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  • 1
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © Annual Reviews, 2003. This article is posted here by permission of Annual Reviews for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Annual Review of Environment and Resources 28 (2003): 521-558, doi:10.1146/annurev.energy.28.011503.163443.
    Description: Agriculture and industrial development have led to inadvertent changes in the natural carbon cycle. As a consequence, concentrations of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases have increased in the atmosphere and may lead to changes in climate. The current challenge facing society is to develop options for future management of the carbon cycle. A variety of approaches has been suggested: direct reduction of emissions, deliberate manipulation of the natural carbon cycle to enhance sequestration, and capture and isolation of carbon from fossil fuel use. Policy development to date has laid out some of the general principles to which carbon management should adhere. These are summarized as: how much carbon is stored, by what means, and for how long. To successfully manage carbon for climate purposes requires increased understanding of carbon cycle dynamics and improvement in the scientific capabilities available for measurement as well as for policy needs. The specific needs for scientific information to underpin carbon cycle management decisions are not yet broadly known. A stronger dialogue between decision makers and scientists must be developed to foster improved application of scientific knowledge to decisions. This review focuses on the current knowledge of the carbon cycle, carbon measurement capabilities (with an emphasis on the continental scale) and the relevance of carbon cycle science to carbon sequestration goals.
    Description: The National Center for Atmospheric Research is supported by the National Science Foundation.
    Keywords: Carbon sequestration ; Measurement techniques ; Climate ; Kyoto protocol
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 2
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    Annual Reviews
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: Author Posting. © Annual Reviews, 2006. This article is posted here by permission of Annual Reviews for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics 38 (2006): 395-425, doi:10.1146/annurev.fluid.38.050304.092129.
    Description: Over the past four decades, the combination of in situ and remote sensing observations has demonstrated that long nonlinear internal solitary-like waves are ubiquitous features of coastal oceans. The following provides an overview of the properties of steady internal solitary waves and the transient processes of wave generation and evolution, primarily from the point of view of weakly nonlinear theory, of which the Korteweg-de Vries equation is the most frequently used example. However, the oceanographically important processes of wave instability and breaking, generally inaccessible with these models, are also discussed. Furthermore, observations often show strongly nonlinear waves whose properties can only be explained with fully nonlinear models.
    Description: KRH acknowledges support from NSF and ONR and an Independent Study Award from the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution. WKM acknowledges support from NSF and ONR, which has made his work in this area possible, in close collaboration with former graduate students at Scripps Institution of Oceanography and MIT.
    Keywords: Solitary waves ; Nonlinear waves ; Stratified flow ; Physical Oceanography
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 3
    Publication Date: 2022-05-25
    Description: First published online as a Review in Advance on October 24, 2005. (Some corrections may occur before final publication online and in print)
    Description: Author Posting. © Annual Reviews, 2005. This article is posted here by permission of Annual Reviews for personal use, not for redistribution. The definitive version was published in Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006): 22.1-22.29, doi:10.1146/annurev.physiol.68.040104.105418.
    Description: Superfast muscles of vertebrates power sound production. The fastest, the swimbladder muscle of toadfish, generates mechanical power at frequencies in excess of 200 Hz. To operate at these frequencies, the speed of relaxation has had to increase approximately 50-fold. This increase is accomplished by modifications of three kinetic traits: (a) a fast calcium transient due to extremely high concentration of sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)-Ca2+ pumps and parvalbumin, (b) fast off-rate of Ca2+ from troponin C due to an alteration in troponin, and (c) fast cross-bridge detachment rate constant (g, 50 times faster than that in rabbit fast-twitch muscle) due to an alteration in myosin. Although these three modifications permit swimbladder muscle to generate mechanical work at high frequencies (where locomotor muscles cannot), it comes with a cost: The high g causes a large reduction in attached force-generating cross-bridges, making the swimbladder incapable of powering low-frequency locomotory movements. Hence the locomotory and sound-producing muscles have mutually exclusive designs.
    Description: This work was made possible by support from NIH grants AR38404 and AR46125 as well as the University of Pennsylvania Research Foundation.
    Keywords: Parvalbumin ; Ca2+ release ; Ca2+ uptake ; Cross-bridges ; Adaptation ; Sound production ; Whitman Center
    Repository Name: Woods Hole Open Access Server
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  • 4
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 61 (1999), S. 117-142 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The enteric nervous system exerts local control over mixing and propulsive movements in the small intestine. When digestion is in progress, intrinsic primary afferent neurons (IPANs) are activated by the contents of the intestine. The IPANs that have been physiologically characterized are in the intrinsic myenteric ganglia. They are numerous, about 650/mm length of small intestine in the guinea pig, and communicate with each other through slow excitatory transmission to form self-reinforcing assemblies. High proportions of these neurons respond to chemicals in the lumen or to tension in the muscle; physiological stimuli activate assemblies of hundreds or thousands of IPANs. The IPANs make direct connections with muscle motor neurons and with ascending and descending interneurons. The circular muscle contracts as an annulus, about 2-3 mm in minimum oral-to-anal extent in the guinea pig small intestine. The smooth muscle cells form an electrical syncytium that is innervated by about 300 excitatory and 400 inhibitory motor neurons per mm length. The intrinsic nerve circuits that control mixing and propulsion in the small intestine are now known, but it remains to be determined how they are programmed to generate the motility patterns that are observed.
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  • 5
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    Annual Review of Physiology 61 (1999), S. 283-310 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Intercellular channels present in gap junctions allow cells to share small molecules and thus coordinate a wide range of behaviors. Remarkably, although junctions provide similar functions in all multicellular organisms, vertebrates and invertebrates use unrelated gene families to encode these channels. The recent identification of the invertebrate innexin family opens up powerful genetic systems to studies of intercellular communication. At the same time, new information on the physiological roles of vertebrate connexins has emerged from genetic studies. Mutations in connexin genes underlie a variety of human diseases, including deafness, demyelinating neuropathies, and lens cataracts. In addition, gene targeting of connexins in mice has provided new insights into connexin function and the significance of connexin diversity.
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  • 6
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    Annual Review of Physiology 61 (1999), S. 337-362 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract ATP-sensitive K+ channels (KATP channels) play important roles in many cellular functions by coupling cell metabolism to electrical activity. By cloning members of the novel inwardly rectifying K+ channel subfamily Kir6.0 (Kir6.1 and Kir6.2) and the receptors for sulfonylureas (SUR1 and SUR2), researchers have clarified the molecular structure of KATP channels. KATP channels comprise two subunits: a Kir6.0 subfamily subunit, which is a member of the inwardly rectifying K+ channel family; and a SUR subunit, which is a member of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) protein superfamily. KATP channels are the first example of a heteromultimeric complex assembled with a K+ channel and a receptor that are structurally unrelated to each other. Since 1995, molecular biological and molecular genetic studies of KATP channels have provided insights into the structure-function relationships, molecular regulation, and pathophysiological roles of KATP channels.
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  • 7
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 61 (1999), S. 391-415 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract In this article, we review the basic pharmacological and biochemical features of endothelin and the pathophysiological roles of endothelin in cardiovascular diseases. Development of receptor antagonists has accelerated the pace of investigations into the pathophysiological roles of endogenous endothelin-1 in various diseases, e.g. chronic heart failure, renal diseases, hypertension, cerebral vasospasm, and pulmonary hypertension. In chronic heart failure, the expression of endothelin-1 and its receptors in cardiomyocytes is increased, and treatment with an endothelin receptor antagonist improves survival and cardiac function. Endothelin receptor antagonists also improve other cardiovascular diseases. These results suggest that the interference with endothelin pathway either by receptor blockade or by inhibition of endothelin converting enzyme may provide novel therapeutic drugs strategies for multiple disease states.
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  • 8
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 61 (1999), S. 417-433 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The acquisition of a sexually dimorphic phenotype is a critical event in mammalian development. Although the maturation of sexual function and reproduction occurs after birth, essentially all of the critical developmental steps take place during embryogenesis. Temporally, these steps can be divided into two different phases: sex determination, the initial event that determines whether the gonads will develop as testes or ovaries; and sexual differentiation, the subsequent events that ultimately produce either the male or the female sexual phenotype. A basic tenet of sexual development in mammals is that genetic sex-determined by the presence or absence of the Y chromosome-directs the embryonic gonads to differentiate into either testes or ovaries. Thereafter, hormones produced by the testes direct the developmental program leading to male sexual differentiation. In the absence of testicular hormones, the pathway of sexual differentiation is female. This chapter reviews the anatomic and cellular changes that constitute sexual differentiation and discusses SRY and other genes, including SF-1, WT1, DAX-1, and SOX9, that play key developmental roles in this process. Dose-dependent interactions among these genes are critical for sex determination and differentiation.
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  • 9
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 61 (1999), S. 683-697 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Vasopressin or AVP regulates water reabsorption by the kidney inner medullary collecting duct (IMCD) through the insertion and removal of aquaporin (AQP) 2 water channels into the IMCD apical membrane. AVP-elicited trafficking of AQP2 with the apical membrane occurs via a specialized population of vesicles that resemble synaptic vesicles in neurons. AQP2 vesicles and the IMCD apical membrane contain homologs of vesicle-targeting and signal transduction proteins found in neurons. Expression studies of AQP2, including human AQP2 mutants, suggest that the carboxyl-terminal domain of AQP2 is important in AQP2 trafficking, particularly as a site for cAMP-dependent protein kinase phosphorylation. These present data reveal that IMCD cells possess a complex integrated-signaling and vesicle-trafficking machinery that provides integration of AVP-elicited water transport with many other parameters within the IMCD cell as well as kidney.
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  • 10
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 57 (1995), S. 219-244 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 11
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    Annual Review of Physiology 57 (1995), S. 355-385 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 12
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    Annual Review of Physiology 57 (1995), S. 115-134 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 13
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    Annual Review of Physiology 57 (1995), S. 151-170 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 14
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    Annual Review of Physiology 57 (1995), S. 547-564 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
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  • 15
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 57 (1995), S. 791-804 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 16
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 57 (1995), S. 805-826 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 17
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    Annual Review of Physiology 57 (1995), S. 827-872 
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  • 18
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 58 (1996), S. 1-19 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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  • 19
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    Annual Review of Physiology 58 (1996), S. 93-113 
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  • 20
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    Annual Review of Physiology 58 (1996), S. 73-92 
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  • 21
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    Annual Review of Physiology 58 (1996), S. 115 
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  • 22
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    Annual Review of Physiology 58 (1996), S. 209-229 
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  • 23
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    Annual Review of Physiology 58 (1996), S. 253-273 
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    Annual Review of Physiology 58 (1996), S. 329-348 
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    Annual Review of Physiology 58 (1996), S. 275-297 
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  • 26
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    Annual Review of Physiology 58 (1996), S. 349-362 
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    Annual Review of Physiology 58 (1996), S. 483-507 
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  • 28
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    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 573-574 
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  • 29
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    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 575-599 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Physical forces of gravity, hemodynamic stresses, and movement play a critical role in tissue development. Yet, little is known about how cells convert these mechanical signals into a chemical response. This review attempts to place the potential molecular mediators of mechanotransduction (e.g. stretch-sensitive ion channels, signaling mollecules, cytoskeleton, integrins) within the context of the structural complexity of living cells. The model presented relies on recent experimental findings, which suggests that cells use tensegrity architecture for their organization. Tensegrity predicts that cells are hard-wired to respond immediately to mechanical stresses transmitted over cell surface receptors that physically couple the cytoskeleton to extracellular matrix (e.g. integrins) or to other cells (cadherins, selectins, CAMs). Many signal transducing molecules that are activated by cell binding to growth factors and extracellular matrix associate with cytoskeletal scaffolds within focal adhesion complexes. Mechanical signals, therefore, may be integrated with other environmental signals and transduced into a biochemical response through force-dependent changes in scaffold geometry or molecular mechanics. Tensegrity also provides a mechanism to focus mechanical energy on molecular transducers and to orchestrate and tune the cellular response.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 59 (1997), S. 633-657 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Although mechanosensory responses are ubiquitous and diverse, the molecular bases of mechanosensation in most cases remain mysterious.MscL, a mechano-sensitive channel of large conductance of Escherichia coli and its bacterial homologues are the first and currently only channel molecules shown to directly sense mechanical stretch of the membrane. In response to the tension conveyed via the lipid bilayer, MscL increases its open probability by several orders of magnitude. In the present review we describe the identification, cloning, and first sets of biophysical and structural data on this simplest mechanosensory molecule. We discovered a 2.5-ns mechanosensitive conductance in giant E. coli spheroplasts. Using chromatographies to enrich the target and patch clamp to assay the channel activity in liposome-reconstituted fractions, we identified the MscL protein and cloned the mscL gene. MscL comprises 136 amino acid residues (15 kDa), with two highly hydrophobic regions, and resides in the inner membrane of the bacterium. PhoA-fusion experiments indicate that the protein spans the membrane twice with both termini in the cytoplasm. Spectroscopic techniques show that it is highly helical. Expression of MscL tandems and covalent cross-linking suggest that the active channel complex is a homo-hexamer. We have identified several residues, which when deleted or substituted, affect channel kinetics or mechanosensitivity. Although unique when discovered, highly conserved MscL homologues in both gram-negative and gram-positive bacteria have been found, suggesting their ubiquitous importance among bacteria.
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  • 31
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 143-159 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The intercellular tight junction is the rate-limiting barrier in the paracellular pathway for permeation by ions and larger solutes. A variety of widely used electrical and flux approaches are used in the analyses of solute permeation through this pathway; however, each has limitations in practice. It is now clear that solute permeation across tight junctions is dynamically regulated by intracellular events with a common effector mechanism apparently tied to the cytoskeleton. These pathways, which regulate tight junction solute permeability, are targets that produce epithelial barrier dysfunction in a variety of disease states. However, regulation of solute permeation across the junctional barrier may also represent a potential means to improve bioavailability of orally administered bioactive solutes.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 161-177 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract The tight junction (TJ) is not randomly located on the cell membrane, but occupies a precise position at the outermost edge of the intercellular space and, therefore, is itself considered a polarized structure. This article reviews the most common experimental approaches for studying this relationship. We then discuss three main topics. (a) The mechanisms of polarization that operate regardless of the presence of TJs: We explore a variety of polarization mechanisms that operate at stages of the cell cycle in which TJs may be already established. (b) TJs and polarity as partners in highly dynamic processes: Polarity and TJs are steady state situations that may be drastically changed by a variety of signaling events. (c) Polarized distribution of membrane molecules that depend on TJs: This refers to molecules (mainly lipids) whose polarized distribution, although not the direct result of TJs, depends on these structures to maintain such distribution.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 243-266 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract This review focuses on sodium-independent transport systems for organic cations in small intestine, liver, kidney, and brain. The roles of P-glycoproteins (MDR) and anion transporters (OATP) in organic cation transport are reported, and two members of the new transporter family OCT are described. The OCT transporters belong to a superfamily that includes multidrug-resistance proteins, facilitative diffusion systems, and proton antiporters. They mediate electrogenic transport of small organic cations with different molecular structures, independently of sodium and proton gradients. The current knowledge of the distribution and functional properties of cloned cation transport systems and of cation transport measured in intact plasma membranes is used to postulate identical or homologous transporters in intestine, liver, kidney, and brain.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 179-197 
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    Notes: Abstract Calcium and sodium absorption by the kidney normally proceed in parallel. However, a number of physiological, pharmacological, pathological, and genetic conditions dissociate this relation. In each instance, the dissociation can be traced to the distal convoluted tubule, where calcium and sodium transport are inversely related. Based on the identification of the relevant sodium transporters in these cells and on analysis of the mechanism of calcium transport, an explanation for this inverse relation can be developed. Apical membrane calcium entry is mediated by voltage-sensitive calcium channels that are activated upon membrane hyperpolarization. Basolateral calcium efflux is effected primarily by Na+/Ca2+ exchange. According to the model, inhibition of sodium entry through either the Na-Cl cotransporter or the Na+ channel hyperpolarizes the cell, as does parathyroid hormone, thereby activating the calcium entry channel and increasing the driving force for diffusional entry. Membrane hyperpolarization also increases the driving force of calcium efflux through the Na+/Ca2+ exchanger. Thus sodium-dependent changes of calcium transport are indirect and occur secondarily through effects on membrane voltage.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 199-220 
    ISSN: 0066-4278
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Medicine , Biology
    Notes: Abstract Since the molecular identification of the first aquaporin in 1992, the number of proteins known to belong to this family has been rapidly increasing. These members may be separated into two subgroups based on gene structure, sequence homology, and function. Regulation of the water permeability of the collecting ducts of the kidney is essential for urinary concentration. Aquaporin-2 and -3, which are representative of these subgroups, are colocalized in the collecting ducts. Understanding these subgroups will elucidate the differences between aquaporin-2 and -3. Aquaporin-2 is a vasopressin-regulated water channel located in the apical membrane, and aquaporin-3 is a constitutive water channel located in the basolateral membrane. In contrast to aquaporin-3, which appears to be less well regulated, many studies have now identified multiple regulational mechanisms at the gene, protein, and cell levels for aquaporin-2, thus reflecting its physiological importance. Evidence of the participation of aquaporin-2 in the pathophysiology of water-balance disorders is accumulating.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 221-242 
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    Notes: Abstract Despite the fact that prostaglandins (PGs) have low intrinsic permeabilities across the plasma membrane, they must cross it twice: first upon release from the cytosol into the blood, and again upon cellular uptake prior to oxidation. Until recently, there were no cloned carriers that transported PGs. PGT is a broadly-expressed, 12-membrane-spanning domain integral membrane protein. When heterologously expressed in HeLa cells or Xenopus oocytes, it catalyzes the rapid, specific, and high-affinity uptake of PGE2, PGF2alpha, PGD2, 8-iso-PGF2alpha, and thromboxane B2. Functional studies indicate that PGT transports its substrate as the charged anion. The PGT substrate specificity and inhibitor profile match remarkably well with earlier in situ studies on the metabolic clearance of PGs by rat lung. Because PGT expression is especially high in this tissue, it is likely that PGT mediates the membrane step in PG clearance by the pulmonary circulation. Evidence is presented that PGT may play additional roles in other tissues and that there may be additional PG transporters yet to be identified molecularly.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 267-286 
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    Notes: Abstract The discovery in the chick embryo that a specific region of the neural crest, termed the cardiac neural crest, is essential for septation of the cardiac outflow tract and for aortic arch artery development has led to the classification of a whole series of human cardiac defects as neural crest-associated. Recently, several mouse genetic models have been effectively employed to yield new insights into the relationship between cardiac neural crest and structural heart development. In all the animal models of neural crest-related heart defects, prenatal mortality is too high to be attributed to structural defects of the heart alone, and there are obvious signs of severe cardiac dysfunction. The evidence indicates that poor viability is from impaired cardiac excitation-contraction coupling and contractile function at the myocyte level. The continued study of experimental and genetically defined models with neural crest-associated heart defects will prove useful in identifying the common pathways by which the neural crest contributes to normal heart development.
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 287-308 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract Recent discoveries have led to a greater appreciation of the diverse mechanisms that underlie cardiac morphogenesis. Genetic strategies (primarily gene targeting approaches in mice) have significantly broadened research in cardiovascular developmental biology by illuminating new pathways involved in heart development and by allowing the genetic evaluation of pathways that have previously been implicated in these events. Advances have also been made using biochemical and cell- and tissue-based approaches. This review summarizes the author's interpretation of current trends in the effort to understand the molecular basis of cardiac development, with an emphasis on insights obtained from genetic models.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 407-429 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract Gonadal hormones are known to act during development to establish permanent sex differences in the anatomy and function of the vertebrate brain. They also act on the adult brain to activate reproductive behaviors. However, there are wide gaps in our understanding of how sexually dimorphic neural circuits translate into sex differences in behavior and other CNS functions. Moreover, not all sexually dimorphic properties of the adult brain can be attributed to known effects of gonadal hormones during development or adulthood, and factors other than gonadal steroids may contribute to these sex differences. This paper reviews sexual differentiation and the role of gonadal steroids and non-gonadal factors on sexually dimorphic development of the avian brain.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 497-523 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract In mammals the male sex determination switch is controlled by a single gene on the Y chromosome, SRY. SRY encodes a protein with an HMG-like DNA-binding domain, which probably acts as a local organizer of chromatin structure. It is believed to regulate downstream genes in the sex determination cascade, although no direct targets of SRY are clearly known. More genes in the pathway have been isolated through mutation approaches in mouse and human. At least three genes, SRY itself, SOX9, and DAX1, are dosage sensitive, providing molecular evidence that the sex determination step operates at a critical threshold. SRY initiates development of a testis from the bipotential cells of the early gonad. The dimorphic male and female pathways present a rare opportunity to link a pivotal gene in development with morphogenetic mechanisms that operate to pattern an organ and the differentiation of its cells. Mechanisms of testis organogenesis triggered downstream of SRY include pathways of cell signaling controlling cell reorganization, cell proliferation, cell migration, and vascularization.
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 525-532 
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 461-496 
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    Notes: Abstract The luteinizing hormone receptor (LHR) is a member of the subfamily of glycoprotein hormone receptors within the superfamily of G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR)/seven-transmembrane domain receptors. Over the past eight years, major advances have been made in determining the structure and function of the LHR and its gene. The hormone-binding domain has been localized to exons 1-7 in the extracellular (EC) domain/region of the receptor, which contains several leucine-rich repeats. High-affinity binding of LH and human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) causes secondary hormone or receptor contacts to be established with regions of the EC loop/transmembrane module that initiate signal transduction. Models of hormone-receptor interaction have been derived from the crystal structures of hCG and of the ribonuclease inhibitor, which also contains leucine-rich repeats. Such models provide a framework for the interpretation of mutational studies and for further experiments. The extracellular domain of the receptor has been overexpressed in vitro, which will facilitate crystallographic resolution of the structure of the receptor-binding site. The transmembrane domain/loop/cytoplasmic module transduces the signal for couplingto G proteins. Several constitutive, activating mutations that cause human disease have been found in helix VI and adjacent structures. These mutations have provided valuable information about mechanisms of signal transfer and G protein coupling. The structure of the LHR gene has been elucidated, and the regulation of its transcription is beginning to be understood. Valuable insights into receptor evolution have been derived from analysis of sequence homologies, the gene structure of glycoprotein hormone receptors and other members of the GPCR family, and the glycoprotein hormone receptor-like precursors identified in several invertebrate species.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 533-573 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract Since the discovery that cells can activate their own suicide program, investigators have attempted to determine whether the events that are associated with this form of cell death are genetically determined. The discovery that the ced-3 gene of Caenorhabditis elegans encodes a cysteine protease essential for developmentally regulated apoptosis ignited interest in this area of research. As a result, we now know that cell death is specified by a number of genes and that this biologic process contributes significantly to development, tumorigenesis, and autoimmune disease. In this review I summarize what is currently known about signaling pathways involved in apoptosis, with particular emphasis on the function of the cysteine proteases known as caspases. However, there is also evidence that protease-independent cell death pathways exist. Is there a relationship between these two distinct mechanisms? If so, how do they communicate? Finally, even though the involvement of tumor necrosis factor/nerve growth factor family of receptors and cysteine proteases has been elegantly established as a component of many apoptotic signaling pathways, what happens downstream of these initial events? Why are only a selected group of cellular proteins-many nuclear-the targets of these proteases? Are nuclear events essential for apoptosis in vivo? Are the cellular genes that encode products involved in apoptotic signaling frequent targets of mutation/alteration during tumorigenesis? These are only a few questions that may be answered in the next ten years.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 575-600 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract The proto-oncogene c-myc encodes a transcription factor c-Myc, which is of great importance in controlling cell growth and vitality. The quantity of c-Myc is carefully controlled by many mechanisms, and its actions to induce and repress genes are modulated by interactions with other regulatory proteins. Understanding the kinetic and quantitative relationships that determine how and what genes c-Myc regulates is essential to understanding how Myc is involved in apoptosis. Reduction of c-myc expression and its inappropriate expression can be associated with cellular apoptosis. This review outlines the nature and regulation of the c-myc gene and of c-Myc and presents the systems and conditions in which Myc-related apoptotic events occur. Hypotheses of the mechanisms by which expression and repression of c-myc lead to apoptosis are discussed.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 60 (1998), S. 601-617 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract Tissue homeostasis requires a balance between cell proliferation and death. Apoptosis and proliferation are linked by cell cycle regulators, and apoptotic stimuli affect both cell proliferation and death. Glucocorticoids induce G1 arrest and apoptosis in transformed lymphoid cells. Decreased expression of the cell cycle components c-myc and cyclin D3 is essential for glucocorticoid-induced growth arrest and death in dividing cells. Other G1 regulators, such as p53, pRb, and E2F, have also been implicated in apoptosis. Mice lacking either p53 or E2F display aberrant cell proliferation and tumor formation, suggesting that these proteins are involved in the elimination of abnormal cells through apoptosis. In contrast, pRb induces G1 arrest and suppresses apoptosis in cultured cells. Mice that lack pRb are nonviable and show ectopic mitosis and massive cell death, suggesting that pRb is an apoptotic suppressor. Further analysis of common components of apoptotic and cell cycle machinery may provide insight into the coordinated regulation of these antagonistic processes.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 67 (2005), S. 491-514 
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    Notes: Vision at absolute threshold is based on signals produced in a tiny fraction of the rod photoreceptors. This requires that the rods signal the absorption of single photons, and that the resulting signals are transmitted across the retina and encoded in the activity sent from the retina to the brain. Behavioral and ganglion cell sensitivity has often been interpreted to indicate that these biophysical events occur noiselessly, i.e., that vision reaches limits to sensitivity imposed by the division of light into discrete photons and occasional photon-like noise events generated in the rod photoreceptors. We argue that this interpretation is not unique and provide a more conservative view of the constraints behavior and ganglion cell experiments impose on phototransduction and retinal processing. We summarize what is known about how these constraints are met and identify some of the outstanding open issues.
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    Annual Review of Physiology 68 (2006), S. 159-191 
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    Notes: Liver X receptors (LXRs) and farnesoid X receptor (FXR) are nuclear receptors that function as intracellular sensors for sterols and bile acids, respectively. In response to their ligands, these receptors induce transcriptional responses that maintain a balanced, finely tuned regulation of cholesterol and bile acid metabolism. LXRs also permit the efficient storage of carbohydrate- and fat-derived energy, whereas FXR activation results in an overall decrease in triglyceride levels and modulation of glucose metabolism. The elegant, dual interplay between these two receptor systems suggests that they coevolved to constitute a highly sensitive and efficient system for the maintenance of total body fat and cholesterol homeostasis. Emerging evidence suggests that the tissue-specific action of these receptors is also crucial for the proper function of the cardiovascular, immune, reproductive, endocrine pancreas, renal, and central nervous systems. Together, LXRs and FXR represent potential therapeutic targets for the treatment and prevention of numerous metabolic and lipid-related diseases.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995), S. 21-45 
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995), S. 47-74 
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995), S. 141-161 
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995), S. 185-213 
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995), S. 343-372 
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995), S. 423-446 
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 25 (1996), S. 153-178 
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    Notes: Abstract This review discusses pharmaceuticals as social and cultural phenomena by following their "life cycle" from production, marketing, and prescription to distribution, purchasing, consumption, and finally their efficacy. Each phase has its own particular context, actors, and transactions and is characterized by different sets of values and ideas. The anthropology of pharmaceuticals is relevant to medical anthropology and health policy. It also touches the heart of general anthropology with its long-time interest in the concepts of culture vs nature, symbolization and social transformation, and its more recent concerns with the cultural construction of the body and processes of globalization and localization. The study of transactions and meanings of pharmaceuticals in diverse social settings provides a particularly appropriate empirical base for addressing these new theoretical issues.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 25 (1996), S. 217-236 
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    Notes: Abstract Grammaticalization-the transformation of lexical items and phrases into grammatical forms-has been the focus of considerable study. Two chief directions can be identified. The first involves etymology and the taxonomy of possible changes in language, in which semantic and cognitive accounts of words and categories of words are considered to explain the changes. The second involves the discourse contexts within which grammaticalization occurs. Some researchers have questioned the standard idea of a stable synchronic a priori grammar in which linguistic structure is distinct from discourse, and have sought to replace this with the idea of "emergent grammar" in which repetitions of various kinds in discourse lead to perpetual structuration.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 25 (1996), S. 275-301 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract The past decade has seen a dramatic increase in the number of fossil human specimens discovered in China. A better understanding of the tempo and mode of human evolution in Asia during the Pleistocene can be gained as a result. This new evidence has important implications for understanding the course of human evolution not only in Asia but throughout the world. Major issues in human evolutionary studies such as the timing of the initial hominid dispersal event and the factors behind major transitions in the fossil record are addressed in light of these recent finds.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 25 (1996), S. 353-382 
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    Notes: Abstract This review describes some recent, unexpected findings concerning variation in spatial language across cultures, and places them in the context of the general anthropology of space on the one hand, and theories of spatial cognition in the cognitive sciences on the other. There has been much concern with the symbolism of space in anthropological writings, but little on concepts of space in practical activities. This neglect of everyday spatial notions may be due to unwitting ethnocentrism, the assumption in Western thinking generally that notions of space are universally of a single kind. Recent work shows that systems of spatial reckoning and description can in fact be quite divergent across cultures, linguistic differences correlating with distinct cognitive tendencies. This unexpected cultural variation raises interesting questions concerning the relation between cultural and linguistic concepts and the biological foundations of cognition. It argues for more sophisticated models relating culture and cognition than we currently have available.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 25 (1996), S. 411-435 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: Abstract The review focuses on analyses of the creation of culture among poor populations in the United States whose lives have been structured by residing at the center of the global economy. Literature is examined concerning the changing construction of labor, space, time, and identity in the new poverty. Throughout, the review examines the generation of poverty and questions of gender, race, political mobilization, and resistance. This outline of current research provides a framework for an analysis of the violence and conflict generated by the lowering of wages and the reduction of leisure time.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 47-71 
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    Notes: Abstract The effort to know and interact with an otherworld tends to demand highly marked uses of linguistic resources. In contrast to less marked speech situations, in religious contexts the sources of words, as well as the identity, agency, authority, and even the very presence of participants in an interaction, can be especially problematic. Different religious practices alter any of a variety of formal and pragmatic features of everyday language in response to their distinctive assumptions about the world, otherworlds, and the beings they contain. These practices are also mediated by speakers' assumptions about the nature and workings of language. Because such assumptions bear on the presumed nature of human and nonhuman subjects, religious debates often dwell on details of verbal and textual practice. The study of religious language touches on more general problems concerning relations among performance, text, and context. It also reveals chronic tensions between transcendence and the situated nature of practices, with implications for the nature of agency and belief.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 73-85 
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    Notes: Abstract This review is an overview of the newly developing field of language rights. It distinguishes between (a) historical/descriptive studies where language rights are treated as the resultant variable with no attempt to predict consequences, and (b) exhortatory and ideologically based studies in which language rights are considered a causal variable. An attempt at definitions follows, set within the field of language planning. Principal concerns, such as territoriality versus personality principles and individual versus collective rights, are discussed. The review ends with an argument to consider language rights as emic rights, which is to say culture-language-context-specific rights, rather than to consider linguistic human rights from a universal rights perspective which overstates issues and masks rights to as also being rights against. We need a careful exploration of the nature of language rights and their consequences.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 211-234 
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    Notes: Abstract This review addresses issues of governmentality for Mesoamerica's earliest kingdoms. About 3200 years ago the Olmecs instituted stratified society based upon sacred kingship. Supervision of public works projects, the creation and deployment of monumental art, and control of ritual and ideology were the kings' principal means of governance within their kingdoms. Evidence for Olmec governance outside their region is equivocal. Olmecs may have conquered the societies of the Mazatan region, but they interacted with societies in the Mexican Highlands on a less coercive and more equitable basis.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 263-289 
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    Notes: Abstract Evolution is considered controversial by a substantial minority of Americans. Religious opposition explains this, but this opposition is comprised of a broad continuum of religious views. It runs from "young earth creationism" through "old earth creationism" (including "day-age," "gap," and "progressive creationism") to "theistic evolutionism." Historically, antievolutionists have attempted to ban evolution and to present it on an equal footing with "creation science." Scholars largely ignored antievolutionism until efforts to pass "equal time for creation and evolution" laws stimulated both political and scholarly activism. Lately, there are efforts to discourage the teaching of evolution by requiring teachers to read disclaimers before teaching it, to teach it as "theory, not fact," or to present fancied "evidence against evolution." Recently, "intelligent design theory," a restatement of William Paley's Argument from Design, has surfaced. Although rejected by scientists, intelligent design arguments and publications are appearing at the college level (in nonscience courses) as accurate representations of scientific scholarship.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 337-357 
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    Notes: Abstract Despite decades of research that has revolutionized the neurosciences, efforts to explain the major features of human brain evolution are still mostly based on superficial gross neuroanatomical features (e.g. size, sulcal patterns) and on theories of selection for high-level functions that lack precise neurobiological predictions (e.g. general intelligence, innate grammar). Beyond its large size we still lack an account of what makes a human brain different. However, advances in comparative neuroanatomy, developmental biology, and genetics have radically changed our understanding of brain development. These data challenge classic ideas about brain size, intelligence, and the addition of new functions, such as language, and they provide tools with which we can test hypotheses about how human brains diverge from other primate brains.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 26 (1997), S. 411-437 
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    Notes: Abstract In the past decade, archaeologists have given considerable attention to research on gender in the human past. In this review, we attempt to acknowledge much of this diverse and abundant work from an explicitly feminist perspective. We focus on reviewing a selection of approaches to gender that are anchored to specific theoretical standpoints. In addition, we highlight several approaches that challenge an archaeology of gender that does not explicitly engage with the implications of this topic for research, practice, and interpretation. From our perspective, we suggest the value of situating gender research within an explicitly feminist framework, and we draw attention to some of the important insights for archaeology from the wider field of feminist critiques of science. Last, we draw attention to the crucial implications for the practice of archaeology.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 28 (1999), S. 509-529 
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    Notes: Abstract Human beings are biologically adapted for culture in ways that other primates are not, as evidenced most clearly by the fact that only human cultural traditions accumulate modifications over historical time (the ratchet effect). The key adaptation is one that enables individuals to understand other individuals as intentional agents like the self. This species-unique form of social cognition emerges in human ontogeny at approximately 1 year of age, as infants begin to engage with other persons in various kinds of joint attentional activities involving gaze following, social referencing, and gestural communication. Young children's joint attentional skills then engender some uniquely powerful forms of cultural learning, enabling the acquisition of language, discourse skills, tool-use practices, and other conventional activities. These novel forms of cultural learning allow human beings to, in effect, pool their cognitive resources both contemporaneously and over historical time in ways that are unique in the animal kingdom.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 28 (1999), S. 531-552 
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    Notes: Abstract Optimality theory was introduced in the early 1990s as an alternative model of the organization of natural human language sound systems. This article provides an introduction to the model for the nonlinguist. The basic principles of optimality theory are introduced and explained (GEN, CON, and EVAL). Three important constraint families are explored (Faithfulness, Alignment, and Markedness). Illustrations are provided involving syllabification and vowel harmony in Tibetan and prosodic phonotactics in Tonkawa. The article closes with two general discussions. The first addresses recurring issues in phonological and linguistic analysis and sketches how optimality theory might account for these. The second points out how the explanations arrived at through optimality theory are providing new answers to familiar questions, as well as raising new questions for study.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 28 (1999), S. 553-575 
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    Notes: Abstract Studying human behavior in the light of evolutionary theory involves studying the comparative evolutionary history of behaviors (phylogeny), the psychological machinery that generates them (mechanisms), and the adaptive value of that machinery in past reproductive competition (natural selection). To show the value of a phylogenetic perspective, I consider the ethology of emotional expression and the cladistics of primate social systems. For psychological mechanisms, I review evidence for a pan-human set of conceptual building blocks, including innate concepts of things, space, and time, of number, of logic, of natural history, and of "other minds" and social life, which can be combined to generate a vast array of culture-specific concepts. For natural selection, I discuss the sexual selection of sex differences and similarities, and the social selection of moral sentiments and group psychology.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 28 (1999), S. 577-598 
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    Notes: Abstract As an artifact of imperial culture, Africanist anthropology is historically associated with the colonization of Africa in ways that undermine the subdiscipline's claims of neutrality and objectivity. A critical literature on the ideological and discursive inventions of Africa by the West challenges the very possibility of Africanist anthropology, to which a variety of responses have emerged. These range from historical reexaminations of imperial discourses, colonial interactions, and fieldwork in Africa, including dialogical engagements with the very production of ethnographic texts, to a more dialectical anthropology of colonial spectacle and culture as it was coproduced and reciprocally determined in imperial centers and peripheries. Understood philologically, as an imperial palimpsest in ethnographic writing, the colonial legacy in Africanist ethnography can never be negated, but must be acknowledged under the sign of its erasure.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 269-291 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
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    Notes: This review proposes a model for analyzing the power of ideologies of communication in producing subjectivities, organizing them hierarchically, and recruiting people to occupy them. By way of illustration, it compares this productive capacity, which is herein termed communicability, with schemes of racialization and medicalization. The argument draws on critical discourse analysis, conversational analysis, post-Habermasian research on publics, Bakhtin, Bourdieu, Foucault, and work on language ideologies to synthesize a framework for studying spheres of communicability. The concept is then used in exploring how constructions of race and health intersect in some of the most powerful spheres of communicabilityĐ??those associated with colonial medicine, HIV/AIDS, severe accute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Alzheimer's, genetics, clinical trials, "race-based medicine," organ transplant, and biostatistics. The review attempts to connect linguistic anthropology and discourse analysis more productively to medical anthropology, the history of medicine and public health, medical sociology, public health, genetics, and science studies.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 451-471 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Previous research has suggested that arctic populations have elevated metabolic rates in response to their cold, marginal climate. Recent studies of indigenous Siberian groups have confirmed these earlier findings and have shed light on the mechanisms through which northern populations adapt to their environments. Indigenous Siberians show significant elevations in basal metabolic rate compared with reference values. Total energy expenditure is variable across Siberian groups and is correlated with levels of acculturation. Siberian populations appear to have adapted to cold stress through both short-term acclimatization and genetic adaptations, with thyroid hormones playing an important role in shaping metabolic responses. Elevated metabolic rates also have important consequences for health and may contribute to the low serum lipid levels observed in Siberian groups. Further research is needed to elucidate the underlying mechanisms of metabolic adaptation and their implications for ongoing health changes among indigenous Siberians.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 717-739 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Throughout the twentieth century, social and cultural policies toward indigenous peoples in Latin America have been closely related to indigenismo, an ideological movement that denounced the exploitation of aboriginal groups and strove for the cultural unity and the extension of citizenship through social integration and "acculturation." This review traces the colonial and nineteenth-century roots of indigenismo and places it in the context of the populist tendencies in most Latin American states from the 1920s to the 1970s, which favored economic protectionism and used agrarian reform and the provision of services as tools for governance and legitimacy. Also examined is the role of anthropological research in its relation to state hegemony as well as the denunciation of indigenista policies by ethnic intellectuals and organizations. In recent decades, the dismantling of populist policies has given rise to a new official "neoliberal" discourse that extols multiculturalism. However, the widespread demand for multicultural policies is also seen as the outcome of the fight by militant indigenous organizations for a new type of citizenship.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 253-268 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: This review article addresses the following question: Given the transformed social, political, and intellectual conditions for ethnographic research among indigenous peoples in North America, what forms has such research come to take at the turn of the twenty-first century? The review considers significant trends and innovations in research sites and topics, research methodologies, theoretical orientations, and forms of representation. It also assesses the distinctive strengths and limitations posed by ethnographic research for scholars engaging with significant dimensions of contemporary indigenous life, including struggles for rights, resources, recognition, and language vitality in both the national and international arenas; the repatriation and sovereignty movements; the development of tribal casinos, tourist complexes, cultural centers, and media outlets; continued social and economic marginalization of many indigenous peoples; and challenges posed by neoliberalism and globalization to tribal governments and economies.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 667-693 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Over the past several decades, global manifestations of racism have undergone significant transformations. The anticolonial struggle, the civil rights movement, and the antiapartheid offensive have challenged the former established racial regimes. But the consolidation of global capitalism has also created new forms of racialization. A variety of antiracist strategies and interventions have emerged to confront new racisms. Analyses of racism have sought to interrogate its history and contemporary manifestations, how it is maintained and reproduced, and to predict its future. Anthropologists and other social scientists are challenged to develop theoretical perspectives and methodological approaches to advance our understanding of these new manifestations of race and racism.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 139-158 
    ISSN: 0084-6570
    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Under the influence of phenomenological approaches, a semiotic perspective on the body is being replaced in archaeology by analysis of the production and experience of lived bodies in the past through the juxtaposition of traces of body practices, idealized representations, and evidence of the effects of habitual gestures, postures, and consumption practices on the corporal body. On the basis of a shared assumption that social understandings of the body were created and reproduced through associations with material culture, archaeology of the body has proceeded from two theoretical positions: the body as the scene of display and the body as artifact. Today, the body as a site of lived experience, a social body, and site of embodied agency, is replacing prior static conceptions of an archaeology of the body as a public, legible surface.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 9 (1980), S. 545-573 
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 363-384 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: This review explores contemporary processes through which immigrants are categorized into shifting racial landscapes in the new Europe. Tracing the racial genealogy of the immigrant through European and Europeanist migration studies, the successive construction of overlapping tropes of the nomad, the laborer, the uprooted victim, the hybrid cosmopolite, and the (Muslim) transmigrant are examined. This history points to the perduring problematization of the immigrant as the object of national integration. If migration studies have effectively tended to racialize migrants into a new savage slot, recent ethnographies of the immigrant experience in Europe point to ways in which immigrant and diasporic groups cross racial frontiers and enact solidarity across class and cultural lines.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 575-598 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: A review of work on African Americans through archaeology takes place under diasporic studies and relies on literature that defines the North American black experience. The focus is on the establishment of freedom by the founding of maroon communities and independent settlements of free people, as well as on the use and interpretation of African diasporic history and theory, particularly by archaeologists using knowledge of the diaspora to effect modern political change.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 231-252 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: The description and explanation of racial and ethnic health disparities are major initiatives of the public health research establishment. Black Americans suffer on nearly every measure of health in relation to white Americans. Five theoretical models have been proposed to explain these disparities: a racial-genetic model, a health-behavior model, a socioeconomic status model, a psychosocial stress model, and a structural-constructivist model. We selectively review literature on health disparities, emphasizing research on low birth weight and high blood pressure. The psychosocial stress model and the structural-constructivist model offer greatest promise to explain disparities. In future research, theoretical elaboration and operational specificity are needed to distinguish among three distinct factors: (a) genetic variants contributing to disease risk; (b) ethnoracial or folk racial categories masquerading as biology; and (c) ethnic group membership. Such elaboration is necessary to move beyond the conflation of these three distinct constructs that characterizes much of current research.
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    Palo Alto, Calif. : Annual Reviews
    Annual Review of Anthropology 9 (1980), S. 15-61 
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 293-315 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Much attention has been focused on the survival of Indigenous languages in recent years. Many, particularly anthropologists and linguists, anticipate the demise of the majority of Indigenous languages within this century and have called on the need to arrest the loss of languages. Opinions vary concerning the loss of language; some regard it as a hopeless cause, and others see language revitalization as a major responsibility of linguistics and kindred disciplines. To that end, this review explores efforts in language revitalization and documentation and the engagement with Indigenous peoples. It remains unclear why some attempts at language revitalization succeed, whereas others fail. What is clear is that the process is profoundly political.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 575-598 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: A review of work on African Americans through archaeology takes place under diasporic studies and relies on literature that defines the North American black experience. The focus is on the establishment of freedom by the founding of maroon communities and independent settlements of free people, as well as on the use and interpretation of African diasporic history and theory, particularly by archaeologists using knowledge of the diaspora to effect modern political change.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 269-298 
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 9 (1980), S. 391-432 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 155-177 
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 549-573 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: This review examines literature on indigenous movements in Latin America from 1992 to 2004. It addresses ethnic identity and ethnic activism, in particular the reindianization processes occurring in indigenous communities throughout the region. We explore the impact that states and indigenous mobilizing efforts have had on each other, as well as the role of transnational nongovernmental organizations and para-statal organizations, neoliberalism more broadly, and armed conflict. Shifts in ethnoracial, political, and cultural indigenous discourses are examined, special attention being paid to new deployments of rhetorics concerned with political imaginaries, customary law, culture, and identity. Self-representational strategies will be numerous and dynamic, identities themselves multiple, fluid, and abundantly positional. The challenges these dynamics present for anthropological field research and ethnographic writing are discussed, as is the dialogue between scholars, indigenous and not, and activists, indigenous and not. Conclusions suggest potentially fruitful research directions for the future.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 269-291 
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    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: This review proposes a model for analyzing the power of ideologies of communication in producing subjectivities, organizing them hierarchically, and recruiting people to occupy them. By way of illustration, it compares this productive capacity, which is herein termed communicability, with schemes of racialization and medicalization. The argument draws on critical discourse analysis, conversational analysis, post-Habermasian research on publics, Bakhtin, Bourdieu, Foucault, and work on language ideologies to synthesize a framework for studying spheres of communicability. The concept is then used in exploring how constructions of race and health intersect in some of the most powerful spheres of communicabilityĐ??those associated with colonial medicine, HIV/AIDS, severe accute respiratory syndrome (SARS), Alzheimer's, genetics, clinical trials, "race-based medicine," organ transplant, and biostatistics. The review attempts to connect linguistic anthropology and discourse analysis more productively to medical anthropology, the history of medicine and public health, medical sociology, public health, genetics, and science studies.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 317-341 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: This essay reviews recent anthropological attention to the "beginnings" and "endings" of life. A large literature since the 1990s highlights the analytic trends and innovations that characterize anthropological attention to the cultural production of persons, the naturalization of life, and the emergence of new life forms. Part I of this essay outlines the coming-into-being, completion and attenuation of personhood and how life and death are attributed, contested, and enacted. Dominant themes include how connections are forged or severed between the living and the dead and the socio-politics of dead, dying, and decaying bodies. The culture of medicine is examined for its role in organizing and naming life and death. Part II is organized by the turn to biopolitical analyses stimulated by the work of Foucault. It encompasses the ways in which the biosciences and biotechnologies, along with state practices, govern forms of living and dying and new forms of life such as the stem cell, embryo, comatose, and brain dead, and it emphasizes the production of value. Much of this scholarship is informed by concepts of liminality (a period and state of being between social statuses) and subjectification (in which notions of self, citizenship, life and its management are linked to the production of knowledge and political forms of regulation).
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 441-457 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 11-41 
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 105-120 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: To what extent are intellectuals artisans of nationalism? In this chapter we review past and present anthropological research that has helped to reveal the agency of intellectuals in the projects and operations of states and nations. If the intellectual has long been defined in the Marxian-Gramscian tradition as a social actor with a special praxical investment in ways and forms of knowing, then what we discuss as "intellectualism," the social formation of knowledge, should be understood as a central dimension of the (re)production of nations and nationalism both inside and outside of states. We suggest that further drawing anthropological attention to intellectuals and their knowledge practices (ranging from the poetic-literary to the technical-administrative) will help the anthropology of nations and nationalism to (a) locate the role of human agency in the creation, circulation, and contestation of national culture, (b) capture the intellectual work involved in nationalism and bureaucracy in its full diversity, and (c) imagine a new series of ethnographic access points among educated professionals for the study of nationalism in action.
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    Annual Review of Anthropology 34 (2005), S. 13 
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    Source: Annual Reviews Electronic Back Volume Collection 1932-2001ff
    Topics: Ethnic Sciences , Biology
    Notes: Scholarly interest in body size has increased in concert with recent efforts to shape and assess bodies in particular ways within industrialized social contexts. Attending to both overt and covert references to Eurocentric body projects, this chapter reviews literature in anthropology, sociology, and cultural studies that addresses the cultural politics of body size in various parts of the world. It begins with a discussion of biocultural paradigms, which accept certain biomedical categories even when challenging or reconfiguring their hegemonic power. Next is a survey of works analyzing body size within "non-Western" groups as well as European and North American subgroups. These studies often employ culturally powerful "Western" constructs as foils, an approach that risks cultural othering. The analysis then turns to the extensive literature that unpacks dominant Euro-American body practices and discourses. Here, diverse perspectives on several key concerns in sociocultural anthropology are considered; concepts of culture and power, theories of the body and embodiment, and understandings of human agency vary in instructive ways. The chapter concludes with a review of scholarship on postcolonial processes and representations that incorporates a critical perspective on Eurocentric preoccupations with body size.
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 411-443 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 11 (1983), S. 195-214 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 11-37 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 133-153 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 10 (1982), S. 109-128 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 337-357 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 445-488 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 61-82 
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    Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 12 (1984), S. 107-131 
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