approach used to build the kinematic restorations shown in this volume, which are the basic input for petroleum systems modeling and prediction in the Colombian Eastern Cordillera and Llanos foothills basin.

Description: Analysis of fracture systems in subsurface structures is limited by the amount and uncertainty of available data. With the aim of analyzing the distribution of fracture systems, we studied surface structures as analogs for oil fields in the fractured reservoirs of the Llanos foothills of Colombia. Here, we document the presence of four widespread fracture systems whose distribution is related to fold geometry and folding mechanism. At surface, in the Tierranegra and Silbadero anticlines, the principal fracture systems are symmetrical with respect to northeast- and northwest-trending fold axes, showing higher fracture intensities in the forelimbs of the structures. In the Guavio anticline, higher fracture intensities are located in the backlimb, with principal east–west and northwest–southeast directions. In contrast, we document northeast–southwest fractures near the hinge zones in the adjacent synclines. This distribution suggests that in the Guavio anticline, fractures respond to movement of the hanging-wall above a ramp, consistent with a fault-bend-fold model. Whereas, in the Tierranegra and Silbadero anticlines, fractures respond to limb rotation and hinge migration consistent with detachment fold models. Comparing these with subsurface structures, we identified that El Morro anticline has fracture distributions like those in the Tierranegra and Silbadero anticlines, but have higher fracture intensities. In the case of the Cusiana Structure, fracture intensities are higher in the crest but not in the limbs, and intensities differ from the ones found in the Guavio anticline, showing that these structures are not appropriate analogs. The results show how fracture distribution depends on structural position and fold evolution, and is controlled in part by folding mechanism. This suggests that models based on Holocene fold geometry cannot accurately predict the observed fracture distributions and should not be used to construct discrete fracture network models. Instead, the patterns we describe can be used as a guide for similar structures. Our work illustrates the possibility of having different fracture patterns and fracture abundances in adjacent folds in the same fold-thrust belt.

Description: Electromagnetic (EM) methods were used to characterize (1) the general near-surface geology and stratigraphy and (2) the initial electrical conductivity distribution at a $${\mathrm{CO}}_{2}$$ enhanced oil recovery (EOR) site to assess and monitor possible near-surface environmental impacts of a carbon sequestration experiment. The field study was conducted at Cranfield Field, an EOR site where $${\mathrm{CO}}_{2}$$ is being injected into a depleted oil and gas reservoir in the Cretaceous lower Tuscaloosa Formation in western Mississippi. The study focused on Tertiary and younger strata between the ground surface and maximum depths of approximately 200 m (656 ft) that host groundwater more than 3000 m (9843 ft) above the oil and gas reservoir and injection zone. It included an airborne geophysical survey collecting frequency-domain EM data, time-domain surface EM measurements, borehole logging with EM induction, natural gamma spectra, and water-level measurements. Different approaches of temperature drift corrections for the borehole EM data were compared; good results of consistent and accurate conductivity values were produced by combining both directions of a two-way (uphole and downhole) measurement. The airborne EM provided data over a large area with sufficient detail to give an overview for the subsequent surface and borehole surveys, the surface time-domain data gave insight into greater depths, and the borehole induction data provided the necessary details. These three EM methods complement each other in areal coverage, lateral and vertical resolution, and exploration depth. Together, they can provide a comprehensive near-surface characterization of the study area that is necessary to establish initial-state conditions that support future monitoring of potential $${\mathrm{CO}}_{2}$$ migration to the near-surface environment.