ALBERT

Description: Seismic waves sensitive to the outermost part of the Earth's liquid core seem to be affected by a stably stratified layer at the core–mantle boundary. Such a layer could have an observable signature in both long-term and short-term variations of the magnetic field of the Earth, which are used to probe the flow at the top of the core. Indeed, with the recent SWARM mission, it seems reasonable to be able to identify waves propagating in the core with period of several months, which may play an important role in the large-scale dynamics. In this paper, we characterize the influence of a stratified layer at the top of the core on deep quasi-geostrophic (Rossby) waves. We compute numerically the quasi-geostrophic eigenmodes of a rapidly rotating spherical shell, with a stably stratified layer near the outer boundary. Two simple models of stratification are taken into account, which are scaled with commonly adopted values of the Brunt–Väisälä frequency in the Earth's core. In the absence of magnetic field, we find that both azimuthal wavelength and frequency of the eigenmodes control their penetration into the stratified layer: the higher the phase speed, the higher the permeability of the stratified layer to the wave motion. We also show that the theory developed by Takehiro & Lister for thermal convection extends to the whole family of Rossby waves in the core. Adding a magnetic field, the penetrative behaviour of the quasi-geostrophic modes (the so-called fast branch) is insensitive to the imposed magnetic field and only weakly sensitive to the precise shape of the stratification. Based on these results, the large-scale and high-frequency modes (1–2 month periods) may be detectable in the geomagnetic data measured at the Earth's surface, especially in the equatorial area where the modes can be trapped.

Description: We describe a multihomogeneity theory for source-parameter estimation of potential fields. Similar to what happens for random source models, where the monofractal scaling-law has been generalized into a multifractal law, we propose to generalize the homogeneity law into a multihomogeneity law. This allows a theoretically correct approach to study real-world potential fields, which are inhomogeneous and so do not show scale invariance, except in the asymptotic regions (very near to or very far from their sources). Since the scaling properties of inhomogeneous fields change with the scale of observation, we show that they may be better studied at a set of scales than at a single scale and that a multihomogeneous model is needed to explain its complex scaling behaviour. In order to perform this task, we first introduce fractional-degree homogeneous fields, to show that: (i) homogeneous potential fields may have fractional or integer degree; (ii) the source-distributions for a fractional-degree are not confined in a bounded region, similarly to some integer-degree models, such as the infinite line mass and (iii) differently from the integer-degree case, the fractional-degree source distributions are no longer uniform density functions. Using this enlarged set of homogeneous fields, real-world anomaly fields are studied at different scales, by a simple search, at any local window W , for the best homogeneous field of either integer or fractional-degree, this yielding a multiscale set of local homogeneity-degrees and depth estimations which we call multihomogeneous model. It is so defined a new technique of source parameter estimation (Multi-HOmogeneity Depth Estimation, MHODE), permitting retrieval of the source parameters of complex sources. We test the method with inhomogeneous fields of finite sources, such as faults or cylinders, and show its effectiveness also in a real-case example. These applications show the usefulness of the new concepts, multihomogeneity and fractional homogeneity-degree, to obtain valid estimates of the source parameters in a consistent theoretical framework, so overcoming the limitations imposed by global-homogeneity to widespread methods, such as Euler deconvolution.

Description: In this paper, two separate but related goals are tackled. The first one is to demonstrate that in some saturated rock textures the non-linear behaviour of induced polarization (IP) and the violation of Ohm's law not only are real phenomena, but they can also be satisfactorily predicted by a suitable physical-mathematical model, which is our second goal. This model is based on Fick's second law. As the model links the specific dependence of resistivity and chargeability of a laboratory sample to the injected current and this in turn to its pore size distribution, it is able to predict pore size distribution from laboratory measurements, in good agreement with mercury injection capillary pressure test results. This fact opens up the possibility for hydrogeophysical applications on a macro scale. Mathematical modelling shows that the chargeability acquired in the field under normal conditions, that is at low current, will always be very small and approximately proportional to the applied current. A suitable field test site for demonstrating the possible reliance of both resistivity and chargeability on current was selected and a specific measuring strategy was established. Two data sets were acquired using different injected current strengths, while keeping the charging time constant. Observed variations of resistivity and chargeability are in agreement with those predicted by the mathematical model. These field test data should however be considered preliminary. If confirmed by further evidence, these facts may lead to changing the procedure of acquiring field measurements in future, and perhaps may encourage the design and building of a new specific geo-resistivity meter. This paper also shows that the well-known Marshall and Madden's equations based on Fick's law cannot be solved without specific boundary conditions.

Description: We present a new 3-D traveltime tomography code (TOMO3D) for the modelling of active-source seismic data that uses the arrival times of both refracted and reflected seismic phases to derive the velocity distribution and the geometry of reflecting boundaries in the subsurface. This code is based on its popular 2-D version TOMO2D from which it inherited the methods to solve the forward and inverse problems. The traveltime calculations are done using a hybrid ray-tracing technique combining the graph and bending methods. The LSQR algorithm is used to perform the iterative regularized inversion to improve the initial velocity and depth models. In order to cope with an increased computational demand due to the incorporation of the third dimension, the forward problem solver, which takes most of the run time (~90 per cent in the test presented here), has been parallelized with a combination of multi-processing and message passing interface standards. This parallelization distributes the ray-tracing and traveltime calculations among available computational resources. The code's performance is illustrated with a realistic synthetic example, including a checkerboard anomaly and two reflectors, which simulates the geometry of a subduction zone. The code is designed to invert for a single reflector at a time. A data-driven layer-stripping strategy is proposed for cases involving multiple reflectors, and it is tested for the successive inversion of the two reflectors. Layers are bound by consecutive reflectors, and an initial velocity model for each inversion step incorporates the results from previous steps. This strategy poses simpler inversion problems at each step, allowing the recovery of strong velocity discontinuities that would otherwise be smoothened.

Description: Iterative substitution of the coupled Marchenko equations is a novel methodology to retrieve the Green's functions from a source or receiver array at an acquisition surface to an arbitrary location in an acoustic medium. The methodology requires as input the single-sided reflection response at the acquisition surface and an initial focusing function, being the time-reversed direct wavefield from the acquisition surface to a specified location in the subsurface. We express the iterative scheme that is applied by this methodology explicitly as the successive actions of various linear operators, acting on an initial focusing function. These operators involve multidimensional crosscorrelations with the reflection data and truncations in time. We offer physical interpretations of the multidimensional crosscorrelations by subtracting traveltimes along common ray paths at the stationary points of the underlying integrals. This provides a clear understanding of how individual events are retrieved by the scheme. Our interpretation also exposes some of the scheme's limitations in terms of what can be retrieved in case of a finite recording aperture. Green's function retrieval is only successful if the relevant stationary points are sampled. As a consequence, internal multiples can only be retrieved at a subsurface location with a particular ray parameter if this location is illuminated by the direct wavefield with this specific ray parameter. Several assumptions are required to solve the Marchenko equations. We show that these assumptions are not always satisfied in arbitrary heterogeneous media, which can result in incomplete Green's function retrieval and the emergence of artefacts. Despite these limitations, accurate Green's functions can often be retrieved by the iterative scheme, which is highly relevant for seismic imaging and inversion of internal multiple reflections.

Description: Employing dynamic reciprocity can be an effective tool to simplify the calculation of elastic wavefields for borehole problems and to check the results. We analytically obtain the reciprocity relations for the elastodynamic fields generated by multipole sources in a fluid–solid configuration: if the multipole sources are located in the fluid, the particle displacement due to a dipole source is reciprocal to the particle acceleration due to a single force; the fluid pressure due to a dipole source is reciprocal to the particle acceleration due to a monopole source; the particle displacement due to a quadrupole source is reciprocal to the spatial partial derivative of the particle acceleration due to a single force; the fluid pressure due to a quadrupole source is reciprocal to the spatial partial derivative of the particle acceleration due to a monopole source. These relations are tested by numerical experiments for different borehole problems, including acoustic logging, single-well imaging and vertical seismic profiling. A reciprocity test can be used as a quick check of a finite-difference algorithm and the implementation of the sources, although it cannot detect errors due to improper discretization of the interfaces.

Description: The area of the 9.1-km-deep Continental Deep Drillhole (KTB) in Germany is used as a case study for a geothermal reservoir situated in folded and faulted metamorphic crystalline crust. The presented approach is based on the analysis of 3-D seismic reflection data combined with borehole data and hydrothermal numerical modelling. The KTB location exemplarily contains all elements that make seismic prospecting in crystalline environment often more difficult than in sedimentary units, basically complicated tectonics and fracturing and low-coherent strata. In a first step major rock units including two known nearly parallel fault zones are identified down to a depth of 12 km. These units form the basis of a gridded 3-D numerical model for investigating temperature and fluid flow. Conductive and advective heat transport takes place mainly in a metamorphic block composed of gneisses and metabasites that show considerable differences in thermal conductivity and heat production. Therefore, in a second step, the structure of this unit is investigated by seismic waveform modelling. The third step of interpretation consists of applying wavenumber filtering and log-Gabor-filtering for locating fractures. Since fracture networks are the major fluid pathways in the crystalline, we associate the fracture density distribution with distributions of relative porosity and permeability that can be calibrated by logging data and forward modelling of the temperature field. The resulting permeability distribution shows values between 10 –16 and 10 –19 m 2 and does not correlate with particular rock units. Once thermohydraulic rock properties are attributed to the numerical model, the differential equations for heat and fluid transport in porous media are solved numerically based on a finite difference approach. The hydraulic potential caused by topography and a heat flux of 54 mW m –2 were applied as boundary conditions at the top and bottom of the model. Fluid flow is generally slow and mainly occurring within the two fault zones. Thus, our model confirms the previous finding that diffusive heat transport is the dominant process at the KTB site. Fitting the observed temperature–depth profile requires a correction for palaeoclimate of about 4 K at 1 km depth. Modelled and observed temperature data fit well within 0.2 °C bounds. Whereas thermal conditions are suitable for geothermal energy production, hydraulic conditions are unfavourable without engineered stimulation.

Description: This paper presents the results from the Deflo-hydroacoustic experiment in the Southern Indian Ocean using three autonomous underwater hydrophones, complemented by two permanent hydroacoustic stations. The array monitored for 14 months, from November 2006 to December 2007, a 3000 x 3000 km wide area, encompassing large segments of the three Indian spreading ridges that meet at the Indian Triple Junction. A catalogue of 11 105 acoustic events is derived from the recorded data, of which 55 per cent are located from three hydrophones, 38 per cent from 4, 6 per cent from five and less than 1 per cent by six hydrophones. From a comparison with land-based seismic catalogues, the smallest detected earthquakes are m b 2.6 in size, the range of recorded magnitudes is about twice that of land-based networks and the number of detected events is 5–16 times larger. Seismicity patterns vary between the three spreading ridges, with activity mainly focused on transform faults along the fast spreading Southeast Indian Ridge and more evenly distributed along spreading segments and transforms on the slow spreading Central and ultra-slow spreading Southwest Indian ridges; the Central Indian Ridge is the most active of the three with an average of 1.9 events/100 km/month. Along the Sunda Trench, acoustic events mostly radiate from the inner wall of the trench and show a 200-km-long seismic gap between 2 °S and the Equator. The array also detected more than 3600 cryogenic events, with different seasonal trends observed for events from the Antarctic margin, compared to those from drifting icebergs at lower (up to 50°S) latitudes. Vocalizations of five species and subspecies of large baleen whales were also observed and exhibit clear seasonal variability. On the three autonomous hydrophones, whale vocalizations dominate sound levels in the 20–30 and 100 Hz frequency bands, whereas earthquakes and ice tremor are a dominant source of ambient sound at frequencies 〈20 Hz.

Description: Seismic reflections from the oceanic water column contain information about ocean temperature and salinity. Even though seismic waveform inversion is effective for studying oceanic structure, its application is limited in the absence of sufficient direct temperature/velocity measurements. Here, two methods are developed to invert pre-stack seismic waveform data for temperature and salinity when independent temperature/velocity data are sparse or unavailable, allowing estimation of water-column temperature/salinity from any marine seismic reflection data set. The first method combines a genetic algorithm (GA) with non-linear least squares inversion, and the second method is a parallel implementation of a GA. Both methods produce results to an accuracy between 0 and 0.1 °C in estimating temperature when applied to a field data set from the South China Sea. Although the second approach is superior, it is computationally demanding and requires large parallel computers. The first approach runs extremely fast on parallel computers and can even be run on much smaller machines to provide results in a reasonable runtime. While both methods are viable choices for estimating temperature and salinity, the choice of one over the other will largely depend upon the available computational resources and the time frame within which the inversion needs to be completed.

Description: A 3-D magnetotelluric (MT) inversion code using unstructured tetrahedral elements has been developed in order to correct the topographic effect by directly incorporating it into computational grids. The electromagnetic field and response functions get distorted at the observation sites of MT surveys because of the undulating surface topography, and without correcting this distortion, the subsurface structure can be misinterpreted. Of the two methods proposed to correct the topographic effect, the method incorporating topography explicitly in the inversion is applicable to a wider range of surveys. For forward problems, it has been shown that the finite element method using unstructured tetrahedral elements is useful for the incorporation of topography. Therefore, this paper shows the applicability of unstructured tetrahedral elements in MT inversion using the newly developed code. The inversion code is capable of using the impedance tensor, the vertical magnetic transfer function (VMTF), and the phase tensor as observational data, and it estimates the subsurface resistivity values and the distortion tensor of each observation site. The forward part of the code was verified using two test models, one incorporating topographic effect and one without, and the verifications showed that the results were almost the same as those of previous works. The developed inversion code was then applied to synthetic data from a MT survey, and was verified as being able to recover the resistivity structure as well as other inversion codes. Finally, to confirm its applicability to the data affected by topography, inversion was performed using the synthetic data of the model that included two overlapping mountains. In each of the cases using the impedance tensor, the VMTF and the phase tensor, by including the topography in the mesh, the subsurface resistivity was determined more proficiently than in the case using the flat-surface mesh. Although the locations of the anomalies were not accurately estimated by the inversion using distorted impedance tensors due to the slightly undervalued gain, these locations were correctly estimated by using undistorted impedance tensors or adding VMTFs in the data. Therefore, it can be concluded that the inversion using the unstructured tetrahedral element effectively prevents the misinterpretation of subsurface resistivity and recovers subsurface resistivity proficiently by representing the topography in the computational mesh.

Description: Separating the contribution of different hematite coercivity grains to the magnetic fabric is a standing problem in rock magnetism because of the common occurrence of thermochemical alterations when measuring the anisotropy of thermal remanence. A technique that eliminates this bias is presented, which is useful when there is a need to separate the fabric of detrital from pigmentary hematite, for example. The method is based on stepwise thermal demagnetization of saturation isothermal remanent magnetizations (IRMs) applied orthogonally on three sister specimens, allowing calculation of the anisotropy tensor from the three components of each demagnetized IRM vector, avoiding the necessity of having to apply IRMs to thermochemically altered specimens. Vector subtraction allows determining the anisotropy tensor for specific unblocking-temperature ranges. The anisotropies of the pigmentary, specular and total hematite of the Mauch Chunk Formation red beds of Pennsylvania have been measured from an oriented block sample and results are compared to previous anisotropy measurements performed using the high-field anisotropy of isothermal remanence technique (hf-AIR), which measures total undifferentiated hematite. Experiments were conducted using non-saturating 1 T and fully saturating 5.5 T fields: both experimental sets seem capable of measuring the orientation of the specularite anisotropy principal axes, but 5.5 T are needed to capture the orientation of the higher coercivity pigmentary grains. The magnitudes of the principal axes, instead, are only faithfully measured using 5.5 T fields and yield somewhat higher anisotropies than those measured by hf-AIR. The fundamental requirement for this technique is homogeneous material among the three sister specimens, which is a significant limitation; homogeneity tests allow assessment of applicability of the method and reliability of the results.

Description: A new approach of seismoelectric imaging has been recently proposed to detect saturation fronts in which seismic waves are focused in the subsurface to scan its heterogeneous nature and determine saturation fronts. Such type of imaging requires however a complete modelling of the seismoelectric properties of porous media saturated by two immiscible fluid phases, one being usually electrically insulating (for instance water and oil). We combine an extension of Biot dynamic theory, valid for porous media containing two immiscible Newtonian fluids, with an extension of the electrokinetic theory based on the notion of effective volumetric charge densities dragged by the flow of each fluid phase. These effective charge densities can be related directly to the permeability and saturation of each fluid phase. The coupled partial differential equations are solved with the finite element method. We also derive analytically the transfer function connecting the macroscopic electrical field to the acceleration of the fast P wave (coseismic electrical field) and we study the influence of the water content on this coupling. We observe that the amplitude of the co-seismic electrical disturbance is very sensitive to the water content with an increase in amplitude with water saturation. We also investigate the seismoelectric conversions (interface effect) occurring at the water table. We show that the conversion response at the water table can be identifiable only when the saturation contrasts between the vadose and saturated zones are sharp enough. A relatively dry vadose zone represents the best condition to identify the water table through seismoelectric measurements. Indeed, in this case, the coseismic electrical disturbances are vanishingly small compared to the seismoelectric interface response.

Description: Rock permeability is an important parameter for the formation evaluation. In this paper, a new method with streaming current is proposed to determine the sample permeability based on the electrokinetic effects, and is proved by the experimental measurements. Corresponding to this method, we have designed an experimental setup and a test system, then performed the streaming current (potential) and electro-osmosis pressure experiments with 23 sandstone samples at 0.05 mol l –1 NaCl solution. The streaming current (potential) coefficient and electro-osmosis pressure coefficient are obtained, respectively, with the experimental data at low frequencies with AC lock-in technique. The electrokinetic permeabilities are further calculated with these coefficients. The results are consistent well with the gas permeability measured with Darcy's law, which verifies the current method for estimating rock permeability. Our measurements are also analysed and compared with previous measurements. The results indicate that our method can reflect the essence of electrokinetic effects better and simplify the electrokinetic measurements as well. In addition, we discuss the influences of experimental artefacts (core holder and confining pressure installation) on the electrokinetic data. The results show that the trough phenomenon, appeared in frequency curves of streaming current (potential) coefficients, is induced by the resonance of the core-holder/vibrator system. This is important for the design of electrokinetic setup and the analysis of low-frequency response of the electrokinetic coupling coefficients.

Description: Multiparameter full waveform inversion (FWI) applied to an elastic orthorhombic model description of the subsurface requires in theory a nine-parameter representation of each pixel of the model. Even with optimal acquisition on the Earth surface that includes large offsets, full azimuth, and multicomponent sensors, the potential for trade-off between the elastic orthorhombic parameters are large. The first step to understanding such trade-off is analysing the scattering potential of each parameter, and specifically, its scattering radiation patterns. We investigate such radiation patterns for diffraction and for scattering from a horizontal reflector considering a background isotropic model. The radiation patterns show considerable potential for trade-off between the parameters and the potentially limited resolution in their recovery. The radiation patterns of C 11 , C 22 , and C 33 are well separated so that we expect to recover these parameters with limited trade-offs. However, the resolution of their recovery represented by recovered range of model wavenumbers varies between these parameters. We can only invert for the short wavelength components (reflection) of C 33 while we can mainly invert for the long wavelength components (transmission) of the elastic coefficients C 11 and C 22 if we have large enough offsets. The elastic coefficients C 13 , C 23 , and C 12 suffer from strong trade-offs with C 55 , C 44 , and C 66 , respectively. The trade-offs between C 13 and C 55 , as well as C 23 and C 44 , can be partially mitigated if we acquire P – SV and SV – SV waves. However, to reduce the trade-offs between C 12 and C 66 , we require credible SH – SH waves. The analytical radiation patterns of the elastic constants are supported by numerical gradients of these parameters.

Description: Archaeomagnetic field models cover longer timescales than historical models and may therefore resolve the motion of geomagnetic features on the core–mantle boundary (CMB) in a more meaningful statistical sense. Here we perform a detailed appraisal of archaeomagnetic field models to infer some aspects of the physics of the outer core. We characterize and compare the identification and tracking of reversed flux patches (RFPs) in order to assess the RFPs robustness. We find similar behaviour within a family of models but differences among different families, suggesting that modelling strategy is more influential than data set. Similarities involve recurrent positions of RFPs, but no preferred direction of motion is found. The tracking of normal flux patches shows similar qualitative behaviour confirming that RFPs identification and tracking is not strongly biased by their relative weakness. We also compare the tracking of RFPs with that of the historical field model gufm1 and with seismic anomalies of the lowermost mantle to explore the possibility that RFPs have preferred locations prescribed by lower mantle lateral heterogeneity. The archaeomagnetic field model that most resembles the historical field is interpreted in terms of core dynamics and core–mantle thermal interactions. This model exhibits correlation between RFPs and low seismic shear velocity in co-latitude and a shift in longitude. These results shed light on core processes, in particular we infer toroidal field lines with azimuthal orientation below the CMB and large fluid upwelling structures with a width of about 80° (Africa) and 110° (Pacific) at the top of the core. Finally, similar preferred locations of RFPs in the past 9 and 3 kyr of the same archaeomagnetic field model suggest that a 3 kyr period is sufficiently long to reliably detect mantle control on core dynamics. This allows estimating an upper bound of 220–310 km for the magnetic boundary layer thickness below the CMB.

Description: Post-depositional reductive diagenesis usually results in partial or entire cleansing of the pristine palaeomagnetic signal, therefore, its intensity is important to be assessed for sediments that are in the purpose of retrieving palaeomagnetic information. Grain size, rock magnetic and geochemical studies on the entire core, along with scanning electron microscope observations and X-ray diffraction analyses for representative samples were carried out on a Holocene sediment core retrieved from the deep water part of Huguangyan maar lake (HGY), southeast China. The pristine magnetic mineral assemblage of the studied core is domianted by superparamagnetic (SP) and stable single domain titanomagnetite, and high coercivity minerals are not detectable. Based on down-core variations of the average grain size ( M Z ), total organic carbon (TOC), detrital elements (Al, Ti, Fe and Mn) and the concentration and mineralogy of magnetic minerals, the studied core could be divided into three subsections. The uppermost subsection is the least affected by diagenesis, with detrital titanomagnetite as the dominant magnetic mineral. This is owing to low TOC contents, but high detrital input generated by weak Asian summer monsoon intensity during the late Holocene. The intermediate subsection shows down-core progressively enhanced dissolution of detrital titanomagnetite, and concomitant formation of authigenic pyrite and siderite, which indicates down-core progressively enhanced diagenesis generated by down-core progressive increasing TOC content, but decreasing detrital input as the result of down-core progressively strengthened Asian summer monsoon intensity. The pristine magnetic mineral assemblage has been profoundly modified in the lowermost subsection. At certain positions of the lowermost subsection, detrital titanomagnetite has been even completely dissolved via diagenesis, giving place to authigenic pyrite and siderite. High TOC content, but low detrital input generated from strong Asian summer monsoon intensity during the early Holocene are accountable for intensive diagenesis in the lowermost subsection. Complete erasing of detrital magnetic input signal at certain positions of the lowermost subsection, and considerable formation of authigenic siderite indicate that palaeomagnetic records of the studied core have been significantly compromised. The studied core has relatively higher TOC content, lower detrital matter content, calmer sedimentary environments, and less DO available at its water–sediment interface than the cores retrieved at relatively shallower water depths, which all contribute to its relatively stronger diagenesis. Progressive thickening of the upper two subsections with increasing water depth is owing to progressive increase in sedimentation rate with increasing water depth, which is the key factor in determining the thickness of each diagenetic subsection of cores from HGY. It would be better that lake sediments for palaeomagnetic investigations collected at a water depth shallower than the depth of its thermocline.

Description: Typically, seismic data are sparsely and irregularly sampled due to limitations in the survey environment and these cause problems for key seismic processing steps such as surface-related multiple elimination or wave-equation-based migration. Various interpolation techniques have been developed to alleviate the problems caused by sparse and irregular sampling. Among many interpolation techniques, matching pursuit interpolation is a robust tool to interpolate the regularly sampled data with large receiver separation such as crossline data in marine seismic acquisition when both pressure and particle velocity data are used. Multicomponent matching pursuit methods generally used the sinusoidal basis function, which have shown to be effective for interpolating multicomponent marine seismic data in the crossline direction. In this paper, we report the use of wavelet basis functions which further enhances the performance of matching pursuit methods for de-aliasing than sinusoidal basis functions. We also found that the range of the peak wavenumber of the wavelet is critical to the stability of the interpolation results and the de-aliasing performance and that the range should be determined based on Nyquist criteria. In addition, we reduced the computational cost by adopting the inner product of the wavelet and the input data to find the parameters of the wavelet basis function instead of using L-2 norm minimization. Using synthetic data, we illustrate that for aliased data, wavelet-based matching pursuit interpolation yields more stable results than sinusoidal function-based one when we use not only pressure data only but also both pressure and particle velocity together.

Description: Deep sea pockmarks underlain by chimney-like or pipe structures that contain methane hydrate are abundant along the Norwegian continental margin. In such hydrate provinces the interaction between hydrate formation and fluid flow has significance for benthic ecosystems and possibly climate change. The Nyegga region, situated on the western Norwegian continental slope, is characterized by an extensive pockmark field known to accommodate substantial methane gas hydrate deposits. The aim of this study is to detect and delineate both the gas hydrate and free gas reservoirs at one of Nyegga's pockmarks. In 2012, a marine controlled-source electromagnetic (CSEM) survey was performed at a pockmark in this region, where high-resolution 3-D seismic data were previously collected in 2006. 2-D CSEM inversions were computed using the data acquired by ocean bottom electrical field receivers. Our results, derived from unconstrained and seismically constrained CSEM inversions, suggest the presence of two distinctive resistivity anomalies beneath the pockmark: a shallow vertical anomaly at the underlying pipe structure, likely due to gas hydrate accumulation, and a laterally extensive anomaly attributed to a free gas zone below the base of the gas hydrate stability zone. This work contributes to a robust characterization of gas hydrate deposits within subseafloor fluid flow pipe structures.

Description: The rocks in the crust and the upper mantle of the Earth are believed to exhibit electrical anisotropy to some extent. It is beneficial to further understand and recognize the propagation of the electromagnetic waves in the Earth by investigating the magnetotelluric (which is one of the main geophysical techniques to probe the deep structures in the Earth) responses of the media with anisotropic conductivity structures. In this study, we examine the magnetotelluric fields over an idealized 2-D model consisting of two segments with axially anisotropic conductivity structures overlying a perfect conductor basement by a quasi-static analytic approach. The resulting analytic solution could not only contribute to the electromagnetic induction theory in the anisotropic Earth but also serve as at least an initial standard solution which could be used to validate the reliability and accuracy of the numerical algorithms developed for modelling the magnetotelluric responses of the 2-D media with much more general anisotropic conductivity.

Description: Several works have reported that haematite has non-linear initial susceptibility at room temperature, like pyrrhotite or titanomagnetite, but there is no explanation for the observed behaviours yet. This study sets out to determine which physical property (grain size, foreign cations content and domain walls displacements) controls the initial susceptibility. The performed measurements include microprobe analysis to determine magnetic phases different to haematite; initial susceptibility (300 K); hysteresis loops, SIRM and backfield curves at 77 and 300 K to calculate magnetic parameters and minor loops at 77 K, to analyse initial susceptibility and magnetization behaviours below Morin transition. The magnetic moment study at low temperature is completed with measurements of zero field cooled–field cooled and AC susceptibility in a range from 5 to 300 K. The minor loops show that the non-linearity of initial susceptibility is closely related to Barkhausen jumps. Because of initial magnetic susceptibility is controlled by domain structure it is difficult to establish a mathematical model to separate magnetic subfabrics in haematite-bearing rocks.

Description: One of the main applications of magnetic field measurements in boreholes is the detection of unexploded ordnance or buried utility structures like pipes or tiebacks. Even though the advantage of fully oriented magnetic vector measurements have long been recognized and could significantly reduce costs and risks, the tools used for those purposes typically measure only the total magnetic field, the vertical and horizontal components or gradients thereof. The Göttingen Bohrloch Magnetometer uses three fibre optic gyros to record its orientation and thus enables us to compute high-quality three-component magnetic vector data regardless of borehole orientation. The measurements described in this paper were run in the scientific borehole Cuxhaven Lüdingworth 1/1A, which was drilled as a part of the ‘Coastal Aquifer Test field’ project to study the dynamics of the saltwater/freshwater interface. As the drill string got stuck during drilling of the first borehole, a second hole was drilled in the immediate vicinity. The drill string lies at a depth between 80 and 114 m at a distance of only 2.5 m southeast of the borehole used for the measurements, making it an ideal target to demonstrate the benefits of vector magnetic surveys. Although the theories to calculate magnetic fields of objects with different shapes is well established and do not need to be tested, they almost exclusively include approximations of the geometry. It is not obvious whether these approximations are suited to describe real data, or whether additional effects or refinements have to be considered. We use both a simplified monopole model and a cylinder model to fit the data and are able to determine the position of the drill string within a statistical error of approximately 10 cm. Additionally, we show that the location of the drill string could not have been determined by measurements of the total field or its horizontal and vertical component alone and that those methods would require the drilling of additional boreholes to obtain an unambiguous result.

Description: A series of important geological events occurred in the Tibetan Plateau area during the Jurassic, such as the collision of the Lhasa and Qiangtang Terranes, the closure of the Meso-Tethyan Ocean, the opening of the Neo-Tethyan Ocean and the cessation of the mega-monsoon. The ~3000 m thick Jurassic sedimentary sequence in the Qiangtang Basin on the central Tibetan Plateau, which is called the Yanshiping (YSP) Group, recorded these geological events. However, the chronology of the sequence is surprisingly poorly constrained. Here, we perform a detailed palaeomagnetic analysis on the ~1060 m thick middle and upper portions of the YSP Group (the Xiali and Suowa Formations) in the YSP section of the eastern Qiangtang Basin. Three bivalve zones at stratigraphic intervals of ~40–140, 640–800 and 940–1040 m are identified, which yield a Bathonian–Callovian age for the Lower Xiali Fm., a Callovian–Oxfordian age for the Lower Suowa Fm. and an Oxfordian–Kimmeridgian age for the Upper Suowa Fm. A total of 544 oriented palaeomagnetic samples were collected from the section. By combining thermal and alternating field demagnetizations, clear characteristic remanent magnetization (ChRM) directions are isolated for most of the samples. The robust ChRM directions pass fold and reversals tests, which support the primary nature of the ChRMs and yield a palaeopole at 76.8°N/297.2°E (dp = 2.2°, dm = 3.7°). A total of 27 normal and 26 reversed polarity zones were successfully recorded in the section. Combined with fossil age constraints, results suggest that the section is plausibly composed of a Callovian-Early Kimmeridgian age sedimentary sequence.

Description: This study investigates pressure effects on the magnetic properties of non-interacting single-domain (SD) magnetite. Using a high-pressure cell specially designed for a Magnetic Property Measurement System, magnetic hysteresis measurements were conducted under high pressures of up to 1 GPa on natural plagioclase crystals containing much acicular SD magnetite. Coercivity and saturation magnetization were nearly constant with pressure, while saturation remanent magnetization and coercivity of remanence decreased with pressure at moderate rates of –8 per cent GPa –1 and –18 per cent GPa –1 , respectively. These results suggest that temperature effects govern the magnetic behaviour of acicular SD magnetite grains in the middle and lower crusts.

Description: We analysed four newly retrieved tide gauge records of the 1998 July 17 Papua New Guinea (PNG) tsunami to study statistical and spectral properties of this tsunami. The four tide gauge records were from Lombrum (PNG), Rabaul (PNG), Malakal Island (Palau) and Yap Island (State of Yap) stations located 600–1450 km from the source. The tsunami registered a maximum trough-to-crest wave height of 3–9 cm at these gauges. Spectral analysis showed two dominant peaks at period bands of 2–4 and 6–20 min with a clear separation at the period of ~5 min. We interpreted these peak periods as belonging to the landslide and earthquake sources of the PNG tsunami, respectively. Analysis of the tsunami waveforms revealed 12–17 min delay in landslide generation compared to the origin time of the main shock. Numerical simulations including this delay fairly reproduced the observed tide gauge records. This is the first direct evidence of the delayed landslide source of the 1998 PNG tsunami which was previously indirectly estimated from acoustic T-phase records.

Description: Characterization of geomagnetic field behaviour on timescales of centuries to millennia is necessary to understand the mechanisms that sustain the geodynamo and drive its evolution. As Holocene paleomagnetic and archeomagnetic data have become more abundant, strategies for regularized inversion of modern field data have been adapted to produce numerous time-varying global field models. We evaluate the effectiveness of several approaches to inversion and data handling, by assessing both global and regional properties of the resulting models. Global Holocene field models cannot resolve Southern hemisphere regional field variations without the use of sediments. A standard data set is used to construct multiple models using two different strategies for relative paleointensity calibration and declination orientation and a selection of starting models in the inversion procedure. When data uncertainties are considered, the results are similar overall regardless of whether we use iterative calibration and reorientation, or co-estimation of the calibration and orientation parameters as part of the inversion procedure. In each case the quality of the starting model used for initial relative paleointensity calibration and declination orientation is crucial and must be based on the best absolute information available. Without adequate initial calibration the morphology of dipole moment variations can be recovered but its absolute value will be correlated with the initial intensity calibrations, an effect that might be mitigated by ensuring an appropriate fit to enough high quality absolute intensity data with low uncertainties. The declination reorientation mainly impacts regional field structure and in the presence of non-zonal fields will result in a non-zero local average. The importance of declination orientation is highlighted by inconsistencies in the West Pacific and Australian sediment records in CALS10k.1b model. Great care must also be taken to assess uncertainties associated with both paleomagnetic and age data and to evaluate the effects of poor data distribution. New consistently allocated uncertainty estimates for sediment paleomagnetic records highlight the importance of adequate uncertainties in the inversion process, as they determine the relative weighting among the data and overall normalized misfit levels which in turn influence the complexity of the inferred field models. Residual distributions suggest that the most appropriate misfit measure is the L 1 norm (minimum absolute deviation) rather than L 2 (least squares), but this seems to have relatively minor impact on the overall results. For future Holocene field modelling we see a need for comprehensive methods to assess uncertainty in individual archeomagnetic data so that these data or models derived from them can be used for reliable initial relative paleointensity calibration and declination orientation in sediments. More work will be needed to assess whether co-estimation or an iterative approach to inversion is more efficient overall. This would be facilitated by realistic and globally consistent data and age uncertainties from the paleomagnetic community.

Description: For extensional wave propagation along a cylindrical pipe, there exists a natural stopband in the frequency range between the first and second modes. This study explores the feasibility and practicality of building a drill collar acoustic extensional-wave isolator by combining the stopbands of pipes of different thicknesses. Numerical modelling shows that this is indeed possible and a stopband of designated width can be obtained using an optimization procedure. Laboratory measurement on an optimized design further verified this concept. The result provides a viable approach for the acoustic isolation design of a logging while drilling acoustic tool.

Description: Galvanic distortion of magnetotelluric (MT) data due to small-scale surficial bodies or due to topography is one of the major factors that prevents accurate imaging of the subsurface. We present a 3-D algorithm for joint inversion of MT impedance tensor data and a frequency-independent full distortion matrix that circumvents this problem. We perform several tests of our algorithm on synthetic data affected by different amounts of distortion. These tests show that joint inversion leads to a better conductivity model compared to the inversion of the MT impedance tensor without any correction for distortion effects. For highly distorted data, inversion without any distortion correction results in strong artefacts and we cannot fit the data to the specified noise level. When the distortion is reduced, we can fit the data to an RMS of one, but still observe artefacts in the shallow part of the model. In contrast, in both cases our joint inversion can fit the data within the assumed noise level and the resulting models are comparable to the inversion of undistorted data. In addition, we show that the elements of the full distortion matrix can be well resolved by our algorithm. Finally, when inverting undistorted data, including the distortion matrix in the inversion only results in a minor loss of resolution. We therefore consider our new approach a promising tool for the general analysis of field MT data.

Description: The Murray Ridge/Dalrymple Trough system forms the boundary between the Indian and Arabian plates in the northern Arabian Sea. Geodetic constraints from the surrounding continents suggest that this plate boundary is undergoing oblique extension at a rate of a few millimetres per year. We present wide-angle seismic data that constrains the composition of the Ridge and of adjacent lithosphere beneath the Indus Fan. We infer that Murray Ridge, like the adjacent Dalrymple Trough, is underlain by continental crust, while a thin crustal section beneath the Indus Fan represents thinned continental crust or exhumed serpentinized mantle that forms part of a magma-poor rifted margin. Changes in crustal structure across the Murray Ridge and Dalrymple Trough can explain short-wavelength gravity anomalies, but a long-wavelength anomaly must be attributed to deeper density contrasts that may result from a large age contrast across the plate boundary. The origin of this fragment of continental crust remains enigmatic, but the presence of basement fabrics to the south that are roughly parallel to Murray Ridge suggests that it separated from the India/Seychelles/Madagascar block by extension during early breakup of Gondwana.

Description: The magnetic field that originates in the earth's core is transformed across the electrically conducting mantle before being observed, at the earth's surface or above. Assuming that the conductivity depends only on radius, it has been customary to treat the mantle as a linear time-invariant filter for the core magnetic field, with properties (as a function of the frequency ) specified by the transfer function (). An high-frequency approximation to (), which is derived from a three terms WKBJ expansion with –1/2 as small parameter, is found here to reproduce adequately, for low harmonic degrees and/or thin conducting layers, the exact solution, which is evaluated numerically. It is contrasted with the low-frequency estimation of , which consists in a perturbation procedure and in writing () as a series in powers of ( -〉 0). The low-frequency theory is applied to the magnetic variations produced by the geostrophic core flows with about 6 yr period as the phase of these flows is independently determined from their effect on the length of the day. Apart from that, the low-frequency approximation overestimates the screening by the mantle of high-frequency signals, especially the low harmonic degree ones. In practice, the attenuating factor defined from the O ( 2 ) term in the expansion of as -〉 0 cannot be retrieved from analyses of geomagnetic time-series. Application of the mantle filter theory hinges on our knowledge about the time spectrum of the magnetic field at the core surface. The low-frequency theory had been previously applied to observatory series on the assumption that geomagnetic jerks occurring in the core are rare and isolated events. Rather than following up these earlier studies, I note that the spectral density function for the second time derivative of the main magnetic field coefficients is approximately independent of in a frequency range for which the mantle has undoubtedly negligible influence. In the absence of any other information, this scaling law is extrapolated to higher frequencies.

Description: Surface nuclear magnetic resonance (surface-NMR) is a promising technique for exploring shallow subsurface aquifer structures. Surface-NMR can be applied in environments that are characterized as a 1-D layered Earth. The technique utilizes a single loop and is referred to as magnetic resonance sounding. The technique referred to as magnetic resonance tomography (MRT) allows complex 2-D aquifer structures to be explored. Currently, MRT requires multiple loops and a roll along measurement scheme, which causes long survey time. We propose a loop layout using an elongated transmitter and an in-loop receiver arrays (ETRA) to conduct a 2-D survey with just one measurement. We present a comprehensive comparison between the new layout and the common approaches based on sensitivity and resolution analyses and show synthetic and field data. The results show that ETRA generates subsurface images at sufficient resolution with significantly lower survey times than other loop layouts.

Description: We studied ionospheric responses to the 2012 April 11 M w 8.6 North Sumatra earthquake using total electron content (TEC) measurements with the regional Global Navigation Satellite System network. This earthquake ruptured the oceanic lithosphere off the Indian Ocean coast of North Sumatra, and is known as the largest strike-slip earthquake ever recorded. Coseismic ionospheric disturbances (CIDs) with rapid TEC enhancement of a few TEC units propagated northward with a speed of acoustic waves (~1 km s –1 ). Resonant atmospheric oscillation with a frequency ~4 mHz have been found as monochromatic oscillation of TEC lasting for an hour after the main shock and the largest aftershock. We compared CID amplitudes of 21 earthquakes world-wide with moment magnitudes ( M w ) 6.6–9.2. They roughly obeyed a law such that CID amplitude increases by two orders of magnitude for the M w increase of three. The 2012 North Sumatra earthquakes slightly deviated negatively from the trend possibly reflecting their strike-slip mechanisms, that is small vertical crustal movements for their magnitudes.

Description: The magnetic field of the Earth's lithosphere arises from rock magnetization contrasts that were shaped over geological times. The field can be described mathematically in spherical harmonics or with distributions of magnetization. We exploit this dual representation and assume that the lithospheric field is induced by spatially varying susceptibility values within a shell of constant thickness. By introducing a statistical assumption about the power spectrum of the susceptibility, we then derive a statistical expression for the spatial power spectrum of the crustal magnetic field for the spatial scales ranging from 60 to 2500 km. This expression depends on the mean induced magnetization, the thickness of the shell, and a power law exponent for the power spectrum of the susceptibility. We test the relevance of this form with a misfit analysis to the observational NGDC-720 lithospheric magnetic field model power spectrum. This allows us to estimate a mean global apparent induced magnetization value between 0.3 and 0.6 A m –1 , a mean magnetic crustal thickness value between 23 and 30 km, and a root mean square for the field value between 190 and 205 nT at 95 per cent. These estimates are in good agreement with independent models of the crustal magnetization and of the seismic crustal thickness. We carry out the same analysis in the continental and oceanic domains separately. We complement the misfit analyses with a Kolmogorov–Smirnov goodness-of-fit test and we conclude that the observed power spectrum can be each time a sample of the statistical one.

Description: In conventional marine seismic surveys, due to the time-delayed reflections from the sea surface on both source and receiver sides, ghosts present in recorded seismograms and lead to both phase and spectrum distortions (especially near certain frequency notches). To achieve a high-quality broad-band image/velocity model with conventional reverse time migration (RTM)/full waveform inversion (FWI) that adopts a synthetic zero-phase source wavelet and absorbing surface condition during wavefield modelling, marine seismic data have to be pre-processed to remove ghost effects. However, seismic deghosting is not a trivial task. Instead of employing an external deghosting process, we propose a strategy to compensate for ghost effects during FWI and RTM, which consists of two parts: first, to address phase distortions due to ghost effects by means of obtaining an accurate source wavelet estimation and adopting an appropriate surface boundary condition in both forward and backward wave propagation to appropriately generate ghosts; secondly, to build a compensation operator in the adjoint state computation to mitigate spectrum distortions caused by dominant ghost effects. To demonstrate the success and robustness of the proposed strategy, we present both synthetic experiments and field examples, which suggest that this strategy can lead to successful applications of FWI/RTM directly on marine seismic data without an extra deghosting process.

Description: Seismic full waveform inversion (FWI) has been applied to simple elastic problems with certain symmetries, such as isotropic, transverse isotropic or vertical transversely isotropic media. In this study, the FWI concept is extended to the most general anisotropic case with 21 independent elastic material parameters and no symmetry plane (triclinic). Beside a short description of the 3-D finite-difference scheme to solve the forward problem and the FWI optimization algorithm, we present a sensitivity study for a simple anisotropic medium. This test problem consists of a homogenous triclinic anisotropic full space, which contains 21 spatially separated spheres. In each sphere one component of the elastic tensor deviates by 5 per cent from the background medium. The resolution of the different spheres, ambiguities between the different elastic parameters, as well as the effect of the acquisition geometry can be systematically investigated. Due to the high computational costs of the triclinic forward problem a few compromises have to be made regarding the acquisition geometries. Point sources are replaced by plane wave sources which lead to a limitation of incidence angles and therefore a strong decrease in resolution of the nondiagonal elastic tensor components. It is shown that, despite these limitations, a tomographic acquisition geometry would be able to resolve to some extent a monoclinic symmetry via FWI. Restricting the acquisition geometries (e.g. VSP combined with reflection seismic or reflection seismic only) significantly reduces the number of resolvable tensor elements in strict dependence of the covered incidence angles.

Description: Data on the evolution of Earth's magnetic field intensity are important for understanding the geodynamo and planetary evolution. However, the paleomagnetic record in rocks may be adversely affected by many physical processes, which must be taken into account when analysing the palaeointensity database. This is especially important in the light of an ongoing debate regarding core thermal conductivity values, and how these relate to the Precambrian geodynamo. Here, we demonstrate that several data sets in the Precambrian palaeointensity database overestimate the true paleofield strength due to the presence of non-ideal carriers of palaeointensity signals and/or viscous re-magnetizations. When the palaeointensity overestimates are removed, the Precambrian database does not indicate a robust change in geomagnetic field intensity during the Mesoproterozoic. These findings call into question the recent claim that the solid inner core formed in the Mesoproterozoic, hence constraining the thermal conductivity in the core to ‘moderate’ values. Instead, our analyses indicate that the presently available palaeointensity data are insufficient in number and quality to constrain the timing of solid inner core formation, or the outstanding problem of core thermal conductivity. Very young or very old inner core ages (and attendant high or low core thermal conductivity values) are consistent with the presently known history of Earth's field strength. More promising available data sets that reflect long-term core structure are geomagnetic reversal rate and field morphology. The latter suggests changes that may reflect differences in Archean to Proterozoic core stratification, whereas the former suggest an interval of geodynamo hyperactivity at ca. 550 Ma.

Description: Red Clay underlying the loess-palaeosol sequences on the Chinese Loess Plateau is an eolian deposit. There is a controversy over whether magnetic susceptibility ( ) variations in Red Clay sequence can be used as an indicator of summer palaeomonsoon intensity. This study investigates the magnetic mineralogy, magnetic concentration and magnetic grain size distribution of Jiaxian Red Clay with multimagnetic methods. Our results indicate that the magnetic properties of Jiaxian Red Clay are similar to those of the Quaternary loess-palaeosol sequences, and ultrafine ferrimagnetic grains produced during pedogenesis are responsible for an increase in susceptibility, therefore the enhancement mechanism of Red Clay is similar to that of the overlying loess-palaeosol sequences. This paper explores variations in the Red Clay sequence through spatial and temporal analysis. The susceptibility variation of six sites along a NNE to SSW transect correlate to palaeoclimatic cycles, so can be used to trace the summer palaeomonsoon intensity from a spatial perspective. However, a simple loess-derived calibration function cannot be used to quantitative reconstruct the palaeomonsoon intensity variations thought time. An adjusted calibration function for palaeosols from Red Clay sequence needs to be developed, so that can be used to quantitative reconstruct palaeomonsoon intensity. Further study is necessary to develop such a transfer function.

Description: Palaeointensity experiments were carried out to a sample collection from two sections of basalt lava flow sequences of Pliocene age in north central Iceland (Chron C2An) to further refine the knowledge of the behaviour of the palaeomagnetic field. Selection of samples was mainly based on their stability of remanence to thermal demagnetization as well as good reversibility in variations of magnetic susceptibility and saturation magnetization with temperature, which would indicate the presence of magnetite as a product of deuteric oxidation of titanomagnetite. Among 167 lava flows from two sections, 44 flows were selected for the Königsberger–Thellier–Thellier experiment in vacuum. In spite of careful pre-selection of samples, an Arai plot with two linear segments, or a concave-up appearance, was often encountered during the experiments. This non-ideal behaviour was probably caused by an irreversible change in the domain state of the magnetic grains of the pseudo-single-domain (PSD) range. This is assumed because an ideal linear plot was obtained in the second run of the palaeointensity experiment in which a laboratory thermoremanence acquired after the final step of the first run was used as a natural remanence. This experiment was conducted on six selected samples, and no clear difference between the magnetic grains of the experimented and pristine sister samples was found by scanning electron microscope and hysteresis measurements, that is, no occurrence of notable chemical/mineralogical alteration, suggesting that no change in the grain size distribution had occurred. Hence, the two-segment Arai plot was not caused by the reversible multidomain/PSD effect in which the curvature of the Arai plot is dependent on the grain size. Considering that the irreversible change in domain state must have affected data points at not only high temperatures but also low temperatures, f v ≥ 0.5 was adopted as one of the acceptance criteria where f v is a vectorially defined fraction of the linear segment. A measure of curvature k ' was also used to check the linearity of the selected linear segment. It was avoided, however, to reject the result out of hand by the large curvature k of the entire data points because it might still include a linear segment with a large fraction. Combining with the results of Shaw's experiments, 52 palaeointensities were obtained out of 192 specimens, or 11 flow means were obtained out of the 44 lava flows. Most of the palaeointensities were from the upper part of the lava section (Chron C2An.1n) and ranged between 30 and 66 μT. Including two results from the bottom part of the lava section, the mean virtual dipole moment for 2.5–3.5 Ma is 6.3 ± 1.4  x  10 22 Am 2 ( N  = 11), which is ~19 per cent smaller than the present-day dipole moment.

Description: The sedimentary sequence deposited during the deglaciation phase following the last glacial maximum in the Storfjorden trough, on the northwestern Barents Sea south of Svalbard, was sampled with 10 piston and gravity cores during the SVAIS and EGLACOM cruises. Three cores (SV-02, SV-03 and SV-05) collected on the upper continental slope are characterized by a thin (20–40 cm) Holocene interval and a thick (up to 4.5 m in core SV-03) late Pleistocene sequence of finely laminated fine-grained sediments that have been interpreted as plumites deposited during the Melt Water Pulse 1a (MWP-1a). Radiocarbon ages obtained at the top and bottom of this stratigraphic interval revealed that deposition occurred during less than two centuries at around 15 ka ago, with a very high sedimentary rate exceeding 3 cm a –1 . We studied the palaeomagnetic and rock magnetic properties of this interval, by taking magnetic measurements at 1 cm spacing on u-channel samples collected from the three cores. The data show that this sequence is characterized by good palaeomagnetic properties and the palaeomagnetic and rock magnetic trends may be correlated at high resolution from core to core. The obtained palaeomagnetic data therefore offer the unique opportunity to investigate in detail the rate of geomagnetic palaeosecular variation (PSV) in the high northern latitudes at a decadal scale. Notwithstanding the palaeomagnetic trends of the three cores may be closely matched, the amplitude of directional PSV and the consequent virtual geomagnetic pole (VGP) scatter (S) is distinctly higher in one core (SV-05) than in the other two cores (SV-02 and SV-03). This might result from a variable proportion of two distinct populations of magnetic minerals in core SV-05, as suggested by the variable tendency to acquire a gyromagnetic remanent magnetization at high fields during the AF demagnetization treatment. For the plumite interval of cores SV-02 and SV-03, where the magnetic mineralogy is uniform and magnetite is the main magnetic carrier, a S value of about 9° is obtained. We consider this value as a reliable approximation of palaeomagnetic secular variation at a latitude of 75°N over a time interval spanning a couple of centuries around 15 ka ago.

Description: A recent study of the Matuyama–Brunhes (M-B) geomagnetic field reversal recorded in exposed lacustrine sediments from the Sulmona Basin (Italy) provided a continuous, high-resolution record indicating that the reversal of the field direction at the terminus of the M-B boundary (MBB) occurred in less than a century, about 786 ka ago. In the sediment, thin (4–6 cm) remagnetized horizons were recognized above two distinct tephra layers—SUL2-19 and SUL2-20—that occur ~25 and ~35 cm below the MBB, respectively. Also, a faint, millimetre-thick tephra (SUL2-18) occurs 2–3 cm above the MBB. With the aim of improving the temporal resolution of the previous Sulmona MBB record and understanding the possible influence of cryptotephra on the M-B record in the Sulmona Basin, we performed more detailed sampling and analyses of overlapping standard and smaller samples from a 50 cm-long block that spans the MBB. The new data indicate that (i) the MBB is even sharper than previously reported and occurs ~2.5 cm below tephra SUL2-18, in agreement with the previous study; (ii) the MBB coincides with the rise of an intensity peak of the natural remanent magnetization (NRM) intensity, which extends across SUL2-18; (iii) except for a 2-cm-thick interval just above tephra SUL2-18, the rock magnetic parameters ( k , ARM, M r , M s , B c , B cr ) indicate exactly the same magnetic mineralogy throughout the sampled sequence. We conclude that either SUL2-18 resulted in the remagnetization of an interval of about 6 cm (i.e. during the NRM intensity peak spanning ~260 ± 110 yr, according to the estimated local sedimentation rate), and thus the detailed MBB record is lost because it is overprinted, or the MBB is well recorded, occurred abruptly about 2.5 cm below SUL2-18 and lasted less than 13 ± 6 yr. Both hypotheses challenge our understanding of the geomagnetic field behaviour during a polarity transition and/or of the NRM acquisition process in the Sulmona lacustrine sediment.

Description: We test the ability of large-scale velocity fields inferred from geomagnetic secular variation data to produce the global magnetic field of the Earth. Our kinematic dynamo calculations use quasi-geostrophic (QG) flows inverted from geomagnetic field models which, as such, incorporate flow structures that are Earth-like and may be important for the geodynamo. Furthermore, the QG hypothesis allows straightforward prolongation of the flow from the core surface to the bulk. As expected from previous studies, we check that a simple QG flow is not able to sustain the magnetic field against ohmic decay. Additional complexity is then introduced in the flow, inspired by the action of the Lorentz force. Indeed, on centennial timescales, the Lorentz force can balance the Coriolis force and strict quasi-geostrophy may not be the best ansatz. When our columnar flow is modified to account for the action of the Lorentz force, magnetic field is generated for Elsasser numbers larger than 0.25 and magnetic Reynolds numbers larger than 100. This suggests that our large-scale flow captures the relevant features for the generation of the Earth's magnetic field and that the invisible small-scale flow may not be directly involved in this process. Near the threshold, the resulting magnetic field is dominated by an axial dipole, with some reversed flux patches. Time dependence is also considered, derived from principal component analysis applied to the inverted flows. We find that time periods from 120 to 50 yr do not affect the mean growth rate of the kinematic dynamos. Finally, we note that the footprint of the inner core in the magnetic field generated deep in the bulk of the shell, although we did not include one in our computations.

Description: The Auca Mahuida volcano (2.03–0.88 Ma) located east of the Andean thrust front in the Neuquén basin (Argentina) hosts an oil system of thermogenic origin and is affected by the NW–SE striking-faults. Intrusive bodies and the underlying Jurassic sediments constitute the reservoir rocks. Aeromagnetic data collected in the Auca Mahuida area detected multiple dipolar magnetic anomalies, many of which have reverse polarity. Palaeomagnetic measurements on rock samples collected in the field together with available age determinations indicate that the reversely magnetized sources were mainly emplaced during the Matuyama reverse polarity chron while the normal polarity sources were emplaced during the Olduvai and/or Jaramillo subchrons. The location and geometry of the intrusive bodies is poorly known and the customary magnetic inversion is rendered difficult because of multiple natural remanent magnetization directions. To address these difficulties, a voxel inversion was applied to model the vector residual magnetic intensity (VRMI) transformation of the observed total magnetic intensity data. The modelling showed a 1.5 km deep, subcircular ring-shaped intrusion below the summit of the volcano and a series of NW–SE elongated, fault-controlled intrusive bodies to depths up to 3–4 km. Our results show that magnetic data and VRMI modelling help resolve the geometry of the shallow plumbing system of volcanoes with remanently magnetized sources, and estimate the depth and geometry of potential oil reservoirs in volcanic areas.

Description: Non-linear resonant coupling of edge waves can occur with tsunamis generated by large-magnitude subduction zone earthquakes. Earthquake rupture zones that straddle beneath the coastline of continental margins are particularly efficient at generating tsunami edge waves. Using a stochastic model for earthquake slip, it is shown that a wide range of edge-wave modes and wavenumbers can be excited, depending on the variability of slip. If two modes are present that satisfy resonance conditions, then a third mode can gradually increase in amplitude over time, even if the earthquake did not originally excite that edge-wave mode. These three edge waves form a resonant triad that can cause unexpected variations in tsunami amplitude long after the first arrival. An M ~ 9, 1100 km-long continental subduction zone earthquake is considered as a test case. For the least-variable slip examined involving a Gaussian random variable, the dominant resonant triad includes a high-amplitude fundamental mode wave with wavenumber associated with the along-strike dimension of rupture. The two other waves that make up this triad include subharmonic waves, one of fundamental mode and the other of mode 2 or 3. For the most variable slip examined involving a Cauchy-distributed random variable, the dominant triads involve higher wavenumbers and modes because subevents, rather than the overall rupture dimension, control the excitation of edge waves. Calculation of the resonant period for energy transfer determines which cases resonant coupling may be instrumentally observed. For low-mode triads, the maximum transfer of energy occurs approximately 20–30 wave periods after the first arrival and thus may be observed prior to the tsunami coda being completely attenuated. Therefore, under certain circumstances the necessary ingredients for resonant coupling of tsunami edge waves exist, indicating that resonant triads may be observable and implicated in late, large-amplitude tsunami arrivals.

Description: Although seismic attenuation measurements have great potential to enhance our knowledge of physical conditions and rock properties, their application is limited because robust methods for improving both the resolution and accuracy of attenuation estimates have not yet been established. We propose attenuation estimation methods for zero-offset vertical seismic profile (VSP) data by combining seismic interferometry (SI) and the modified median frequency shift (MMFS) method developed for attenuation estimation using sonic waveform data. The configuration of zero-offset VSP data is redatumed to that of the sonic logging measurement by adopting two types of SI: deconvolution interferometry and crosscorrelation interferometry (CCI). Then, we can apply the MMFS method to the redatumed VSP data. Although the amplitude information estimated from CCI is biased, we propose a correction method for this bias to correctly estimate attenuation. First, to investigate the performance both in resolution and accuracy, we apply different trace separations to synthetic data with random noise at different signal-to-noise ratio levels. Second, we estimate the influence of residual reflection events after wavefield separation on attenuation estimation. The proposed methods provide more stable attenuation estimates in comparison with the spectral ratio method because the mean-median procedure suppresses random events and characteristic features caused by residual reflection events in spectral domain. Our numerical experiments also imply that the proposed methods can estimate scattering attenuation values even if frequency components are not changed between the two receiver depths. Finally, by preliminarily applying the proposed methods to field VSP data, we demonstrate the advantages of the proposed method in the resolution and stability of attenuation estimates and these observations correlate with those of numerical tests.

Description: One interpretation of a seismic image is the instantaneous scattered wave response of a colocated pseudo-source and pseudo-receiver at each point in the subsurface model. If there is no model perturbation at a point then there will be no instantaneous scattered wave so nothing will be imaged; if something is imaged then there must be a perturbation at that location. By extension, so-called extended images (EIs) represent the full spatio-temporal response between offset subsurface pseudo-sources and pseudo-receivers which can be used to constrain elastic properties around each image point. However, one-sided illumination of the subsurface (from the Earth's surface), errors in the initial velocity model estimate, and the use of a linearized, single-scattering assumption (as is usual in seismic imaging) cause errors in EI gathers such as missing events, incorrect amplitudes, and spurious energy. By creating elastic (P-to-P and P-to-S) EIs in a synthetic example of subsalt imaging, we demonstrate the advantages of incorporating multiply scattered waves correctly by non-linear imaging, and of including transmitted waves by using two-sided receiver arrays, and discuss how the recently developed autofocussing methods could provide us with the various required subsurface wavefields. Pre- and post-imaging f–k filtering procedures are introduced to further improve the quality of the EIs by (explicitly or implicitly) limiting the directions of waves arriving at the subsurface pseudo-source and receiver survey line. These filters suppress strong linear events that arise from the erroneous interaction of near-horizontally propagating waves which are not naturally accounted for due to the lack of sources and receivers on either side of the imaging target. Finally, we analyse the sensitivity of elastic P-to-P EIs to errors in the migration velocity models and show that events in the EI are shifted in opposite directions when constructed using reflection or transmission data. In other words, velocity errors are mapped into the EIs differently in the case of one-sided from two-sided illumination. This leads to the potential for new methods of migration velocity analysis when surface and borehole seismic data are jointly acquired.

Description: Uncertainty estimation is a vital part of geophysical numerical modelling. There exist a variety of methods aimed at uncertainty estimation, which are often complicated and difficult to implement. We present an inversion technique that produces multiple solutions, based on bootstrap resampling, to create a qualitative uncertainty measure for 2-D magnetotelluric inversion models. The approach is easy to implement, can be used with almost any inversion code, and does not require access to the inversion software's source code. It is capable of detecting the effect of data uncertainties on the model result rather than just analysing the effect of model variations on the model response. To obtain uncertainty estimates for an inversion model, the original data set is resampled repeatedly and alternate data set realizations are created and inverted. This ensemble of solutions is then statistically analysed to determine the variability between the different solutions. The process yields interpretable uncertainty maps for the inversion model and we demonstrate its effectiveness to qualitatively quantify uncertainty in synthetic model tests and a case study.

Description: Was the Yukon-Tanana Terrane (YTT), a California-sized part of south-central Yukon, an autochthonous or para-autochthonous part of northern British Columbia in the Early Cretaceous or was it part of a proposed allochthonous ‘Baja B.C.’ continent offshore of southern California? To answer this fundamental question, a paleomagnetic study has been completed on 347 specimens from 24 sites in the 114.7 ± 1.1 Ma Quiet Lake batholith. This 1300 km 2 pluton is composed mostly of massive medium-to-coarse grained biotite quartz monzonite that exhibits no evidence of either deformation or metamorphism, and that intrudes metamorphosed pre-Cretaceous basement rocks of the YTT in southern Yukon. The paleomagnetic analysis utilized thermal and alternating field step demagnetization, and saturation isothermal remanence methods. A well-defined characteristic remanent magnetization (ChRM) direction was isolated throughout the 500–585 °C temperature range at Decl. = 340.6°, Incl. = 77.4° ( N = 14 sites, k = 51.2, A 95 = 5.6°). The ChRM resides in magnetite with a low titanium content and is interpreted to be a primary thermoremanent magnetization. After correction for 490 km of geologically demonstrable dextral displacement on the inboard Tintina fault zone, the Quiet Lake batholith's paleopole is not significantly different at 95 per cent confidence from the co-eval 115 Ma reference paleopole for North America, giving non-significant translation and rotation estimates of 1.4° ± 5.1° (1) northwestwards and 10° ± 13° (1) clockwise, respectively. Thus, this is the first Early Cretaceous paleopole to show clearly that the YTT in Yukon is a para-autochthon that was part of North America's continental margin at that time. Further, after correction for Tintina fault displacement, the eight available Mesozoic YTT paleopoles agree closely with the North American apparent polar wander path (APWP). In contrast, the 22 paleopoles from the Intermontane Belt show the expected behaviour of an allochthonous thin-skin of terranes (i.e. ‘Baja B.C.’ behaviour) and record ~8° of northward translation and ~50° of clockwise rotation relative to both the YTT and North American APWPs during the Mesozoic and Paleogene.

Description: Electromagnetic (EM) imaging methods are useful tools for monitoring subsurface changes in pore-fluid content and the associated changes in electrical permittivity and conductivity. The most common method for georadar tomography uses a high frequency ray-theoretic approximation that is valid when material variations are sufficiently small relative to the wavelength of the propagating wave. Georadar methods, however, often utilize EM waves that propagate within heterogeneous media at frequencies where ray theory may not be applicable. In this paper we describe EM wave propagation 3-D Fréchet sensitivity kernels that capture the data sensitivity to material perturbations for a given source–receiver combination. Various data functional types are formulated that consider all three components of the electric wavefield and incorporate near-, intermediate- and far-field contributions. We show that EM waves exhibit substantial variations for different relative source–receiver component orientations. The 3-D sensitivities also illustrate out of plane effects that are not captured in 2-D sensitivity kernels and can influence results obtained using 2-D inversion methods to image structures that are in reality 3-D.

Description: This paper focuses on the modelling of fluid-filled poroelastic double porosity media under quasi-static and dynamic regimes. The double porosity model is derived from a two-scale homogenization procedure, by considering a medium locally characterized by blocks of poroelastic Biot microporous matrix and a surrounding system of fluid-filled macropores or fractures. The derived double porosity description is a two-pressure field poroelastic model with memory and viscoelastic effects. These effects result from the ‘time-dependent’ interaction between the pressure fields in the two pore networks. It is shown that this homogenized double porosity behaviour arises when the characteristic time of consolidation in the microporous domain is of the same order of magnitude as the macroscopic characteristic time of transient regime. Conversely, single porosity behaviours occur when both timescales are clearly distinct. Moreover, it is established that the phenomenological approaches that postulate the coexistence of two pressure fields in ‘instantaneous’ interaction only describe media with two pore networks separated by an interface flow barrier. Hence, they fail at predicting and reproducing the behaviour of usual double porosity media. Finally, the results are illustrated for the case of stratified media.

Description: There exists a fundamental as well as practical interest in being able to accurately forecast the future evolution of Earth's magnetic field at decadal to secular ranges. This work enables such forecasts by combining geomagnetic data with an Earth-like numerical model of a convection-driven fluid dynamo. The underlying data assimilation framework builds on recent progress in inverse geodynamo modelling, a method which estimates an internal dynamic structure for Earth's core from a snapshot of the magnetic field and its instantaneous rate of change at the surface, and takes advantage of linear relationships and long-range correlations between observed and hidden state variables. Here the method is further evolved into a single-epoch ensemble Kalman filter, in order to initialise at a given epoch an ensemble of states compatible with the observations and representative of the uncertainties in the estimation of hidden quantities. The ensemble dynamics, obtained by subsequent numerical integration of the prognostic model equations, are found to be governed by a thermal wind balance or equilibrium between buoyancy forces, the Coriolis force and the pressure gradient. The resulting core fluid flow pattern is a quasi-steady eccentric gyre organised in a column parallel to Earth's rotation axis, in equilibrium with a longitudinal hemispheric convective density anomaly pattern. The flow provides induction for the magnetic field, which also undergoes a realistic amount of diffusion. Predictions of the present magnetic field from data taken within the past century show that the ensemble has an average retaining good consistency with the true geomagnetic evolution and an acceptable spread well representative of prediction errors, up to at least a secular range. The predictability of the geodynamo thus appears to significantly exceed previous theoretical expectations based on the chaotic divergence of ensemble members. The assimilation generally outperforms the linear mathematical extrapolations from a 30-yr prediction range onwards, with a 40 per cent improvement in Earth-surface error at a secular range. The geomagnetic axial dipole decay observed over the past two centuries is predicted to continue at a similar pace in the next century, with a further loss of $1.1\pm 0.3 \hspace{2.84526pt}\mathrm{\mu T}$ by year 2115. The focal (or minimum intensity) point of the South Atlantic geomagnetic anomaly is predicted to enter the South Pacific region in the next century, with the anomaly itself further deepening and widening. By year 2065, the minimum intensity is predicted to decrease by $1.46\pm 0.4 \hspace{2.84526pt}\mathrm{\mu T}$ at the Earth surface and the focal point to move 12.8 ± 1.4 deg westwards with a slight northward component. This corresponds to a drift rate of 0.26 deg yr –1 , similar to the typical geomagnetic westward drift observed over the past four centuries. The same drift rate is also predicted until 2115 with a further (but more uncertain) intensity decrease.

Description: The Okavango Delta of northern Botswana is one of the world's largest inland deltas or megafans. To obtain information on the character of sediments and basement depths, audiomagnetotelluric (AMT), controlled-source audiomagnetotelluric (CSAMT) and central-loop transient electromagnetic (TEM) data were collected on the largest island within the delta. The data were inverted individually and jointly for 1-D models of electric resistivity. Distortion effects in the AMT and CSAMT data were accounted for by including galvanic distortion tensors as free parameters in the inversions. By employing Marquardt–Levenberg inversion, we found that a 3-layer model comprising a resistive layer overlying sequentially a conductive layer and a deeper resistive layer was sufficient to explain all of the electromagnetic data. However, the top of the basal resistive layer from electromagnetic-only inversions was much shallower than the well-determined basement depth observed in high-quality seismic reflection images and seismic refraction velocity tomograms. To resolve this discrepancy, we jointly inverted the electromagnetic data for 4-layer models by including seismic depths to an interface between sedimentary units and to basement as explicit a priori constraints. We have also estimated the interconnected porosities, clay contents and pore-fluid resistivities of the sedimentary units from their electrical resistivities and seismic P -wave velocities using appropriate petrophysical models. In the interpretation of our preferred model, a shallow ~40 m thick freshwater sandy aquifer with 85–100 m resistivity, 10–32 per cent interconnected porosity and 〈13 per cent clay content overlies a 105–115 m thick conductive sequence of clay and intercalated salt-water-saturated sands with 15–20 m total resistivity, 1–27 per cent interconnected porosity and 15–60 per cent clay content. A third ~60 m thick sandy layer with 40–50 m resistivity, 10–33 per cent interconnected porosity and 〈15 per cent clay content is underlain by the basement with 3200–4000 m total resistivity. According to an interpretation of helicopter TEM data that cover the entire Okavango Delta and borehole logs, the second and third layers may represent lacustrine sediments from Paleo Lake Makgadikgadi and a moderately resistive freshwater aquifer comprising sediments of the recently proposed Paleo Okavango Megafan, respectively.

Description: Interpolation and random noise removal is a pre-requisite for multichannel techniques because the irregularity and random noise in observed data can affect their performances. Projection Onto Convex Sets (POCS) method can better handle seismic data interpolation if the data's signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) is high, while it has difficulty in noisy situations because it inserts the noisy observed seismic data in each iteration. Weighted POCS method can weaken the noise effects, while the performance is affected by the choice of weight factors and is still unsatisfactory. Thus, a new weighted POCS method is derived through the Iterative Hard Threshold (IHT) view, and in order to eliminate random noise, a new adaptive method is proposed to achieve simultaneous seismic data interpolation and denoising based on dreamlet transform. Performances of the POCS method, the weighted POCS method and the proposed method are compared in simultaneous seismic data interpolation and denoising which demonstrate the validity of the proposed method. The recovered SNRs confirm that the proposed adaptive method is the most effective among the three methods. Numerical examples on synthetic and real data demonstrate the validity of the proposed adaptive method.

Description: Capacitively Coupled Resistivity (CCR) is conventionally used to emulate DC resistivity measurements and may provide important information about the ice content of material in periglacial areas. The application of CCR theoretically enables the determination of both electrical parameters, that is, the resistivity and the electrical permittivity, by analysing magnitude and phase shift spectra. The electrical permittivity may dominate the impedance, especially in periglacial areas or regions of hydrogeological interest. However, previous theoretical work suggested that the phase shift may strongly depend on electrode height above ground, implying that electrode height must be known with great accuracy to determine electrical permittivity. Here, we demonstrate with laboratory test measurements, theoretical modelling and by analysing the Jacobian matrix of the inversion that the sensitivity towards electrode height is drastically reduced if the electrical permittivity is frequency dependent in a way that is typical for ice. For the first time, we used a novel broad-band CCR device ‘Chameleon’ for a field test located in one of the ridge galleries beneath the crest of Mount Zugspitze. A permanently ice covered bottom of a tunnel was examined. For the inversion of the measured spectra, the frequency dependence of the electrical parameters was parametrized in three different ways: A Debye Model for pure ices, a Cole–Cole Model for pure ices and a dual Cole–Cole Model including interfacial water additionally. The frequency-dependent resistivity and permittivity spectra obtained from the inversion, including low- and high-frequency limits, agree reasonably well with laboratory and field measurements reported in the literature.

Description: Understanding the contribution of biogenic magnetic particles into sedimentary assemblages is a current challenge in palaeomagnetism. It has been demonstrated recently that magnetic particles produced through biologically controlled mineralization processes, such as magnetosomes from magnetotactic bacteria, contribute to the recording of natural remanent magnetization in marine and lacustrian sediments. Contributions from other, biologically induced, mineralization types, which are known from multiple laboratory experiments to include magnetic minerals, remain largely unknown. Here, we report magnetic properties of iron minerals formed by a community of iron- and manganese-reducing bacteria isolated from a natural groundwater deposit during a 2 yr long incubation experiment. The main iron phases of the biomineralized mass are lepidocrocite, goethite and magnetite, each of which has environmental significance. Unlike the majority of the previous studies that reported superparamagnetic grain size, and thus no remanence carrying capacity of biologically induced magnetite, hysteresis and first-order reversal curves measurements in our study have not detected significant superparamagnetic contribution. The biomineralized mass, instead, contains a mixture of single-domain to pseudo-single-domain and multidomain magnetite particles that are capable of carrying a stable chemical remanent magnetization. Isothermal remanent magnetization acquisition parameters and first-order reversal curves signatures of the biomineralized samples deviate from previously proposed criteria for the distinction of extracellular (biologically induced) magnetic particles in mixtures. Given its potential significance as a carrier of natural remanent magnetization, environmental requirements, distribution in nature and the efficiency in the geomagnetic field recording by biologically induced mineralization need comprehensive investigation.

Description: We evaluate the applicability and the effectiveness of GPR attribute analysis for high-resolution glacier imaging and characterization, testing this approach on 4-D GPR multifrequency data collected in a small glacier in the Eastern Alps, by repeating the acquisition along the same profiles in four different periods of the year 2013. The main objectives are to image and characterize the glacier's inner structure and to quantitatively monitor the seasonal thawing of near-surface frozen materials (snow/firn). A multiattribute approach is used to characterize the subsurface through different attribute categories, including instantaneous and textural attributes considering not only amplitude-, phase- and frequency-related attributes, but also other more complex and integrated parameters. We combine information from more than one attribute into a single image with composite displays, using overlays or mixed displays. The results demonstrate that the developed GPR attribute analysis can provide significant improvements in the discrimination of GPR signals, and obtain enhanced and more constrained data interpretations.

Description: Migration velocity analysis aims at automatically updating the large-scale components of the velocity model, called macromodel. Extended Common Image Gathers are panels used to evaluate focusing after imaging and are constructed as a function of a spatial shift introduced in the imaging condition. We investigate how transmitted waves can also be used in migration velocity analysis: instead of back-propagating the residuals associated with reflected waves, we propose to back-propagate the full wavefield. The image function, equivalent to the migrated section for reflected data, does not exhibit localized events in space along horizons but is still sensitive to the choice of the background velocity model and can thus be coupled to the same objective function defined in the image domain. In order to enhance the benefits of direct waves, we consider a cross-well configuration. Direct waves provide a large illumination between two vertical wells. Associated Common Image Gathers present different characteristics than the ones associated with reflected waves in surface acquisition. In particular, energy is spread over up to the maximum penetration depth. We invert cross-well seismic data along two lines. In the first case, the input data contain the full wavefield dominated by transmitted waves. It demonstrates the possibility to handle transmitted waves to determine the velocity model. It appears that the misfit in the data domain is largely reduced after inversion. In the second case, we use the same algorithm, but with reflected observed data only, as in a classical approach. Most of velocity updates are localized around the reflectivity, leading to an incorrect final model. This demonstrates the benefit of transmitted waves for migration velocity analysis in a cross-well configuration.

Description: An integrated approach to interpret Self-Potential (SP) anomalies based on spectral analysis and tomographic methods is presented. The Maximum Entropy Method (MEM) is used for providing accurate estimates of the depth of the anomaly source. The 2-D tomographic inversion technique, based on the underground charge occurrence probability (COP) function, is, then, used to fully characterize the anomalous body, as the MEM is not helpful in delineating the shape of the anomaly source. The proposed integrated approach is applied for the inversion of synthetic SP data generated by geometrically simple anomalous bodies, such as cylinders and inclined sheets. This numerical study has allowed the determination of mathematical relationships between zero lines of the COP distributions, the polarization angles and the positions along the profile of the causative sources, which have been of great help for interpreting the related SP anomalies. Finally, the analysis of field examples shows the high potential applicability of the proposed integrated approach for SP data inversion.

Description: Volcanic and tectonic events are the main processes involved in the generation of the oceanic crust and responsible for the seismicity associated with seafloor spreading. To monitor this activity, usually not or poorly detected by land-based seismological stations, we deployed from February 2012 to February 2013 a network of autonomous hydrophones to compare the behaviour of the ultraslow-spreading Southwest Indian ridge (SWIR) with that of the intermediate-spreading Southeast Indian ridge (SEIR). The rate of seismicity is similar for both ridges, suggesting that there is no systematic relationship between seismicity and spreading rates. The along-axis distribution of the seismic events, however, does differ, reflecting the rate dependence of accretion modes. Earthquakes are sparse and regularly spaced and scattered along the SWIR, reflecting prevailing tectonic processes. By contrast, along the SEIR, events are irregularly distributed and focus at ridge-segment ends and transforms faults, reflecting the ridge segmentation; only two swarms occurred at a segment centre and are probably caused by a magmatic event. This seismicity distribution thus looks controlled by segment-scale crustal heterogeneities along the SEIR and by regional-scale contrasting accretion processes along the SWIR, probably driven by different lithospheric and asthenospheric dynamics on either side of the Melville fracture zone. The comparison of hydroacoustic and teleseismic catalogues shows that, along these spreading ridges, the background seismicity observed in 1 yr by a hydroacoustic network is representative of the seismicity observed over two decades by land-based networks.

Description: Monthly means of the magnetic field measurements at ground observatories are a key data source for studying temporal changes of the core magnetic field. However, when they are calculated in the usual way, contributions of external (magnetospheric and ionospheric) origin may remain, which make them less favourable for studying the field generated by dynamo action in the core. We remove external field predictions, including a new way of characterizing the magnetospheric ring current, from the data and then calculate revised monthly means using robust methods. The geomagnetic secular variation (SV) is calculated as the first annual differences of these monthly means, which also removes the static crustal field. SV time-series based on revised monthly means are much less scattered than those calculated from ordinary monthly means, and their variances and correlations between components are smaller. On the annual to decadal timescale, the SV is generated primarily by advection in the fluid outer core. We demonstrate the utility of the revised monthly means by calculating models of the core surface advective flow between 1997 and 2013 directly from the SV data. One set of models assumes flow that is constant over three months; such models exhibit large and rapid temporal variations. For models of this type, less complex flows achieve the same fit to the SV derived from revised monthly means than those from ordinary monthly means. However, those obtained from ordinary monthly means are able to follow excursions in SV that are likely to be external field contamination rather than core signals. Having established that we can find models that fit the data adequately, we then assess how much temporal variability is required. Previous studies have suggested that the flow is consistent with torsional oscillations (TO), solid body-like oscillations of fluid on concentric cylinders with axes aligned along the Earth's rotation axis. TO have been proposed to explain decadal timescale changes in the length-of-day. We invert for flow models where the only temporal changes are consistent with TO, but such models have an unacceptably large data misfit. However, if we relax the TO constraint to allow a little more temporal variability, we can fit the data as well as with flows assumed constant over three months, demonstrating that rapid SV changes can be reproduced by rather small flow changes. Although the flow itself changes slowly, its time derivative can be locally (temporally and spatially) large, in particular when and where core surface secular acceleration peaks. Spherical harmonic expansion coefficients of the flows are not well resolved, and many of them are strongly correlated. Averaging functions, a measure of our ability to determine the flow at a given location from the data distribution available, are poor approximations to the ideal, even when centred on points of the core surface below areas of high observatory density. Both resolution and averaging functions are noticeably worse for the toroidal flow component, which dominates the flow, than the poloidal flow component, except around the magnetic equator where averaging functions for both components are poor.

Description: Frequency-domain loop–loop electromagnetic (EM) methods are sensitive to the magnetic susceptibility of the Earth as well as its resistivity. Thus, inversion techniques have been used to simultaneously reconstruct both resistivity and susceptibility models from EM data. However, to take full advantage of inversion methods, calibration errors must be assessed and removed because ignoring them can result in misleading models. We present a multidimensional inversion method that jointly inverts EM and direct current (DC) resistivity data to derive offset errors as well as resistivity and susceptibility models, assuming that calibration errors can be represented by in-phase and quadrature offsets at each frequency. Addition of independent data such as DC data is effective for more accurately estimating the offsets, resulting in more reliable subsurface models. Synthetic examples involving small-loop EM data show that simultaneous inversion for resistivity and susceptibility is not stable, because of strong correlations between in-phase offset parameters and background susceptibility, but that the offsets are well determined when the data misfit is reduced rapidly in the early iteration step. Improvements achieved by joint inversion are mainly on the resistivity model. For airborne electromagnetic (AEM) data, the inversion process is stable, because AEM data are acquired using more loop–loop geometries and a wider range of frequencies. As a result, both the resistivity and susceptibility models are significantly improved by joint inversion.

Description: The electrical rock conductivity is a sensitive indicator for carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) injection and migration processes. For a reliable balancing of the free CO 2 in pore space with petrophysical models such as Archie's law or for the detection of migrating CO 2 , detailed knowledge of the pore water conductivity during interaction with CO 2 is essential but not available yet. Contrary to common assumptions, pore water conductivity cannot be assumed constant since CO 2 is a reactive gas that dissolves into the pore water in large amounts and provides additional charge carriers due to the dissociation of carbonic acid. We consequently carried out systematic laboratory experiments to quantify and analyse the changes in saline pore water conductivity caused by CO 2 at thermodynamic equilibrium. Electrical conductivity is measured on pore water samples for pressures up to 30 MPa and temperatures up to 80 °C. The parameter range covers the gaseous, liquid and supercritical state of the CO 2 involved. Pore water salinities from 0.006 up to 57.27 g L –1 sodium chloride were investigated as well as selective other ion species. At the same time, the CO 2 concentration in the salt solution was determined by a wet-chemical procedure. A two-regime behaviour appears: for small salinities, we observe an increase of up to more than factor 3 in the electrical pore water conductivity, which strongly depends on the solution salinity (low-salinity regime). This is an expected behaviour, since the additional ions originating from the dissociation of carbonic acid positively contribute to the solution conductivity. However, when increasing salinities are considered this effect is completely diminished. For highly saline solutions, the increased mutual impeding causes the mobility of all ions to decrease, which may result in a significant reduction of conductivity by up to 15 per cent despite the added CO 2 (high-salinity regime). We present the data set covering the pressure, temperature, salinity and ion species dependence of the CO 2 effect. Furthermore, the observations are analysed and predicted with a semi-analytical formulation for the electrical pore water conductivity taking into account the species’ interactions. For the applicability of our results in practice of exploration and monitoring, we additionally provide a purely empirical formulation to compute the impact of CO 2 on pore water conductivity at equilibrium which only requires the input of pressure, temperature and salinity information.

Description: We have developed an efficient numerical scheme for 3-D electromagnetic (EM) simulations using an exponential finite-difference (FD) method with non-uniform grids. The method uses the set of exponential basis functions {1, exp [ ± ( x x + y y + z z )]}, where the exponents x , y and z must be chosen carefully depending on the simulation frequency and local node conductivity. The method achieves an approximation of the oscillatory and exponentially decaying EM fields that is better than that obtained via the low-degree polynomial fitting from standard FDs—and hence also leads to more accurate results. An important property of the exponential FD method is that it tends to the standard FD method when the exponents x , y and z tend to zero. We applied the standard and exponential FD methods to three marine controlled-source EM modelling scenarios: deep-water, shallow-water and intermediate water depth. For the deep-water scenario, we found that the proposed exponential FD method gave two to three times more accurate results as compared to the standard FD method on the same grid. For the shallow-water and intermediate water depth scenarios, the exponential FD method improved the accuracy of the upgoing fields; it gave 2–2.5 times more accurate results for the upgoing fields than the standard FD method on the same grid. Consequently, the method can achieve the same accuracy with a coarser grid and hence is faster than the standard FD method, as demonstrated using a frequency-domain iterative solver.

Description: Rocks in nature are multiphase composites of minerals and fluids with varying elastic properties. Predicting the effects that geochemical and geological processes, which lead to removal, alteration or substitution of one or more phases, have on seismic velocities is of considerable practical interest in geophysics. We present a new theory that quantifies the effect of replacing ‘one' or ‘more' phases (fluid or solid) on the elastic properties of multimineralic isotropic rocks. These new exact solutions relax the assumption of unchanging rock microstructure upon substitution of the pore-filling material. By developing equations that do not depend on this assumption, which is fundamental to conventional substitution theories, for example, Biot–Gassmann theory, we expand their range of applicability. Since the new exact solutions require usually unknown parameters, we also develop approximations that depend only on initial effective stiffness, elastic properties and volume fractions of constituents.

Description: Although the Matuyama–Brunhes boundary (MBB) in the Chinese Loess Plateau (CLP) is very important in reliably correlating Quaternary loess with other sediments in the world, particularly with marine and polar ice cores, its exact stratigraphic position remains controversial. Previous investigations usually placed the MBB between paleosol unit S8 and loess unit L8 in various locations. To better understand the spatial differences in the MBB position, a high-resolution paleomagnetic study was conducted in a loess section of the Lantian Basin at the southern margin of the CLP. The results show that the MBB is situated in the middle of the relatively weak paleosol unit S7, consistent with a recent report on the MBB based on a 10 Be study from the Xifeng and Luochuan loess sections of the central CLP. However, the regional anomalously low magnetic susceptibility in paleosols S7 and S8 indicates that it is more reliable to determine the paleoclimate boundaries between loess and paleosol horizons of this segment with median grain size. Then, the MBB in the Yushan section can be correlated with the bottom of paleosol S7, corresponding to the older part of interglacial marine isotope stage 19. This result temporally reconciles the striking discrepancy of the position of the MBB recorded in between loess and other typical sedimentary sequences, and further confirms that the stratigraphic position of the MBB could spatially vary to a certain extent due to regional sedimentary or paleoclimatic conditions in the marginal areas of the CLP. In the Yushan section, the high-frequency variations of paleomagnetic directions during a long period of ~31 ka before the MBB, however, could not be attributed to a genuine response to the true geomagnetic behaviour. Moreover, the climate offset defined by the magnetic susceptibility and median grain size of the section can be preliminarily attributed to the regional geology and paleoenvironment background. A multiproxy-based stratigraphic division is considered very necessary when paleomagnetic and climatic boundaries are defined exactly in a specific area of the southern CLP.

Description: We study rotating thermal convection in spherical shells as prototype for flow in the cores of terrestrial planets, gas planets or in stars. We base our analysis on a set of about 450 direct numerical simulations of the (magneto)hydrodynamic equations under the Boussinesq approximation. The Ekman number ranges from 10 –3 to 10 –5 . The supercriticality of the convection reaches about 1000 in some models. Four sets of simulations are considered: non-magnetic simulations and dynamo simulations with either free-slip or no-slip flow boundary conditions. The non-magnetic setup with free-slip boundaries generates the strongest zonal flows. Both non-magnetic simulations with no-slip flow boundary conditions and self-consistent dynamos with free-slip boundaries have drastically reduced zonal-flows. Suppression of shear leads to a substantial gain in heat-transfer efficiency, increasing by a factor of 3 in some cases. Such efficiency enhancement occurs as long as the convection is significantly influenced by rotation. At higher convective driving the heat-transfer efficiency tends towards that of the classical non-rotating Rayleigh–Bénard system. Analysis of the latitudinal distribution of heat flow at the outer boundary reveals that the shear is most effective at suppressing heat-transfer in the equatorial regions. Simulations with convection zones of different thickness show that the zonal flows become less energetic in thicker shells, and, therefore, their effect on heat-transfer efficiency decreases. Furthermore, we explore the influence of the magnetic field on the non-zonal flow components of the convection. For this we compare the heat-transfer efficiency of no-slip non-magnetic cases with that of the no-slip dynamo simulations. We find that at E = 10 –5 magnetic field significantly affects the convection and a maximum gain of about 30 per cent (as compared to the non-magnetic case) in heat-transfer efficiency is obtained for an Elsasser number of about 3. Our analysis motivates us to speculate that convection in the polar regions in dynamos at E = 10 –5 is probably in a ‘magnetostrophic’ regime.

Description: ‘Anomalous’ magnetic fabrics in dikes that appear to indicate flow into the wall confound many workers. Here, we present extensive magnetic data on five dikes from Tenerife, Canary Islands, and use these to interpret the causes of the anomalous fabrics. Comparison of the anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS) and anhysteretic magnetization (AARM) results show that, in some cases, the anomalous fabrics are caused by single-domain grains, which produce AMS fabrics perpendicular to the grain elongation, whereas AARM fabrics are parallel. To check this, hysteresis experiments were used to characterize the domain state. These show most are mixtures of pseudo-single-domain or single-domain plus multi-domain particles, but many have wasp-waisted hysteresis loops, likely indicating mixed populations of stable single-domain and superparamagnetic grains. First-order reversal curves were used to better characterize this and show mixtures of stable single-domain and superparamagnetic grains dominate the magnetic signal. Magnetic particles at the stable single-domain/superparamagnetic threshold are unstable at timespans relevant to the analytical techniques, so they produce complicated results. This suggests that anomalous AMS fabrics in dikes cannot simply be attributed to elongated stable single-domain particles and that mixtures of the different grain types can produce hybrid fabrics, in which the fabrics are neither perpendicular or parallel to the dike plane, that are difficult to interpret without extensive magnetic analysis.

Description: Geothermal well GRT-1 (Rittershoffen, Alsace) was drilled in 2012. Its open-hole section (extending down to a depth of 2.6 km) penetrated fractured sandstones and granite. In 2013, the well was subjected to Thermal, Chemical and Hydraulic (TCH) stimulation, which improved the injectivity index fivefold. The goal of the study was to assess the impact of the stimulation by comparing pre- and post-stimulation well-logging (acoustic and temperature [ T ] logs) and mud-logging data. This comparison revealed modifications of almost all the natural fractures. However, not all of these fractures are associated with permeability enhancement, and the post-stimulation T logs are important for characterizing this enhancement. Chemical alteration due to mechanical erosion at the tops and bottoms of the fractures was observed in the sandstones. These zones display indications of very small new permeability after the TCH stimulation. Because a major fault zone caved extensively where it crosses the borehole, it was not imaged in the acoustic logs. However, this originally permeable zone was enhanced as demonstrated by the T logs. Based on the natural injectivity of this fault zone, hydraulic erosion and thermal microcracking of its internal quartz veins are associated with this permeability enhancement. Although local changes in the borehole wall observed in the acoustic images cannot be directly linked to the improved injectivity index, the comparison of the acoustic image logs allows for identification of fracture zones impacted by the TCH stimulation.

Description: We investigate the spatial coherence of underwater ambient noise using a yearlong time-series measured off Ascension Island. Qualitative agreement with observed cross-correlations is achieved using a simple range-dependent model, constrained by earlier, active tomographic studies in the area. In particular, the model correctly predicts the existence of two weakly dispersive normal modes in the microseism frequency range, with the group speed of one of the normal modes being smaller than the sound speed in water. The agreement justifies our interpretation of the peaks of the measured cross-correlation function of ambient noise as modal arrivals, with dispersion that is sensitive to crustal velocity structure. Our observations are consistent with Scholte to Moho head wave coupled propagation, with double mode conversion occurring due to the bathymetric variations between receivers. We thus demonstrate the feasibility of interrogating crustal properties using noise interferometry of moored hydrophone data at ranges in excess of 120 km.

Description: Recent tectonic reconstructions of the South Atlantic have partitioned the ocean basin into several segments based upon one or more proposed intraplate South American deformation zones. In several of these reconstructions, opening of the southern segment(s) by seafloor spreading prior to Aptian-Albian time is accompanied by contemporaneous strike-slip motion along an intraplate boundary extending southeastward from the Andean Cochabamba—Santa Cruz bend to the Rio Grande Fracture Zone (RGFZ). We have examined new magnetic data over the Pelotas, Santos and Campos Basins, offshore Argentina and Brazil, acquired by ION-GXT in tandem with long-offset, long record seismic reflection data, and identified seafloor spreading anomalies M4, M3, M2 and M0 (~131, ~129, ~128 and ~125 Ma). Integrating these results with our earlier work, we have been able to correlate magnetochrons M4, M3, M2 and M0 north and south of the RGFZ on the South American margin, and north and south of the Walvis Ridge on the African side. Our results are therefore inconsistent with diachronous opening models that involve substantial continental strike-slip motion north of RGFZ during M4 to M0 time. Although the ocean basin may have opened from south to north, our results indicate that seafloor spreading began north of the RGFZ earlier than previously proposed.

Description: We derive scaling relationships for planetary dynamos based on a balance between energy production and Joule dissipation, and between the curl of the buoyancy and Coriolis forces. These scaling relationships are deduced for the particular case of dynamos driven by helical waves, but are shown to have a much broader applicability. They are consistent with the evidence of the numerical dynamos, yielding predictions consistent with published empirical scaling laws and also with the observed transition from dipolar to multipolar dynamos. A direct comparison with the observational evidence for the planets is hampered by the fact that we do not know what sets the smallest scale of the motion in the planets. Nevertheless, we use our scaling relationships to show that the traditional assumption that the Elsasser number is of order unity is inconsistent with the observation that the gas-giant dynamos are dipolar dynamos, as is the more recent suggestion that the strength of the dipole is independent of rotation rate and controlled by the buoyancy flux alone. On the other hand, we show that the observational data is consistent with the hypothesis that a dipolar dynamo saturates at the lowest permissible magnetic energy compatible with a given buoyancy flux.

Description: We present a detailed palaeomagnetic study from 35 sites on Holocene lava flows of the Tongariro Volcanic Centre, central North Island, New Zealand. Prior to the study the eruption ages of these flows were constrained to within a few thousand years by recently published high-precision 40 Ar/ 39 Ar geochronological data and tephrostratigraphic controls. Correlation of flow mean palaeomagnetic directions with a recently published continuous sediment record from Lake Mavora, Fiordland, allows us to reduce the age uncertainty to 300–500 yr in some cases. Our refined ages significantly improve the chronology of Holocene effusive eruptions of the volcanoes of the Tongariro Volcanic Centre. For instance, differences in the palaeomagnetic directions recorded by lavas from the voluminous Iwikau and Rangataua members suggest that individual effusive periods lasted up to thousands of years and that these bursts have been irregularly spaced over time. While over the last few millennia the effusive eruptive activity from Mt Ruapehu has been relatively quiet, the very young age (200–500 BP) of a Red Crater sourced flow suggests that effusive activity around Mt Tongariro lasted into the past few centuries. This adds an important hazard context to the historical record, which has otherwise comprised frequent relatively small, tephra producing, explosive eruptions without the production of lava flows.

Description: Determining thin layer thickness is very important for reservoir characterization and CO 2 quantification. Given its high time–frequency resolution and robustness, the complex spectral decomposition method was applied on time-lapse 3-D seismic data from the Ketzin pilot site for CO 2 storage to evaluate the frequency-dependent characteristics of thin layers at the injection level. Higher temporal resolution and more stratigraphic details are seen in the all-frequency and monochromatic reflectivity amplitude sections obtained by complex spectral decomposition compared to the stacked sections. The mapped geologic discontinuities within the reservoir are consistent with the preferred orientation of CO 2 propagation. Tuning frequency mapping shows the thicknesses of the reservoir sandstone and gaseous CO 2 is consistent with the measured thickness of the sandstone unit from well logging. An attempt to discriminate between pressure effects and CO 2 saturation using the extracted tuning frequency indicates that CO 2 saturation is the main contributor to the amplitude anomaly at the Ketzin site. On the basis of determined thickness of gaseous CO 2 in the reservoir, quantitative analysis of the amount of CO 2 was performed and shows a discrepancy between the injected and calculated CO 2 mass. This may be explained by several uncertainties, like structural reservoir heterogeneity, a limited understanding of the complex subsurface conditions, error of determined tuning frequency, the presence of ambient noise and ongoing CO 2 dissolution.

Description: Comprehensive analytical solutions to 3-D axisymmetric problems for static response of multilayered thermoelastic media subjected to surface loads and containing sources are presented in this study. The solution strategy employs Laplace and Hankel transforms to the field variables. The problem is formulated in cylindrical coordinate system and in this coordinate system vector surface harmonics and generalized propagator matrix are introduced to find the solution for the problem for the behaviour of thermoelastic multilayered media subject to surface loads and containing heat sources. A high-order adaptive Gaussian quadrature method with continued fraction expansions is employed to approximate the integral solutions expressed in terms of semi-infinite Hankel-type integrals. It is the first time to apply the proposed solution method to investigate the behaviour of repository for heat-emitting high-level nuclear waste (HLW) in a geological formation where the HLW can be regarded as a decaying with time point heat source.

Description: The inversion of magnetotelluric data into subsurface electrical conductivity poses an ill-posed problem. Smoothing constraints are widely employed to estimate a regularized solution. Here, we present an alternative inversion scheme that estimates a sparse representation of the model in a wavelet basis. The objective of the inversion is to determine the few non-zero wavelet coefficients which are required to fit the data. This approach falls into the class of sparsity constrained inversion schemes and minimizes the combination of the data misfit in a least-squares 2 sense and of a model coefficient norm in an 1 sense ( 2 - 1 minimization). The 1 coefficient norm renders the solution sparse in a suitable representation such as the multiresolution wavelet basis, but does not impose explicit structural penalties on the model as it is the case for 2 regularization. The presented numerical algorithm solves the mixed 2 - 1 norm minimization problem for the nonlinear magnetotelluric inverse problem. We demonstrate the feasibility of our algorithm on synthetic 2-D MT data as well as on a real data example. We found that sparse models can be estimated by inversion and that the spatial distribution of non-vanishing coefficients indicates regions in the model which are resolved.

Description: We examined the mathematical and computational aspects of the magnetic potential, vector and gradient tensor fields of a tesseroid in a geocentric spherical coordinate system (SCS). This work is relevant for 3-D modelling that is performed with lithospheric vertical scales and global, continent or large regional horizontal scales. The curvature of the Earth is significant at these scales and hence, a SCS is more appropriate than the usual Cartesian coordinate system (CCS). The 3-D arrays of spherical prisms (SP; ‘tesseroids’) can be used to model the response of volumes with variable magnetic properties. Analytical solutions do not exist for these model elements and numerical or mixed numerical and analytical solutions must be employed. We compared various methods for calculating the response in terms of accuracy and computational efficiency. The methods were (1) the spherical coordinate magnetic dipole method (MD), (2) variants of the 3-D Gauss–Legendre quadrature integration method (3-D GLQI) with (i) different numbers of nodes in each of the three directions, and (ii) models where we subdivided each SP into a number of smaller tesseroid volume elements, (3) a procedure that we term revised Gauss–Legendre quadrature integration (3-D RGLQI) where the magnetization direction which is constant in a SCS is assumed to be constant in a CCS and equal to the direction at the geometric centre of each tesseroid, (4) the Taylor's series expansion method (TSE) and (5) the rectangular prism method (RP). In any realistic application, both the accuracy and the computational efficiency factors must be considered to determine the optimum approach to employ. In all instances, accuracy improves with increasing distance from the source. It is higher in the percentage terms for potential than the vector or tensor response. The tensor errors are the largest, but they decrease more quickly with distance from the source. In our comparisons of relative computational efficiency, we found that the magnetic potential takes less time to compute than the vector response, which in turn takes less time to compute than the tensor gradient response. The MD method takes less time to compute than either the TSE or RP methods. The efficiency of the (GLQI and) RGLQI methods depends on the polynomial order, but the response typically takes longer to compute than it does for the other methods. The optimum method is a complex function of the desired accuracy, the size of the volume elements, the element latitude and the distance between the source and the observation. For a model of global extent with typical model element size (e.g. 1 degree horizontally and 10 km radially) and observations at altitudes of 10s to 100s of km, a mixture of methods based on the horizontal separation of the source and observation separation would be the optimum approach. To demonstrate the RGLQI method described within this paper, we applied it to the computation of the response for a global magnetization model for observations at 300 and 30 km altitude.

Description: We present 1D anisotropic inversion of magnetotelluric (MT) data as a potential tool for mapping structural permeability in sedimentary basins. Using 1D inversions of a 171 site, broadband MT data set from the Koroit region of the Otway Basin, Victoria, Australia, we have delineated an electrically anisotropic layer at approximately 2.5 to 3.5 km depth. The anisotropy strike is consistent between stations at approximately 160° east of north. The depth of anisotropy corresponds to the top depth of the Lower Cretaceous Crayfish Group, and the anisotropy factor increases from west to east. We interpret the anisotropy as resulting from north–northwest oriented, fluid-filled fractures resulting in enhanced electrical and hydraulic conductivity. This interpretation is consistent with permeability data from well formation tests. It is also consistent with the orientation of mapped faults in the area, which are optimally oriented for reactivation in the current stress field.

Description: A recent paper by Tarasov and Titov suggested that the Cole–Cole conductivity models should be preferred to the Pelton resistivity model in fitting induced polarization responses. Each model has four parameters: resistivity (or its inverse conductivity ), chargeability m , time parameter and frequency dependence c . Tarasov and Titov showed that in fitting experimental data, 3 of the parameters directly correspond across the two formulations, but that there is a difference between the Pelton and Cole–Cole model in that parameter is only the same at low frequency, but is an entangled function with m and c at high frequencies in the Pelton formulation. This claim of inconsistent was based on using the Pelton complex resistivity formulation and the Cole–Cole complex conductivity equation to analyse complex conductivity data as a function of frequency. However, if Pelton and Cole–Cole models are used to fit complex resistivity, rather than fitting conductivity, then it is the Cole–Cole model that has an entangled parameter at high chargeability m values. Simple testing shows that a Pelton model used to fit resistivity has all four model parameters directly corresponding with conductivity data fitted with a Cole–Cole model. The conclusion is that Cole–Cole and Pelton models in fact require identical independent parameters that can fit experimental or synthetic data, provided the Pelton resistivity formulation is restricted to fitting to resistivity data, and the Cole–Cole conductivity formulation is restricted to fitting conductivity results.

Description: Stratum quality factors ( P -wave and S -wave quality factors, Q p and Q s ) have gradually been utilized in the study of physical state of crust and uppermost mantle, tectonic evolution, hydrogeololgy, gas hydrates, petroleum exploration, etc. Different opinions of the seismic attenuation mechanism result in various approaches to estimate the P -wave and S -wave quality factors. Considering the viscoelasticity of the underground medium, the constitutive matrix of the Earth medium is written as the superposition of homogeneous background medium, elastic perturbation medium and viscoelastic perturbation medium. Under the hypothesis of Born integral and stationary phase approximation, the seismic reflectivity is initially raised in terms of P -wave and S -wave moduli, density, P -wave and S -wave quality factors. Furthermore, incorporating the complex seismic traces with the seismic wavelets at different offsets, a two-step inversion approach is proposed to estimate the P -wave and S -wave quality factors. The AVO/AVA Bayesian inversion approach is suggested to estimate the P -wave modulus and S -wave modulus with the real component of the pre-stack seismic data initially. Taking the estimated P -wave and S -wave moduli as prior information, the P -wave and S -wave quality factors are further estimated with the imaginary component of the complex pre-stack seismic data, which is the quadrature of the original data. Finally, synthetic examples demonstrate that the proposed approach is able to estimate P -wave and S -wave quality factors stably and properly, and two field data examples demonstrate that the proposed approach may work as an efficient approach to fluid identification.

Description: Kamacite particles (Fe–Ni, Ni 〈 5 per cent), are very common in extra-terrestrial materials, such as meteorites. It is normally assumed that for kamacite particles to be reliable recorders of magnetic fields, they need to be magnetically uniform (single domain, SD) and thermally stable. Larger particles subdivide into non-uniform multidomain (MD) magnetic structures that produce weaker magnetic signals, while small SD particles become magnetically unstable due to thermal fluctuations and exhibit superparamagnetic behaviour. In this paper we determine the first micromagnetic calculation of the stable SD range domain-state phase diagram for metallic iron; previous calculations were analytical. There is a significant increase in the critical size for the SD/MD threshold size, for example, for cube-shaped iron particles, the critical SD/MD threshold has now been estimated to be 25 nm, compared to 17 nm for previous estimates. The larger critical SD/MD threshold size for iron, agrees better with previously published nanometric observations of domain state for FeNi particles, then early analytical models.

Description: This paper presents a distributed magnetotelluric inversion scheme based on adaptive finite-element method (FEM). The key novel aspect of the introduced algorithm is the use of automatic mesh refinement techniques for both forward and inverse modelling. These techniques alleviate tedious and subjective procedure of choosing a suitable model parametrization. To avoid overparametrization, meshes for forward and inverse problems were decoupled. For calculation of accurate electromagnetic (EM) responses, automatic mesh refinement algorithm based on a goal-oriented error estimator has been adopted. For further efficiency gain, EM fields for each frequency were calculated using independent meshes in order to account for substantially different spatial behaviour of the fields over a wide range of frequencies. An automatic approach for efficient initial mesh design in inverse problems based on linearized model resolution matrix was developed. To make this algorithm suitable for large-scale problems, it was proposed to use a low-rank approximation of the linearized model resolution matrix. In order to fill a gap between initial and true model complexities and resolve emerging 3-D structures better, an algorithm for adaptive inverse mesh refinement was derived. Within this algorithm, spatial variations of the imaged parameter are calculated and mesh is refined in the neighborhoods of points with the largest variations. A series of numerical tests were performed to demonstrate the utility of the presented algorithms. Adaptive mesh refinement based on the model resolution estimates provides an efficient tool to derive initial meshes which account for arbitrary survey layouts, data types, frequency content and measurement uncertainties. Furthermore, the algorithm is capable to deliver meshes suitable to resolve features on multiple scales while keeping number of unknowns low. However, such meshes exhibit dependency on an initial model guess. Additionally, it is demonstrated that the adaptive mesh refinement can be particularly efficient in resolving complex shapes. The implemented inversion scheme was able to resolve a hemisphere object with sufficient resolution starting from a coarse discretization and refining mesh adaptively in a fully automatic process. The code is able to harness the computational power of modern distributed platforms and is shown to work with models consisting of millions of degrees of freedom. Significant computational savings were achieved by using locally refined decoupled meshes.

Description: In this paper, we modelled the electrical transport behaviour of bimodal carbonate rocks from a reservoir in China using dual-pore networks. One basic assumption, generally supported by experimental data and microstructure observations in the reservoir samples, was that the low porosity, monomodal rocks had the same properties and structure as the microporous matrix of the high porosity, bimodal samples. We assumed that the matrix was homogeneous and always interconnected but that the connectivity and the pore size distribution of macropore system was randomly variable. Both pore systems were supposed to act locally as ‘in parallel’ electrical conductors, an approach previously used by Bauer et al. Hence, the effect of matrix properties, macropore size distribution and connectivity on electrical properties of bimodal rocks could be modelled and investigated. We simulated electrical current through 3-D, simple cubic and body-centred cubic networks with different coordination numbers, different pipe radius distributions of macropore system and different matrix properties. The main result was that the formation factor of dual-pore network obeyed a ‘universal’ scaling relationship (i.e. independent of lattice type). Based on this result, we extended the power-law model derived by Bernabé et al. for monomodal porous media. We developed methods for evaluating the scale-invariant pore structure parameters in the model using conventional core analysis and satisfactorily tested the proposed model against experimental data from the Chinese reservoir as well as some other previously published data sets.

Description: Asymptotic expressions are derived for electromagnetic fields induced by arbitrarily oriented electric and magnetic dipoles in a laterally isotropic stratified medium. Considering that the leading terms, which describe the airwave, decay in accordance with the same geometric law whether the source is a horizontal electric or magnetic dipole, it is suggested to use a transmitter, which combines these sources. It is shown that the airwave greatly diminishes if the amplitudes and phases of the horizontal current and magnetic moments of this transmitter are chosen to minimize the far-zone vertical magnetic field. A properly tuned combined transmitter will induce the electromagnetic field with a relatively small transverse electric mode. Raw electromagnetic data acquired with the combined transmitter will be more sensitive to parameters of the resistive reservoir than data acquired using the traditional horizontal electric dipole type of the transmitter.

Description: A Bayesian inversion methodology for identification of large-scale subsurface structures (strata) from controlled source electromagnetic data is developed. The Bayesian inverse problem is solved by sampling from the posterior probability distribution, using the ensemble Kalman filter. Prior knowledge is incorporated in the methodology by utilizing structural prior information from, for example, interpreted seismic data. A model-based, composite parametrization of the electric conductivity distribution is applied to represent the subsurface structures. The model-based representation also allows for estimation of variation of electric conductivity within each stratum. To enhance stability and reduce model nonlinearity, a reduced representation of structure boundaries and conductivity variation within each stratum is applied. Numerical experiments on various test cases show that the methodology is able to identify fairly complex subsurface conductivity distributions reasonably well, with and without a hydrocarbon reservoir present. These experiments included strata with weak conductivity contrast and the application of various prior probability distributions. Furthermore, the methodology shows the ability to (almost completely) remove a reservoir present in the prior model that is not present in the true model (‘false positive’).

Description: Non-linear inversion algorithms traverse a data misfit space over multiple iterations of trial models in search of either a global minimum or some target misfit contour. The success of the algorithm in reaching that objective depends upon the smoothness and predictability of the misfit space. For any given observation, there is no absolute form a datum must take, and therefore no absolute definition for the misfit space; in fact, there are many alternatives. However, not all misfit spaces are equal in terms of promoting the success of inversion. In this work, we appraise three common forms that complex data take in electromagnetic geophysical methods: real and imaginary components, a power of amplitude and phase, and logarithmic amplitude and phase. We find that the optimal form is logarithmic amplitude and phase. Single-parameter misfit curves of log-amplitude and phase data for both magnetotelluric and controlled-source electromagnetic methods are the smoothest of the three data forms and do not exhibit flattening at low model resistivities. Synthetic, multiparameter, 2-D inversions illustrate that log-amplitude and phase is the most robust data form, converging to the target misfit contour in the fewest steps regardless of starting model and the amount of noise added to the data; inversions using the other two data forms run slower or fail under various starting models and proportions of noise. It is observed that inversion with log-amplitude and phase data is nearly two times faster in converging to a solution than with other data types. We also assess the statistical consequences of transforming data in the ways discussed in this paper. With the exception of real and imaginary components, which are assumed to be Gaussian, all other data types do not produce an expected mean-squared misfit value of 1.00 at the true model (a common assumption) as the errors in the complex data become large. We recommend that real and imaginary data with errors larger than 10 per cent of the complex amplitude be withheld from a log-amplitude and phase inversion rather than retaining them with large error-bars.

Description: Seismic interferometry comprises a suite of methods to redatum recorded wavefields to those that would have been recorded if different sources (so-called virtual sources) had been activated. Seismic interferometry by cross-correlation has been formulated using either two-way (for full wavefields) or one-way (for directionally decomposed wavefields) representation theorems. To obtain improved Green's function estimates, the cross-correlation result can be deconvolved by a quantity that identifies the smearing of the virtual source in space and time, the so-called point-spread function. This type of interferometry, known as interferometry by multidimensional deconvolution (MDD), has so far been applied only to one-way directionally decomposed fields, requiring accurate wavefield decomposition from dual (e.g. pressure and velocity) recordings. Here we propose a form of interferometry by multidimensional deconvolution that uses full wavefields with two-way representations, and simultaneously invert for pressure and (normal) velocity Green's functions, rather than only velocity responses as for its one-way counterpart. Tests on synthetic data show that two-way MDD improves on results of interferometry by cross-correlation, and generally produces estimates of similar quality to those obtained by one-way MDD, suggesting that the preliminary decomposition into up- and downgoing components of the pressure field is not required if pressure and velocity data are jointly used in the deconvolution. We also show that constraints on the directionality of the Green's functions sought can be added directly into the MDD inversion process to further improve two-way multidimensional deconvolution. Finally, as a by-product of having pressure and particle velocity measurements, we adapt one- and two-way representation theorems to convert any particle velocity receiver into its corresponding virtual dipole/gradient source by means of MDD. Thus data recorded from standard monopolar (e.g. marine) pressure sources can be converted into data from dipolar (derivative) sources at no extra acquisition cost.

Description: The primary objective of this study is to evaluate the applicability and the effectiveness of ground-penetrating radar (GPR) to identify a thin burnt soil layer, buried more than 2 m below the topographic surface at the Liangzhu Site, in Southeastern China. The site was chosen for its relatively challenging conditions of GPR techniques due to electrical conductivity and to the presence of peach tree roots that produced scattering. We completed the data acquisition by using 100 and 200 MHz antennas in TE and TM broadside and cross-polarized configurations. In the data processing and interpretation phase, we used GPR attribute analysis, including instantaneous phase and geometrical attributes. Validation analysis ground-truthing performed after the geophysical surveys, validated the GPR imaging, confirmed the electrical conductivity and relative dielectric permittivity (RDP) measurements performed at different depths, and allowed a reliable quantitative correlation between GPR results and subsurface physical properties. The research demonstrates that multiple antenna configurations in GPR data acquisition combined with attribute analysis can enhance the ability to characterize prehistoric archaeological remains even in complex subsurface conditions.

Description: We critically examine the performance of sequential geostatistical resampling (SGR) as a model proposal mechanism for Bayesian Markov-chain-Monte-Carlo (MCMC) solutions to near-surface geophysical inverse problems. Focusing on a series of simple yet realistic synthetic crosshole georadar tomographic examples characterized by different numbers of data, levels of data error and degrees of model parameter spatial correlation, we investigate the efficiency of three different resampling strategies with regard to their ability to generate statistically independent realizations from the Bayesian posterior distribution. Quite importantly, our results show that, no matter what resampling strategy is employed, many of the examined test cases require an unreasonably high number of forward model runs to produce independent posterior samples, meaning that the SGR approach as currently implemented will not be computationally feasible for a wide range of problems. Although use of a novel gradual-deformation-based proposal method can help to alleviate these issues, it does not offer a full solution. Further, we find that the nature of the SGR is found to strongly influence MCMC performance; however no clear rule exists as to what set of inversion parameters and/or overall proposal acceptance rate will allow for the most efficient implementation. We conclude that although the SGR methodology is highly attractive as it allows for the consideration of complex geostatistical priors as well as conditioning to hard and soft data, further developments are necessary in the context of novel or hybrid MCMC approaches for it to be considered generally suitable for near-surface geophysical inversions.

Description: A spatially averaged mean-field model for fully or partially ordered members of the ilmenite–hematite solid solution series is rigorously derived from the Heisenberg Hamiltonian by first assuming no temporal correlation of atomic spins, and then by spatially averaging over spins at equivalent atomic positions. The model is based on the geometry of exchange interactions between nearest and next-nearest neighbours and predicts magnetization curves in homogenous solid solutions with variable degree of order. While the general framework presented can also be applied to atomic scale models, and to other solid solution series, here the symmetries of the ilmenite–hematite lattice are exploited to show that four different sublattice magnetizations and six independent combinations of exchange constants determine the temperature variation of the magnetization curves. Comparing measured Curie temperatures T C and M s ( T ) curves to model predictions results in accurate constraints for these combinations. It is also possible to calculate predictions for high-field magnetization slopes HF , which not only improve accurate experimental determination of the Curie temperature but also provide a new magnetic method to estimate the order parameter for ilmenite–hematite solid solution samples.

Description: The seismic properties of rocks are known to be sensitive to partial liquid or gas saturation, and to aligned fractures. P -wave anisotropy is widely used for fracture characterization and is known to be sensitive to the saturating fluid. However, studies combining the effect of multiphase saturation and aligned fractures are limited even though such conditions are common in the subsurface. An understanding of the effects of partial liquid or gas saturation on P -wave anisotropy could help improve seismic characterization of fractured, gas bearing reservoirs. Using octagonal-shaped synthetic sandstone samples, one containing aligned penny-shaped fractures and the other without fractures, we examined the influence of water saturation on P -wave anisotropy in fractured rocks. In the fractured rock, the saturation related stiffening effect at higher water saturation values is larger in the direction across the fractures than along the fractures. Consequently, the anisotropy parameter ‘ ’ decreases as a result of this fluid stiffening effect. These effects are frequency dependent as a result of wave-induced fluid flow mechanisms. Our observations can be explained by combining a frequency-dependent fractured rock model and a frequency-dependent partial saturation model.

Description: Electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) has been widely used in environmental applications to study processes associated with subsurface contaminants and contaminant remediation. Anthropogenic alterations in subsurface electrical conductivity associated with contamination often originate from highly industrialized areas with significant amounts of buried metallic infrastructure. The deleterious influence of such infrastructure on imaging results generally limits the utility of ERT where it might otherwise prove useful for subsurface investigation and monitoring. In this manuscript we present a method of accurately modelling the effects of buried conductive infrastructure within the forward modelling algorithm, thereby removing them from the inversion results. The method is implemented in parallel using immersed interface boundary conditions, whereby the global solution is reconstructed from a series of well-conditioned partial solutions. Forward modelling accuracy is demonstrated by comparison with analytic solutions. Synthetic imaging examples are used to investigate imaging capabilities within a subsurface containing electrically conductive buried tanks, transfer piping, and well casing, using both well casings and vertical electrode arrays as current sources and potential measurement electrodes. Results show that, although accurate infrastructure modelling removes the dominating influence of buried metallic features, the presence of metallic infrastructure degrades imaging resolution compared to ERT imaging in the absence of infrastructure. However, it is possible to rectify this degradation in resolution through appropriate placement of electrodes.

Description: Wells and boreholes are routinely steel-cased in oil and gas fields and geological storage sites. There have been a number of studies on the effects of a steel-cased well on various electrical and electromagnetic (EM) geophysical methods. In this paper, we examine the use of a steel-cased well as a virtual vertical electric source for sensing deep localized resistive (e.g. CO 2 , oil and gas) and conductive (e.g. conductive-proppant-filled fractures) targets when concentric electric sources are grounded around the collar of the well. To simulate the casing effects, we present a 3-D finite-element time-domain (FETD) algorithm with tetrahedral elements. The FETD algorithm is designed to reduce memory usage in adaptive time stepping by utilizing parallel direct and iterative solvers appropriately together. To avoid a larger number of tiny elements required for discretizing a thin wall of the casing, the hollow casing is approximated with a rectangular prism. By not discretizing the thin wall of and the curvature of the round casing, the approximation not only reduces the number of unknowns by an order of magnitude but also improves overall mesh qualities. We show that surface EM responses over the hollow casing and the prism are practically the same. Through FETD modelling of a rectangular prism as an approximation of a steel casing, we demonstrate that a steel casing can serve as a conduit through which a high concentration of electrical currents can flow downward from the surface, interact with deep localized reservoirs/fractures and produce a measurable perturbation in the surface EM fields. Concentric electric sources can further improve both the sensitivity to the deep targets and the overall magnitude of surface EM fields.

Description: Tibetan Plateau uplift and global cooling have generally been thought to have caused the drying of the Asian inland, but how and when these factors drove the aridification is unknown. The Xining Basin at the NE Tibetan Plateau received continuous Eocene–Miocene fine-grained sediments, providing an excellent opportunity to address this question. Here we present detailed rock magnetic and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (DRS) analyses for a well-dated Cenozoic sedimentary record from the Xiejia section in the basin. Magnetic susceptibility ( ), saturation magnetization (Ms) and saturation isothermal remanent magnetization (SIRM) in this section show a long-term decreasing trend from ~52 to ~25 Ma, well coinciding with global cooling and drying in the region, and an increasing trend since ~25 Ma, which is in contrast to the further progressing aridification of the basin. Thermomagnetic results and DRS-determined hematite contents suggest that the relative content of magnetite and hematite is the main control on the , Ms and SIRM values. We argue that the long-term Eocene–Oligocene global cooling increased the drying of the Asian inland, lowering the lake level and exposing a larger area to low temperature oxidation for longer times, thus producing more hematite and leading to the decreasing trend of magnetic concentration parameters from ~52 to ~25 Ma. An intensive uplift of the NE Tibetan Plateau since ~25 Ma, associated with a change in the sedimentary source, might be responsible for the increase of , Ms and SIRM after 25 Ma.

Description: The Mt Amram igneous complex (AIC) represents northern tip of the Neoproterozoic Arabian Nubian Shield (ANS). For the first time the AIC deep structure was studied using the gravity, aero and ground magnetic, magnetic susceptibility and density measurements and geological data. Analysing all available data at the Amram area we concluded what only monzonite body can be reason for gravity high and coinciding reduced to pole (RTP) maximum. Geological knowledge allowed suggesting its intrusive character and compact body form. Cluster of inverse solutions (Werner deconvolution) localized this body as initial model for forward modelling. Further iterations (2 3/4 -D forward modelling) clarified the monzonite geometry and properties; the modelling allowed also to investigate the non-uniqueness and estimate also the confident intervals for final solution. The research consists three interconnected stages. At the detailed scale, ground magnetic data suggested three magmatic blocks of few hundred meters shifted dextral about 100 m along the Zefunut fault. Estimated accuracy for geometry of the magnetic bodies is a few tens metres. At the middle scale, quantitative gravity and magnetic interpretations provide model of the monzonite body, which is an order of magnitude more than the volume of the felsic rhyolites and granite rocks. Boundary of the whole monzonite body was estimated with accuracy as a hundred meters. As a result we suggest that the parent magma for the AIC is the monzonite, similar to the model suggested for the Timna Igneous Complex 12 km north of the AIC. The model developed can be applied to evaluate the subsurface volumes of the mafic magmatic rocks in adjacent locations. At the regional scale for exposed the Sinai and Arab Saudi Precambrian crystalline shield our approach allows to understand the apparent contradiction between geological predominantly granite composition (low magnetic rocks) and magnetic data. The aeromagnetic data show number strong magnetic anomalies suggesting the presence large volume of high magnetic (mainly basic) rocks at the depth. This problem is proposed for future research.

Description: 3-D electromagnetic (EM) studies of the Earth have advanced significantly over the past decade. Despite a certain success of the 3-D EM inversions of real data sets, the quantitative assessment of the recovered models is still a challenging problem. It is known that one can gain valuable information about model uncertainties from the analysis of Hessian matrix. However, even with modern computational capabilities the calculation of the Hessian matrix based on numerical differentiation is extremely time consuming. Much more efficient way to compute the Hessian matrix is provided by an ‘adjoint sources’ methodology. The computation of Hessian matrix (and Hessian-vector products) using adjoint formulation is now well-established approach, especially in seismic inverse modelling. As for EM inverse modelling we did not find in the literature a description of the approach, which would allow EM researchers to apply this methodology in a straightforward manner to their scenario of interest. In the paper, we present formalism for the efficient calculation of the Hessian matrix using adjoint sources approach. We also show how this technique can be implemented to calculate multiple Hessian-vector products very efficiently. The formalism is general in the sense that it allows to work with responses that arise in EM problem set-ups either with natural- or controlled-source excitations. The formalism allows for various types of parametrization of the 3-D conductivity distribution. Using this methodology one can readily obtain appropriate formulae for the specific sounding methods. To illustrate the concept we provide such formulae for two EM techniques: magnetotellurics and controlled-source sounding with vertical magnetic dipole as a source.

Description: A strategy is presented to incorporate prior information from conceptual geological models in probabilistic inversion of geophysical data. The conceptual geological models are represented by multiple-point statistics training images (TIs) featuring the expected lithological units and structural patterns. Information from an ensemble of TI realizations is used in two different ways. First, dominant modes are identified by analysis of the frequency content in the realizations, which drastically reduces the model parameter space in the frequency-amplitude domain. Second, the distributions of global, summary metrics (e.g. model roughness) are used to formulate a prior probability density function. The inverse problem is formulated in a Bayesian framework and the posterior pdf is sampled using Markov chain Monte Carlo simulation. The usefulness and applicability of this method is demonstrated on two case studies in which synthetic crosshole ground-penetrating radar traveltime data are inverted to recover 2-D porosity fields. The use of prior information from TIs significantly enhances the reliability of the posterior models by removing inversion artefacts and improving individual parameter estimates. The proposed methodology reduces the ambiguity inherent in the inversion of high-dimensional parameter spaces, accommodates a wide range of summary statistics and geophysical forward problems.

Description: Many rocks and layered/fractured sequences have a clearly expressed electrical anisotropy although it is rare in practice to incorporate anisotropy into resistivity inversion. In this contribution, we present a series of 2.5-D synthetic inversion experiments for various electrode configurations and 2-D anisotropic models. We examine and compare the image reconstructions obtained using the correct anisotropic inversion code with those obtained using the false but widely used isotropic assumption. Superior reconstruction in terms of reduced data misfit, true anomaly shape and position, and anisotropic background parameters were obtained when the correct anisotropic assumption was employed for medium to high coefficients of anisotropy. However, for low coefficient values the isotropic assumption produced better-quality results. When an erroneous isotropic inversion is performed on medium to high level anisotropic data, the images are dominated by patterns of banded artefacts and high data misfits. Various pole–pole, pole–dipole and dipole–dipole data sets were investigated and evaluated for the accuracy of the inversion result. The eigenvalue spectra of the pseudo-Hessian matrix and the formal resolution matrix were also computed to determine the information content and goodness of the results. We also present a data selection strategy based on high sensitivity measurements which drastically reduces the number of data to be inverted but still produces comparable results to that of the comprehensive data set. Inversion was carried out using transversely isotropic model parameters described in two different co-ordinate frames for the conductivity tensor, namely Cartesian versus natural or eigenframe. The Cartesian frame provided a more stable inversion product. This can be simply explained from inspection of the eigenspectra of the pseudo-Hessian matrix for the two model descriptions.

Description: We studied artificial ore models that contained galena, pyrite, magnetite, graphite and cryptomelane with the time domain induced polarization technique. The models were mixtures of sand and metallic-type, electronically conductive mineral particles. We varied the volumetric content of the particles, their mineral composition and average grain size, as well as the pore water salinity. Based on the Debye decomposition approach, we obtained relaxation time distributions, which contained peaks. From these distributions, we obtained the total chargeability and the peak relaxation time. We correlated these parameters with the particle mineral composition, grain size, particle content and the pore solution resistivity. We also compared the experimental data with the Wong model prediction, which was unable to explain the entire data set. The above-mentioned correlations, in conjunction with some previously published data, allowed us to formulate a new, semi-empirical model that links (1) the total chargeability with the volumetric content of the particles and the total chargeability of the host matrix and (2) the time constant with the particle mineralogy, the particle radius and the pore solution resistivity.

Description: Electrodes installed on active landslides and vulnerable earthworks to monitor changes in resistivity associated with moisture dynamics can be subject to movement. This affects the geoelectrical data and leads to errors in the resulting electrical resistivity tomography (ERT) images. This paper demonstrates the selection of appropriate ERT measurements to provide sensitivity to electrode displacements in both directions on a surface grid. Combinations of linear and equatorial dipole–dipole measurements are considered, which permit use on rectangular grids of any aspect ratio. A Gauss–Newton inversion scheme, initially based on simple homogeneous resistivity model calculations, is developed that allows for the incorporation of constraints based on the magnitude and direction of movement. The effects of the constraints are demonstrated with synthetic data, which are also used to show that displacement inversion can track electrodes positions during movement as a function of time. The conclusions of these simulations are subsequently confirmed by analogous experiments in a laboratory tank. The results show that tracking the positions of the electrodes is possible with sufficient accuracy, even in the presence of realistic subsurface resistivity structures, to correct the majority of distortions and resistivity anomalies caused by using the wrong electrode locations in ERT inversion. By incorporating estimates of the resistivity structure into the forward response modelling, the accuracy of the recovered displacements is improved. This also enables an iterative displacement and resistivity inversion to be developed that, for the first time, demonstrates the principle of using 3-D ERT data to monitor both subsurface geoelectrical properties and surface movements simultaneously.

Description: Seismic waves propagating in a porous medium, under favourable conditions, generate measurable electromagnetic fields due to electrokinetic effects. It has been proposed, following experimental and numerical studies, that these so-called ‘seismoelectromagnetic’ couplings depend on pore fluid properties. The theoretical frame describing these phenomena are based on the original Biot's theory, assuming that pores are fluid-filled. We study here the impact of a partially saturated medium on amplitudes of those seismoelectric couplings by comparing experimental data to an effective fluid model. We have built a 1-m-length-scale experiment designed for imbibition and drainage of an homogeneous silica sand; the experimental set-up includes a seismic source, accelerometers, electric dipoles and capacitance probes in order to monitor seismic and seismoelectric fields during water saturation. Apparent velocities and frequency spectra (in the kiloHertz range) are derived from seismic and electrical measurements during experiments in varying saturation conditions. Amplitudes of seismic and seismoelectric waves and their ratios (i.e. transfer functions) are discussed using a spectral analysis performed by continuous wavelet transform. The experiments reveal that amplitude ratios of seismic to coseismic electric signals remain rather constant as a function of the water saturation in the S w  = [0.2–0.9] range, consistently with theoretically predicted transfer functions.

Description: Geomagnetic jerks are sudden changes of trend in the geomagnetic secular variation. The Earth's mantle behaves as a filter for the jerks, causing a delayed and a smoothed signal at the Earth's surface. Backus' mantle filter theory relies on approximating the impulse response function (IRF) of the mantle by a Gaussian. The advantage of this theory is the linear relation between jerks’ delay times and the mantle electrical conductivity, as expressed by kernels. However, the limitations of this theory arise when negative delay and/or smoothing times occur. The applicability of the mantle filter theory is examined by analysing the validity of the Gaussian as an approximation for the composite IRF (CIRF) at a given location. We show that the electrical conductivity of the lower mantle is mostly responsible for the jerk delay time. Alternating sign CIRFs might cause negative delay and/or smoothing times which prevents the use of the mantle filter theory. Adequate/inadequate Gaussian approximations to the CIRFs give small/large differences in the convolved jerk occurrence times. Most observatories yield positive time constants, but in most cases the difference in the jerk occurrence times exceeds 0.5 yr.

Description: New marine geophysical data recorded across the Tonga-Kermadec subduction zone are used to image deformation and seismic velocity structures of the forearc and Pacific Plate where the Louisville Ridge seamount chain subducts. Due to the obliquity of the Louisville Ridge to the trench and the fast 128 mm yr –1 south–southwest migration of the ridge-trench collision zone, post-, current and pre-seamount subduction deformation can be investigated between 23°S and 28°S. We combine our interpretations from the collision zone with previous results from the post- and pre-collision zones to define the along-arc variation in deformation due to seamount subduction. In the pre-collision zone the lower-trench slope is steep, the mid-trench slope has ~3-km-thick stratified sediments and gravitational collapse of the trench slope is associated with basal erosion by subducting horst and graben structures on the Pacific Plate. This collapse indicates that tectonic erosion is a normal process affecting this generally sediment starved subduction system. In the collision zone the trench-slope decreases compared to the north and south, and rotation of the forearc is manifest as a steep plate boundary fault and arcward dipping sediment in a 12-km-wide, ~2-km-deep mid-slope basin. A ~3 km step increase in depth of the middle and lower crustal isovelocity contours below the basin indicates the extent of crustal deformation on the trench slope. At the leading edge of the overriding plate, upper crustal P -wave velocities are ~4.0 km s –1 and indicate the trench fill material is of seamount origin. Osbourn Seamount on the outer rise has extensional faulting on its western slope and mass wasting of the seamount provides the low V p material to the trench. In the post-collision zone to the north, the trench slope is smooth, the trench is deep, and the crystalline crust thins at the leading edge of the overriding plate where V p is low, ~5.5 km s –1 . These characteristics are attributed to a greater degree of extensional collapse of the forearc in the wake of seamount subduction. The northern end of a seismic gap lies at the transition from the smooth lower-trench slope of the post-collision zone, to the block faulted and elevated lower-trench slope in the collision zone, suggesting a causative link between the collapse of the forearc and seismogenesis. Along the forearc, the transient effects of a north-to-south progression of ridge subduction are preserved in the geomorphology, whereas longer-term effects may be recorded in the ~80 km offset in trench strike at the collision zone itself.