ALBERT

Note: Contents 1 Dynamical Processes in the Arctic Atmosphere / Marius O. Jonassen, Dmitry Chechin, Alexey Karpechko,Christof Lüpkes, Thomas Spengler, Annick Tepstra, Timo Vihma,and Xiangdong Zhang 2 Thermodynamics of the Arctic Atmosphere / Claudio Tomasi, Boyan H. Petkov, Oxana Drofa, and Mauro Mazzola 3 Trace Gases in the Arctic Atmosphere / Kimberly Strong, William R. Simpson, Kristof Bognar,Rodica Lindenmaier, and Sébastien Roche 4 Arctic Aerosols / Roberto Udisti, Rita Traversi, Silvia Becagli, Claudio Tomasi,Mauro Mazzola, Angelo Lupi, and Patricia K. Quinn 5 A Climatological Overview of Arctic Clouds / Abhay Devasthale, Joseph Sedlar, Michael Tjernström,and Alexander Kokhanovsky 6 Arctic Ice Fog: Its Microphysics and Prediction / Ismail Gultepe, Andrew J. Heymsfield, and Martin Gallagher 7 Polar Stratospheric Clouds in the Arctic / Francesco Cairo and Tiziana Colavitto 8 Noctilucent Clouds: General Properties and Remote Sensing / Christian von Savigny, Gerd Baumgarten, and Franz-Josef Lübkenix 9 Remote Sensing of Arctic Atmospheric Aerosols / Alexander Kokhanovsky, Claudio Tomasi, Alexander Smirnov,Andreas Herber, Roland Neuber, André Ehrlich, Angelo Lupi, Boyan H. Petkov, Mauro Mazzola, Christoph Ritter, Carlos Toledano,Thomas Carlund, Vito Vitale, Brent Holben, Tymon Zielinski,Simon Bélanger, Pierre Larouche, Stefan Kinne, Vladimir Radionov,Manfred Wendisch, Jason L. Tackett, and David M. Winker 10 Radiation in the Arctic Atmosphere and Atmosphere –Cryosphere Feedbacks / Claudio Tomasi, Boyan H. Petkov, Angelo Lupi, Mauro Mazzola,Christian Lanconelli, and Ismail Gultepe 11 Climate Change in the Arctic / Torben Koenigk, Jeff Key, and Timo Vihma Index

Note: Integrated Fault Seal Analysis: An Introduction / Steven R. Ogilvie, Steve J. Dee, Robert W. Wilson and Wayne R. Bailey / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 496, 1-8, 7 May 2020, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP496-2020-51 --- Fault seal behaviour in Permian Rotliegend reservoir sequences: case studies from the Dutch Southern North Sea / K. van Ojik, A. Silvius, Y. Kremer and Z. K. Shipton / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 496, 9-38, 13 November 2019, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP496-2018-189 --- An experimental and numerical investigation on the hydromechanical behaviour of carbonate fault zones upon reactivation: the impact of carbonate mud sealing layers and overall research outcomes / M. Nogueira Kiewiet, C. Lima, A. Giwelli, C. Delle Piane, V. Lemiale, L. Esteban, F. Falcao, M. B. Clennell, J. Dautriat, L. Kiewiet, J. Raimon, S. Kager and D. Dewhurst / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 496, 39-73, 8 November 2019, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP496-2018-153 --- Fault failure modes, deformation mechanisms, dilation tendency, slip tendency, and conduits v. seals / David A. Ferrill, Kevin J. Smart and Alan P. Morris / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 496, 75-98, 16 December 2019, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP496-2019-7 --- Fault zone architecture and its scaling laws: where does the damage zone start and stop? / A. Torabi, T. S. S. Ellingsen, M. U. Johannessen, B. Alaei, A. Rotevatn and D. Chiarella / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 496, 99-124, 11 October 2019, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP496-2018-151 --- Fault fictions: systematic biases in the conceptualization of fault-zone architecture / Z. K. Shipton, J. J. Roberts, E. L. Comrie, Y. Kremer, R. J. Lunn and J. S. Caine / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 496, 125-143, 16 December 2019, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP496-2018-161 --- Validation and analysis procedures for juxtaposition and membrane fault seals in oil and gas exploration / Titus A. Murray, William L. Power, Anthony J. Johnson, Greg J. Christie and David R. Richards / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 496, 145-161, 11 November 2019, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP496-2018-171 --- Stochastic modelling of fault gouge zones: implications for fault seal analysis / Neil T. Grant / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 496, 163-197, 24 October 2019, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP496-2018-135 --- Efficient handling of fault properties using the Juxtaposition Table Method / Tor Anders Knai and Guillaume Lescoffit / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 496, 199-207, 23 March 2020, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP496-2018-192 --- A knowledge database of hanging-wall traps that are dependent on fault-rock seal / Peter G. Bretan, Graham Yielding and Einar Sverdrup / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 496, 209-222, 27 September 2019, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP496-2018-157 --- Subsurface observations of deformation bands and their impact on hydrocarbon production within the Holstein Field, Gulf of Mexico, USA / Scott J. Wilkins, Russell K. Davies and Steve J. Naruk / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 496, 223-252, 11 October 2019, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP496-2018-139 --- Enhancing trap and fault seal analyses by integrating observations from HR3D seismic data with well logs and conventional 3D seismic data, Texas inner shelf / Johnathon L. Osmond and Timothy A. Meckel / Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 496, 253-279, 19 December 2019, https://doi.org/10.1144/SP496-201

Note: CONTENTS PREFACE 1 Introduction: Matter, Energy, and Measurement 1.1 The Study of Chemistry The Atomic and Molecular Perspective of Chemistry Why Study Chemistry? 1.2 Classifications of Matter States of Matter Pure Substances Elements Compounds Mixtures 1.3 Properties of Matter Physical and Chemical Changes Separation of Mixtures 1.4 The Nature of Energy Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy 1.5 Units of Measurement SI Units Length and Mass Temperature Derived SI Units Volume Density Units of Energy 1.6 Uncertainty in Measurement Precision and Accuracy Significant Figures Significant Figures in Calculations 1.7 Dimensional Analysis Conversion Factors Using Two or More Conversion Factors Conversions Involving Volume Chapter Summary and Key Terms Learning Outcomes Key Equations Exercises Additional Exercises Chemistry Put to Work Chemistry and the Chemical Industry A Closer Look: The Scientific Method Chemistry Put to Work: Chemistry in the News Strategies for Success: Estimating Answers Strategies for Success: The Importance of Practice Strategies for Success: The Features of This Book 2 Atoms, Molecules, and Ions 2.1 The Atomic Theory of Matter 2.2 The Discovery of Atomic Structure Cathode Rays and Electrons Radioactivity The Nuclear Model of the Atom 2.3 The Modern View of Atomic Structure Atomic Numbers, Mass Numbers, and Isotopes 2.4 Atomic Weights The Atomic Mass Scale Atomic Weight 2.5 The Periodic Table 2.6 Molecules and Molecular Compounds Molecules and Chemical Formulas Molecular and Empirical Formulas Picturing Molecules 2.7 Ions and Ionic Compounds Predicting Ionic Charges Ionic Compounds 2.8 Naming Inorganic Compounds Names and Formulas of Ionic Compounds Names and Formulas of Acids Names and Formulas of Binary Molecular Compounds 2.9 Some Simple Organic Compounds Alkanes Some Derivatives of Alkanes Chapter Summary and Key Terms Learning Outcomes Key Equations Exercises Additional Exercises A Closer Look Basic Forces A Closer Look The Mass Spectrometer Chemistry and Life Elements Required by Living Organisms Strategies for Success: How to Take a Test 3 Chemical Reactions and Stoichiometry 3.1 The Conservation of Mass, Chemical Equations, and Stoichiometry How to Balance Chemical Equations A Step-by-Step Example of Balancing a Chemical Equation 3.2 Simple Patterns of Chemical Reactivity: Combination, Decomposition, and Combustion Combination and Decomposition Reactions Combustion Reactions 3.3 Formula Weights and Elemental Compositions of Substances Formula and Molecular Weights Elemental Compositions of Substances 3.4 Avogadro's Number and the Mole; Molar Mass The Mole and Avogadro's Number Molar Mass Converting Between Masses, Moles, and Atoms/Molecules/Ions 3.5 Formula Weights and Elemental Compositions of Substances Molecular Formulas from Empirical Formulas Combustion Analysis 3.6 Reaction Stoichiometry 3.7 Limiting Reactants Theoretical and Percent Yields Chapter Summary and Key Terms Learning Outcomes Key Equations Exercises Additional Exercises Integrative Exercises Design an Experiment Strategies for Success: Problem Solving Chemistry and Life: Glucose Monitoring Strategies for Success: Design an Experiment 4 Reactions in Aqueous Solution 4.1 General Properties of Aqueous Solutions Electrolytes and Nonelectrolytes How Compounds Dissolve in Water Strong and Weak Electrolytes 4.2 Precipitation Reactions Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds Exchange (Metathesis) Reactions Ionic Equations and Spectator Ions 4.3 Acids, Bases, and Neutralization Reactions Acids Bases Strong and Weak Acids and Bases Identifying Strong and Weak Electrolytes Neutralization Reactions and Salts Neutralization Reactions with Gas Formation 4.4 Oxidation-Reduction Reactions Oxidation and Reduction Oxidation Numbers Oxidation of Metals by Acids and Salts The Activity Series 4.5 Concentrations of Solutions Molarity Expressing the Concentration of an Electrolyte Interconverting Molarity, Moles, and Volume Dilution 4.6 Solution Stoichiometry and Chemical Analysis Titrations Chapter Summary and Key Terms Learning Outcomes Key Equations Exercises Additional Exercises Integrative Exercises Design an Experiment Chemistry Put to Work Antacids Strategies for Success Analyzing Chemical Reactions 5 Thermochemistry 5.1 The Nature of Chemical Energy 5.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics System and Surroundings Internal Energy Relating Δf to Heat and Work Endothermic and Exothermic Processes State Functions 5.3 Enthalpy Pressure-Volume Work Enthalpy Change 5.4 Enthalpies of Reaction 5.5 Calorimetry Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Constant-Pressure Calorimetry Bomb Calorimetry (Constant-Volume Calorimetry) 5.6 Hess's Law 5.7 Enthalpies of Formation Using Enthalpies of Formation to Calculate Enthalpies of Reaction 5.8 Bond Enthalpies Bond Enthalpies and the Enthalpies of Reactions 5.9 Foods and Fuels Foods Fuels Other Energy Sources Chapter Summary and Key Terms Learning Outcomes Key Equations Exercises Additional Exercises Integrative Exercises Design an Experiment A Closer Look: Energy, Enthalpy, and P-V Work A Closer Look: Using Enthalpy as a Guide Chemistry and Life: The Regulation of Body Temperature Chemistry Put to Work: The Scientific and Political Challenges of Biofuels 6 Electronic Structure of Atoms 6.1 The Wave Nature of Light 6.2 Quantized Energy and Photons Hot Objects and the Quantization of Energy The Photoelectric Effect and Photons 6.3 Line Spectra and the Bohr Model Line Spectra Bohr's Model The Energy States of the Hydrogen Atom Limitations of the Bohr Model 6.4 The Wave Behavior of Matter The Uncertainty Principle 6.5 Quantum Mechanics and Atomic Orbitals Orbitals and Quantum Numbers 6.6 Representations of Orbitals The s Orbitals The p Orbitals The d and f Orbitals 6.7 Many-Electron Atoms Orbitals and Their Energies Electron Spin and the Pauli Exclusion Principle 6.8 Electron Configurations Hund's Rule Condensed Electron Configurations Transition Metals The Lanthanides and Actinides 6.9 Electron Configurations and the Periodic Table Anomalous Electron Configurations Chapter Summary and Key Terms Learning Outcomes Key Equations Exercises Additional Exercises Integrative Exercises Design an Experiment A Closer Look: Measurement and the Uncertainty Principle A Closer Look: Thought Experiments and Schrödinger's Cat A Closer Look: Probability Density and Radial Probability Functions Chemistry and Life Nuclear Spin and Magnetic Resonance Imaging 7 Periodic Properties of the Elements 7.1 Development of the Periodic Table 7.2 Effective Nuclear Charge 7.3 Sizes of Atoms and Ions Periodic Trends in Atomic Radii Periodic Trends in Ionic Radii 7.4 Ionization Energy Variations in Successive Ionization Energies Periodic Trends in First Ionization Energies Electron Configurations of Ions 7.5 Electron Affinity Periodic Trends in Electron Affinity 7.6 Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids Metals Nonmetals Metalloids 7.7 Trends for Group 1 and Group 2 Metals Group 1: The Alkali Metals Group 2: The Alkaline Earth Metals 7.8 Trends for Selected Nonmetals Hydrogen Group 16: The Oxygen Group Group 17: The Halogens Group 18: The Noble Gases Chapter Summary and Key Terms Learning Outcomes Key Equations Exercises Additional Exercises Integrative Exercises Design and Experiment A Closer Look: Effective Nuclear Charge Chemistry Put to Work: Ionic Size and Lithium-Ion Batteries Chemistry and Life: The Improbable Development of Lithium Drugs 8 Basic Concepts of Chemical Bonding 8.1 Lewis Symbols and the Octet Rule Lewis Symbols The Octet Rule 8.2 Ionic Bonding Energetics of Ionic Bond Formation Electron Configurations of Ions of the s- and p-Block Elements Transition Metal Ions 8.3 Covalent Bonding Lewis Structures Multiple Bonds 8.4 Bond Polarity and Electronegativity Electronegativity Electronegativity and Bond Polarity Dipole Moments Comparing Ionic and Covalent Bonding 8.5 Drawing Lewis Structures Formal Charge and Alternative Lewis Structures 8.6 Resonance St

Note: Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Brief History of Natural Extreme Events 1.3 Motivation and Goals 1.4 Chapter Outline 2 Basic Notions of Probability and Statistics for Natural Extreme Events Frequency Analyses 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Chapter Objectives 2.3 Basic Notions of Theory of Probability 2.3.1 Definition of Probability 2.3.2 Random Variables 2.3.3 Probability Distribution Functions 2.3.4 Probability Density Functions 2.3.5 Non-exceedance and Exceedance Probabilities 2.3.6 Return Period 2.4 Basic Notions of Statistics 2.4.1 Moments of a Distribution 2.4.2 Measures of Central Tendency 2.4.3 Measures of Dispersion 2.4.4 Measures of Symmetry 2.4.5 Measures of Peakedness 2.4.6 Descriptive Statistics 2.5 Methods for the Estimation of Parameters of Probability Distribution Functions 2.5.1 The Method of Moments (MOM) 2.5.2 The Method of Maximum Likelihood (ML) 2.5.3 The Method of Probability Weighted Moments (PWM) 2.6 Quantile Estimation and Frequency Factor 2.7 Plotting Position Formulas 2.8 Confidence Limits 2.9 Standard Errors of Estimates 2.9.1 MOM Method 2.9.2 ML Method 2.9.3 PWM Method 2.10 Plotting the Extreme Value Data and Models 2.10.1 Normal Probability Paper 2.10.2 Gumbel’s Probability Paper 2.11 Goodness of Fit Tests 2.11.1 The Standard Error of Fit 2.11.2 The Mean Absolute Relative Deviation 2.11.3 The Akaike’s Information Criterion 2.12 Outliers Tests 2.12.1 The Grubbs and Beck Test 2.13 Test for Independence and Stationarity 2.14 Test for Homogeneity and Stationarity 3 Normal Distribution 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Chapter Objectives 3.3 Probability Distribution and Density Functions 3.4 Estimation of Parameters 3.4.1 MOM Method 3.4.2 ML Method 3.5 Estimation of Quantiles for the NOR Distribution 3.5.1 Examples of Estimation of MOM and ML Quantiles for the NOR Distribution 3.6 Goodness of Fit Test 3.6.1 Examples of Application of the SEF and MARD to the MOM-ML Estimators of the Parameters of the NOR Distribution 3.7 Estimation of the Confidence Limits for the NOR Distribution 3.8 Estimation of the Standard Errors for the NOR Distribution 3.8.1 MOM Method 3.8.2 ML Method 3.9 Examples of Application for the NOR Distribution Using Excel® Spreadsheets 3.9.1 Flood Frequency Analysis 3.9.2 Rainfall Frequency Analysis 3.9.3 Wave Height Frequency Analysis 3.9.4 Maximum Annual Wind Speed Frequency Analysis 4 Two-Parameters Log-Normal Distribution 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Chapter Objectives 4.3 Probability Distribution and Density Functions 4.4 Estimation of the Parameters 4.4.1 MOM Method 4.4.2 ML Method 4.5 Estimation of Quantiles for the LN2 Distribution 4.5.1 Examples of Estimation of MOM and ML Quantiles for the LN2 Distribution 4.6 Goodness of Fit Test 4.6.1 Examples of Application of the SEF and MARD to the MOM and ML Estimators of the Parameters of the LN2 Distribution 4.7 Estimation of the Confidence Limits for the LN2 Distribution 4.8 Estimation of the Standard Errors for the LN2 Distribution 4.8.1 MOM Method 4.8.2 ML Method 4.9 Examples of Application for the LN2 Distribution Using Excel® Spreadsheets 4.9.1 Flood Frequency Analysis 4.9.2 Rainfall Frequency Analysis 4.9.3 Maximum Significant Wave Height Frequency Analysis 4.9.4 Annual Maximum Wind Speed Frequency Analysis 5 Three-Parameters Log-Normal Distribution 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Chapter Objectives 5.3 Probability Distribution and Density Functions 5.4 Estimation of the Parameters 5.4.1 MOM Method 5.4.2 ML Method 5.5 Estimation of Quantiles for the LN3 Distribution 5.5.1 Examples of Estimation of MOM Quantiles for the LN3 Distribution 5.6 Goodness of Fit Test 5.6.1 Examples of Application of the SEF and MARD to the MOM and ML Estimators of the Parameters of the LN3 Distribution 5.7 Estimation of the Confidence Limits for the LN3 Distribution 5.8 Estimation of the Standard Errors for the LN3 Distribution 5.8.1 MOM Method 5.8.2 ML Method 5.9 Examples of Application for the LN3 Distribution Using Excel® Spreadsheets 5.9.1 Flood Frequency Analysis 5.9.2 Rainfall Frequency Analysis 5.9.3 Maximum Significant Wave Height Frequency Analysis 5.9.4 Annual Maximum Wind Speed Frequency Analysis 6 Gamma Distribution 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Chapter Objectives 6.3 Probability Distribution and Density Functions 6.4 Estimation of the Parameters 6.4.1 MOM Method 6.4.2 ML Method 6.5 Estimation of Quantiles for the GAM Distribution 6.5.1 Examples of Estimation of MOM and ML Quantiles for the GAM Distribution 6.6 Goodness of Fit Test 6.6.1 Examples of Application of the SEF and MARD to the MOM and ML Estimators of the Parameters of the GAM Distribution 6.7 Estimation of Confidence Limits for the GAM Distribution 6.8 Estimation of Standard Errors for the GAM Distribution 6.8.1 MOM Method 6.8.2 ML Method 6.9 Examples of Application for the GAM Distribution Using Excel ® Spreadsheets 6.9.1 Flood Frequency Analysis 6.9.2 Rainfall Frequency Analysis 6.9.3 Maximum Significant Wave Height Frequency Analysis 6.9.4 Annual Maximum Wind Speed Frequency Analysis 7 Pearson Type III Distribution 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Chapter Objectives 7.3 Probability Distribution and Density Functions 7.4 Estimation of the Parameters 7.4.1 MOM Method 7.4.2 ML Method 7.5 Estimation of Quantiles for the PIII Distribution 7.5.1 Examples of Estimation of MOM and ML Quantiles for the PIII Distribution 7.6 Goodness of Fit Test 7.6.1 Examples of Application of the SEF and MARD to the MOM and ML Estimators of the Parameters of the PIII Distribution 7.7 Estimation of Confidence Limits for the PIII Distribution 7.8 Estimation of Standard Errors for the PIII Distribution 7.8.1 MOM Method 7.8.2 ML Method 7.9 Examples of Application for the PIII Distribution Using Excel® Spreadsheets 7.9.1 Flood Frequency Analysis 7.9.2 Rainfall Frequency Analysis 7.9.3 Maximum Significant Wave Height Frequency Analysis 7.9.4 Annual Maximum Wind Speed Frequency Analysis 8 Log-Pearson Type III Distribution 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Chapter Objectives 8.3 Probability Distribution and Density Functions 8.4 Estimation of the Parameters 8.4.1 MOM Method 8.4.2 ML Method 8.5 Estimation of Quantiles for the LPIII Distribution 8.5.1 Estimation of MOM1, MOM2 and ML Quantiles for the LPIII Distribution 8.5.2 Estimation of WRC Quantiles for the LPIII Distribution 8.5.3 Examples of Estimation of MOM1, MOM2, WRC and ML Quantiles for the LPIII Distribution 8.6 Goodness of Fit Test 8.6.1 Examples of Application of the SEF and MARD to the MOM1, WRC and ML Estimators of the Parameters of the LPIII Distribution 8.7 Estimation of Confidence Limits for the LPIII Distribution 8.7.1 Estimation of Confidence Limits for the LPIII Distribution for MOM1, MOM2, and ML Methods 8.7.2 Estimation of Confidence Limits for the LPIII Distribution for WRC Method 8.8 Estimation of Standard Errors for the LPIII Distribution 8.8.1 MOM Method 8.8.2 ML Method 8.9 Examples of Application for the LPIII Distribution Using Excel® Spreadsheets 8.9.1 Flood Frequency Analysis 8.9.2 Rainfall Frequency Analysis 8.9.3 Maximum Significant Wave Height Frequency Analysis 8.9.4 Annual Maximum Wind Speed Frequency Analysis 9 Extreme Value Type I Distribution 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Chapter Objectives 9.3 Probability Distribution and Density Functions 9.4 Estimation of the Parameters 9.4.1 MOM Method 9.4.2 ML Method 9.4.3 PWM Method 9.5 Estimation of Quantiles for the EVI Distribution 9.5.1 Examples of Estimation of MOM, ML and PWM Quantiles for the EVI Distribution 9.6 Goodness of Fit Test 9.6.1 Examples of Application of the SEF and MARD to the MOM, ML and PWM Estimators of the Parameters of the EVI Distribution 9.7 Estimation of Confidence Limits for the EVI Distribution 9.8 Estimation of Standard Errors for the EVI Distribution 9.8.1 MOM Method 9.8.2 ML Method 9.8.3 PWM Method 9.9 Examples of Application for the EVI Distribution Using Excel® Spreadsheets 9.9.1 Flood Frequency Analysis 9.9.2 Rainfall Frequency Analysis 9.9.3 Maximum Significant Wave Height Frequency Analysis 9.9.4 Annual Maximum Wind Speed Frequency Analy

Note: Contents Chapter 1. Introduction on Coronavirus Disease (COVID-19) Pandemic: The Global Challenge / Nima Rezaei, Saboura Ashkevarian, Mahsa Keshavarz Fathi, Sara Hanaei, Zahra Kolahchi, Seyedeh-Sanam Ladi Seyedian, Elham Rayzan, Mojdeh Sarzaeim, Aida Vahed, Kawthar Mohamed, Sarah Momtazmanesh, Negar Moradian, Zahra Rahimi Pirkoohi, Noosha Sameeifar, Mahsa Yousefpour, Sepideh Sargoli, Saina Adiban, Aida Vahed, Niloufar Yazdanpanah, Heliya Ziaei, Amene Saghazadeh Chapter 2. Coronaviruses: What Should We Know About the Characteristics of Viruses? / Wei Ji Chapter 3. Ecology and Evolution of Betacoronaviruses / Eduardo Rodríguez-Román, Adrian J. Gibbs Chapter 4. The Epidemiologic Aspects of COVID-19 Outbreak: Spreading Beyond Expectations / Sara Hanaei, Farnam Mohebi, Maziar Moradi-Lakeh, Parnian Jabbari, Surinder Kumar Mehta, Liudmyla S. Kryvenko, Livio Luongo, Loďc Dupré, Nima Rezaei Chapter 5. The Incubation Period of COVID-19: Current Understanding and Modeling Technique / Char Leung Chapter 6. Coronavirus: Pure Infectious Disease or Genetic Predisposition / Farzaneh Darbeheshti, Hassan Abolhassani, Mohammad Bashashati, Saeid Ghavami, Sepideh Shahkarami, Samaneh Zoghi, Sudhir Gupta, Jordan S. Orange, Hans D. Ochs, Nima Rezaei Chapter 7. Genetic Polymorphisms in the Host and COVID-19 Infection / Joris R. Delanghe, Marc L. De Buyzere, Marijn M. Speeckaert Chapter 8. How COVID-19 Has Globalized: Unknown Origin, Rapid Transmission, and the Immune System Nourishment / Amene Saghazadeh, Nima Rezaei Chapter 9. Potential Anti-viral Immune Response Against COVID-19: Lessons Learned from SARS-CoV / Mahzad Akbarpour, Laleh Sharifi, Amir Reza Safdarian, Pooya Farhangnia, Mahdis Borjkhani, Nima Rezaei Chapter 10. COVID-19 and Cell Stress / Abdo A Elfiky, Ibrahim M Ibrahim, Fatma G Amin, Alaa M Ismail, Wael M Elshemey Chapter 11. Clinical Manifestations of COVID-19 / Mahsa Eskian, Nima Rezaei Chapter 12. Pediatrics and COVID-19 / Tuna Toptan, Sandra Ciesek, Sebastian Hoehl Chapter 13. Geriatrics and COVID-19 / Mona Mirbeyk, Amene Saghazadeh, Nima Rezaei Chapter 14. Coronavirus Diseases in Pregnant Women, the Placenta, Fetus, and Neonate / David A. Schwartz, Amareen Dhaliwal Chapter 15. COVID-19 in Patients with Hypertension / Thiago Quinaglia, Mahsima Shabani, Nima Rezaei Chapter 16. COVID-19 and Cardiovascular Diseases / Babak Geraiely, Niloufar Samiei, Parham Sadeghipour, Azita Haj Hossein Talasaz, Seyedeh Hamideh Mortazavi, Roya Sattarzadeh Badkoubeh Chapter 17. How Prevalent Is Cancer in Confirmed Cases with Coronaviruses and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndromes? / Maryam Fotouhi, Elham Samami, Sahar Mohseni, Amir Nasrollahizadeh, Mohammad Haddadi, Mona Mirbeyk, Amene Saghazadeh, Nima Rezaei Chapter 18. COVID-19 in Patients with Cancer / Ali Nowroozi, Sepideh Razi, Kamal Kant Sahu, Fabio Grizzi, Jann Arends, Mahsa Keshavarz-Fathi, Nima Rezaei Chapter 19. COVID-19 and Tropical Infection: Complexity and Concurrence / Pathum Sookaromdee, Viroj Wiwanitkit Chapter 20. Neurologic Manifestations of COVID-19 / Farnaz Delavari, Farnaz Najmi Varzaneh, Nima Rezaei Chapter 21. Autoimmune Processes Involved in Organ System Failure Following Infection with SARS-CoV-2 / Steven E. Kornguth, Robert J. Hawley Chapter 22. Clinical and Laboratory Predictors of Severity, Criticality, and Mortality in COVID-19: A Multisystem Disease / Bahareh Gholami, Samira Gholami, Amir Hossein Loghman, Behzad Khodaei, Simin Seyedpour, Nasrin Seyedpour, Amene Saghazadeh, Nima Rezaei Chapter 23. Diagnostic Tests for COVID-19 / Tung Phan, Kristin Nagaro Chapter 24. The Role of Medical Imaging in COVID-19 / Houman Sotoudeh, Masoumeh Gity Chapter 25. Therapeutic Development in COVID-19 / Chan Yang, Yuan Huang, Shuwen Liu Chapter 26. Immune-based Therapy for COVID-19 / Abdolreza Esmaeilzadeh, Davood Jafari, Safa Tahmasebi, Reza Elahi, Elnaz Khosh Chapter 27. Ventilatory Support in Patients with COVID-19 / Paolo Maria Leone, Matteo Siciliano, Jacopo Simonetti, Angelena Lopez, Tanzira Zaman, Francesco Varone, Luca Richeldi Chapter 28. Nutrition and Immunity in COVID-19 / Marjan Moallemian Isfahani, Zahra Emam-Djomeh, Idupulapati M. Rao, Nima Rezaei Chapter 29. Dietary Supplements for COVID-19 / Gerard E. Mullin, Berkeley Limektkai, Lin Wang, Patrick Hanaway, Loren Marks, Edward Giovannucci Chapter 30. Photobiomodulation and Antiviral Photodynamic Therapy in COVID-19 Management / Reza Fekrazad, Sohrab Asefi, Maryam Pourhajibagher, Farshid Vahdatinia, Sepehr Fekrazad, Abbas Bahador, Heidi Abrahamse, Michael R Hamblin Chapter 31. The COVID-19 Vaccine Landscape / Till Koch, Anahita Fathi, Marylyn M. Addo Chapter 32. Prevention of COVID-19: Preventive Strategies for General Population, Health Care Settings, and Various Professions / Shirin Moossavi, Kelsey Fehr, Hassan Maleki, Simin Seyedpour, Mahdis Keshavarz-Fath, Farhad Tabasi, Mehrdad Heravi, Rayka Sharifian, Golnaz Shafiei, Negin Badihian, Roya Kelishadi, Shahrzad Nematollahi, Majid Almasi, Saskia Popescu, Mahsa Keshavarz-Fathi, Nima Rezaei Chapter 33. Pharmacist Role and Pharmaceutical Care during the COVID-19 Pandemic / Pedro Amariles, Mónica Ledezma-Morales, Andrea Salazar-Ospina, Jaime Alejandro Hincapié-García Chapter 34. Impact of COVID-19 on Dentistry / Arghavan Tonkaboni, Mohammad Hosein Amirzade-Iranaq, Heliya Ziaei, Amber Ather Chapter 35. The Implications of COVID-19 to Ophthalmology / Tracy H.T. Lai, Emily W.H. Tang, Kenneth K.W. Li Chapter 36. Challenges of Cellular therapy during COVID-19 Pandemic / Kamal Kant Sahu, Sikander Ailawadhi, Natalie Malvik, Jan Cerny Chapter 37. COVID-19 Amid Rumours and Conspiracy Theories: The Interplay between Local and Global Worlds / Inayat Ali Chapter 38. Exploration of the Epidemiological and Emotional Impact of Quarantine and Isolation during COVID‐19 Pandemic / Helia Mojtabavi, Nasirudin Javidi, Anne-Frédérique Naviaux, Pascal Janne, Maximilien Gourdin, Mahsa Mohammadpour, Amene Saghazadeh, Nima Rezaei Chapter 39. The Main Sources and Potential Effects of COVID-19-related Prejudice and Discrimination / Piotr Rzymski, Hanna Mamzer, Michał Nowicki Chapter 40. Potential mechanisms of COVID-19-related psychological problems and mental disorders / Chunfeng Xiao Chapter 41. Mental Health in Health Professionals in the COVID-19 Pandemic / Antonia Bendau, Andreas Ströhle, Moritz Bruno Petzold Chapter 42. Treatment of Patients with Mental Illness Amid a Global COVID-19 Pandemic / Ankit Jain, Kamal Kant Sahu, Paroma Mitra Chapter 43. A Shift in Medical Education During the COVID-19 Pandemic / Farida Nentin, Nagaraj Gabbur, Adi Katz Chapter 44. Reopening Schools After a Novel Coronavirus Surge / Dan Li, Elizabeth Z. Lin, Marie A. Brault, Julie Paquette, Sten H. Vermund, Krystal J. Godri Pollitt Chapter 45. COVID-19 and Its Impact on Tourism Industry / Dimitrios G. Lagos, Panoraia Poulaki, Penny Lambrou Chapter 46. COVID-19 and Its Global Economic Impact / Zahra Kolahchi, Manlio De Domenico, Lucina Q. Uddin, Valentina Cauda, Igor Grossmann, Lucas Lacasa, Giulia Grancini, Morteza Mahmoudi, Nima Rezaei Chapter 47. Retrieval and Investigation of Data on SARS-CoV-2 and COVID-19 Using Bioinformatics Approach / Muhamad Fahmi, Viol Dhea Kharisma, Arif Nur Muhammad Ansori, Masahiro Ito Chapter 48. Answering the Challenge of COVID-19 Pandemic through Innovation and Ingenuity / Kathryn Clare Kelley, Jonathan Kamler, Manish Garg, Stanislaw P. Stawicki Chapter 49. COVID-19 Pandemic: The Influence of Culture and Lessons for Collaborative Activities / Linda Simon Paulo, George M. Bwire, Xingchen Pan, Tianyue Gao, Amene Saghazadeh, Chungen Pan Chapter 50. A Borderless Solution Is Needed for A Borderless Complexity, Like COVID-19, The Universal Invader / Kawthar Mohamed, Rangarirai Makuku, Eduardo Rodríguez-Román, Aram Pascal Abu Hejleh, Musa Joya, Mariya Ivanovska, Sara A. Makka, Md Shahidul Islam, Nesrine Radwan, Attig-Bahar Faten, Chunfeng Xiao, Leander Marquez, Nima Rezaei Chapter 51. Socialization During The COVID-19 Pandem

Note: Contents 1 Deep Water Masses of the South and North Atlantic 1.1 General Description 1.2 Global Overturning Circulation 1.3 Mechanisms of the Formation of the Deep and Bottom Waters 1.4 Classifications of Deep and Bottom Waters in the Atlantic 1.5 Upper Circumpolar Water and Upper Circumpolar Deep Water 1.6 North Atlantic Deep Water 1.7 Lower Circumpolar Water and Lower Circumpolar Deep Water, Circumpolar Bottom Water, Southeast Pacific Deep Water, and Warm Deep Water 1.8 Antarctic Bottom Water References 2 General Overview of Abyssal Pathways, and Channels (for Waters of the Antarctic Origin) 2.1 Propagation of Deep and Bottom Waters as Series of Deep Cataracts 2.2 Propagation of Antarctic Waters in the Abyss of the Atlantic 2.3 Comparison of Spreading of Water Masses Reference 3 Source Regions 3.1 Weddell Sea and Weddell Gyre 3.2 Agulhas and Cape Basins 3.3 Drake Passage, Scotia Sea, and Georgia Basin 3.3.1 General Description and Bottom Topography 3.3.2 Deep and Bottom Water Masses and Previous Concepts of Circulation 3.3.3 Analysis of Recent Data 3.4 Antarctic Bottom Water in the Argentine Basin References 4 Exchange Between the Argentine and Brazil Basins; Abyssal Pathways and Bottom Flow Channels (for Waters of the Antarctic Origin) 4.1 General Description 4.2 Vema Channel 4.2.1 Topography and General Description 4.2.2 History of Research and Datasets of Long-Term Observations 4.2.3 Deep and Bottom Waters 4.2.4 Section Along the Channel 4.2.5 Structure of the Flow. Sections Across the Channel 4.2.6 Trends in Potential Temperature and Salinity of the Coldest Bottom Water Observed Since 1972 4.2.7 Salinity Variations 4.2.8 Flow in the Southern Part of the Channel at the Boundary with the Argentine Basin 4.2.9 Moored Observations of Velocities in the Channel 4.2.10 Measurements with the Lowered ADCP 4.2.11 Extreme Transport Velocities of Antarctic Bottom Water in the Deep-Water Vema Channel 4.2.12 Flow of Antarctic Bottom Water from the Vema Channel 4.3 Modeling of Antarctic Bottom Water Flow in the South Atlantic 4.4 Modeling of Antarctic Bottom Water Flow Through the Vema Channel 4.5 Santos Plateau 4.6 Hunter Channel References 5 Further Propagation of Antarctic Bottom Water from the Brazil Basin 5.1 Brazil Basin 5.2 Flow in the Guiana Basin and Westward Equatorial Channels 5.3 North American Basin 5.4 Eastward Equatorial Channels. The Romanche and Chain Fracture Zones 5.4.1 Research History 5.4.2 Bottom Topography 5.4.3 Hydrography of the Romanche and Chain Fracture Zones 5.4.4 Currents in the Eastern Parts of the Romanche and Chain Fracture Zones 5.4.5 Temperature Distributions Along the Romanche and Chain Fracture Zone 5.4.6 Long-Term Variations in Temperature and Salinity 5.4.7 Inflow of Antarctic Bottom Water and Deep Spillway in the Western Part of the Romanche Fracture Zone 5.4.8 Summary 5.4.9 Abyssal Spillway at the Main Sill in the Chain Fracture Zone 5.4.10 Abyssal Spillway at the Nameless Sill of the Romanche Fracture Zone 5.4.11 Modeling of the Flow in the Romanche Fracture Zone References 6 Fractures in the Mid-Atlantic Ridge of the North Atlantic 6.1 Vema Fracture Zone 6.1.1 Bottom Topography 6.1.2 Measurements 6.1.3 Structure of Bottom Flow Based on the Measurements in 2006 6.1.4 Bottom Water Transport Based on the Measurements in 2006 6.1.5 Bottom Flow Through the Vema Fracture Zone Based on the Measurements in 2014–2016 6.2 Other Fracture Zones of the Northern Mid-Atlantic Ridge 6.2.1 Strakhov Fracture Zone (Four North Fracture Zone) (3° 53' N) 6.2.2 Bogdanov Fracture Zone (7° 10' N) 6.2.3 Nameless Fracture Zone (7° 28' N) 6.2.4 Vernadsky Fracture Zone (7° 49' N) 6.2.5 Doldrums Fracture Zone (8° N) and a Rift Valley South of It 6.2.6 Arkhangelsky Fracture Zone (9° N) 6.2.7 Ten Degree Fracture Zone (9° 57' N) 6.2.8 Rift Valley South of the Vema Fracture Zone (10° 21' N) 6.2.9 Marathon Fracture Zone (12° 40' N) 6.2.10 Fifteen Twenty Fracture Zone (Cabo Verde Fracture Zone) (15° 16' N) 6.2.11 Kane Fracture Zone (24° N) 6.2.12 Pathways and AABW Transport Through the Northern Part of the MAR 6.3 Modeling of the Flow Through the Northern MAR References . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Eastern Basin Pathways and Further Propagation of Antarctic Bottom Water in the East Atlantic 7.1 General Description 7.2 Mixing Caused by the Barotropic Tide 7.3 Kane Gap 7.4 Angola Basin References 8 Passages in the East Azores Ridge 8.1 General Description 8.2 Discovery Gap 8.3 Western Gap 8.4 Modeling References 9 Flows Through the Northern Channels in the North Atlantic 9.1 Charlie Gibbs Fracture Zone 9.2 Overflow in the Denmark Strait 9.3 Overflow in the Faroe-Shetland Channel 9.4 Overflow in the Gibraltar Strait 9.5 Gravity Current in the Bear Island Trough References Summary of Research and Integrated Conclusions

Note: Contents 1 Origin and Evolution of Atmospheres Introduction Machine-Generated Summaries 2 Downscaling, Regional Models and Impacts Introduction Machine-Generated Summaries 3 Response and Alternative Theories in Climate Change Introduction Machine-Generated Summaries 4 Stochastic Weather and Climate Models Introduction Machine-Generated Summaries 5 Progress in Climate Modeling Introduction Machine-Generated Summaries 6 Maximum Entropy Production (MEP) and Climate Introduction Machine-Generated Summaries 7 Astrobiology and Development of Human Civilization Introduction Machine-Generated Summaries 8 Planets and Exoplanets, Habitability Sustainability and Time Introduction Machine-Generated Summaries 9 Geobiology Introduction Machine-Generated Summaries 10 The Fermi Paradox Introduction Machine-Generated Summaries 11 The Gaia Hypothesis, Evolution and Ecology Introduction Machine-Generated Summaries

Note: Contents 1 Slow Viscous Flow 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Coordinate Systems and the Material Derivative 1.2.1 Eulerian and Lagrangian Coordinates 1.2.2 The Material Derivative 1.3 Mass Conservation 1.4 The Stress Tensor and Momentum Conservation 1.4.1 The Stress Tensor 1.4.2 Momentum Conservation 1.4.3 Rheology 1.4.4 The Navier-Stokes Equations 1.4.5 Stokes Flow 1.5 Boundary Conditions 1.5.1 The No-Slip Condition and the Sliding Law 1.5.2 Dynamic Boundary Conditions 1.5.3 Kinematic Boundary Conditions 1.6 Temperature and Energy Conservation 1.7 Glacier and Ice Sheet Flow 1.8 Examples 1.8.1 Uniform Flow on a Slope 1.8.2 Spreading Flow at an Ice Divide 1.8.3 Small-Amplitude Perturbations 1.9 The Shallow Ice Approximation 1.10 Conclusions and Outlook 1.11 Appendix: Non-dimensionalisation Exercises 2 Thermal Structure 2.1 Temperature Profiles 2.2 Boundary Conditions 2.2.1 The Thermal Near-Surface Wave 2.3 Models: Simple to Complicated 2.4 Basal Conditions 2.4.1 Polythermal Ice 2.5 Modelling Issues 2.5.1 Non-dimensionalisation 2.5.2 Thermomechanical Coupling 2.5.3 Thermal Runaway Exercises 3 Sliding, Drainage and Subglacial Geomorphology 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Sliding Over Hard Beds 3.2.1 Weertman Sliding 3.2.2 Nye-Kamb Theory 3.2.3 Sub-temperate Sliding 3.2.4 Nonlinear Sliding Laws 3.2.5 Cavitation 3.2.6 Comparison with Experiment 3.3 Subglacial Drainage Theory 3.3.1 Weertman Films 3.3.2 Röthlisberger Channels (or ‘R-Channels’) 3.3.3 Jökulhlaups 3.3.4 Subglacial Lakes 3.3.5 Linked Cavities 3.3.6 Drainage Transitions and Glacier Surges 3.3.7 Ongoing Developments 3.4 Basal Processes and Geomorphology 3.4.1 Soft Glacier Beds 3.4.2 Drainage Over Till 3.4.3 Geomorphological Processes Exercises 4 Tidewater Glaciers 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Calving 4.3 Tidewater Glacier Dynamics 4.3.1 Tidewater Glacier Retreat and Instability 4.3.2 Tidewater Glacier Advance 4.3.3 Flow Variability of Tidewater Glaciers 4.4 The Link to Climate: Triggers for Retreat 4.4.1 Ice Shelf Collapse and Backstress 4.4.2 Grounded Calving Fronts 4.5 Outlook 5 Interaction of Ice Shelves with the Ocean 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Impact of Melting Ice on the Ocean 5.3 Processes at the Ice-Ocean Interface 5.4 Buoyancy-Driven Flow on Geophysical Scales 5.5 Sensitivity to Ocean Temperature 5.6 Impact of Meltwater Outflow at the Grounding Line 5.7 Fundamentals of the Three-Dimensional Ocean Circulation 5.8 Some Properties and Limitations of the Geostrophic Equations 5.9 Effects of Stratification 5.10 Three-Dimensional Circulation in Sub-Ice-Shelf Cavities Exercises 6 Polar Meteorology 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Shortwave and Longwave Radiation 6.3 Radiation Climate at the Top of the Atmosphere 6.4 Large Scale Circulation 6.5 Surface Energy Balance 6.5.1 Shortwave Radiation 6.5.2 Surface Albedo 6.5.3 Longwave Radiation 6.5.4 Turbulent Fluxes 6.6 Temperature Inversion and Katabatic Winds 6.6.1 Surface Temperature Inversion and Deficit 6.6.2 Katabatic Winds 6.7 Precipitation 6.8 Notes and References Exercises 7 Mass Balance 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Definitions 7.3 Methods 7.3.1 In Situ Observations 7.3.2 Satellite/Airborne Altimetry 7.3.3 Satellite Gravimetry 7.3.4 Mass Budget Method 7.4 Valley Glaciers and Ice Caps 7.4.1 In Situ Observations 7.4.2 Modelling 7.4.3 Dynamical Response 7.4.4 Remote Sensing 7.5 Antarctic Ice Sheet 7.5.1 Spatial SSMB Variability 7.5.2 Blue Ice Areas 7.5.3 Temporal SSMB Variability 7.6 Greenland Ice Sheet 7.6.1 Spatial SSMB Variability 7.6.2 Temporal SSMB Variability 7.6.3 Role of the Liquid Water Balance 8 Numerical Modelling of Ice Sheets, Streams, and Shelves 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Ice Flow Equations 8.2.1 The Shallow Ice Approximation 8.2.2 Analogy with the Heat Equation 8.3 Finite Difference Numerics 8.3.1 Explicit Scheme for the Heat Equation 8.3.2 A First Implemented Scheme 8.3.3 Stability Criteria and Adaptive Time Stepping 8.3.4 Implicit Schemes 8.3.5 Numerical Solution of Diffusion Equations 8.4 Numerically Solving the SIA 8.5 Exact Solutions and Verification 8.5.1 Exact Solution of the Heat Equation 8.5.2 Halfar’s Exact Similarity Solution to the SIA 8.5.3 Using Halfar’s Solution 8.5.4 A Test of Robustness 8.6 Applying Our Numerical Ice Sheet Model 8.7 Shelves and Streams 8.7.1 The Shallow Shelf Approximation (SSA) 8.7.2 Numerical Solution of the SSA 8.7.3 Numerics of the Linear Boundary Value Problem 8.7.4 Solving the Stress Balance for an Ice Shelf 8.7.5 Realistic Ice Shelf Modelling 8.8 A Summary of Numerical Ice Flow Modelling 8.9 Notes Exercises 9 Least-Squares Data Inversion in Glaciology 9.1 Preamble 9.2 Introduction 9.3 The Roots of GPS in Glaciology 9.4 Introduction to GPS 9.4.1 History 9.4.2 Coarse Acquisition (C/A) Code 9.5 The Equations of Pseudorange 9.6 Least-Squares Solution of an Overdetermined System of Linear Equations 9.7 Observational Techniques to Improve GPS Accuracy 9.7.1 The Ionosphere-Free Combination 9.7.2 Carrier-Phase Determined Range and Integer Wavelength Ambiguity 9.7.3 Resolving Range Ambiguity by Phase Tracking 9.7.4 Differential GPS Exercises 10 Analytical Models of Ice Sheets and Ice Shelves 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Perfectly-Plastic Ice Sheet Model 10.3 The Height–Mass Balance Feedback 10.4 Ice-Sheet Profile for Plane Shear with Glen’s Law 10.5 Ice Shelves Exercise 11 Firn 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Firn Densification 11.2.1 Mechanisms of Firn Densification 11.2.2 Firn Densification Models 11.2.3 Firn Layering and Microstructure 11.3 Applications of Firn Models 11.3.1 Ice Sheet Surface Mass Balance from Altimetry 11.3.2 Delta Age Calculations in Deep Ice Cores 11.4 Summary and Conclusions 12 Ice Cores: Archive of the Climate System 12.1 Introduction 12.2 Dating Ice Cores 12.3 Stable Water Isotopes 12.3.1 Basics and Nomenclature 12.3.2 The Isotope Proxy Thermometer 12.3.3 Examples of Isotope Records 12.3.4 Isotope Diffusion in Firn and Ice 12.3.5 Diffusion Thermometry 12.4 Aerosols in Ice 12.4.1 Introduction and Origin of Aerosols in Ice 12.4.2 Aerosol Sources and Transport 12.4.3 Post-depositional Modification 12.4.4 Seasonal Cycles in Aerosol and Particle Constituents in Ice 12.4.5 The Volcanic Signal in Ice and Its Use for Chronological Control 12.4.6 Marine Biogenic MSA and Sea Salt as Sea-Ice Proxies 12.4.7 The Record of Anthropogenic Pollution 12.4.8 Long Aerosol Records from Greenland and Antarctica 12.4.9 Electrical Properties of Ice and Their Relationship to Chemistry 12.5 Gases Enclosed in Ice 12.5.1 Firn Gas and Gas Occlusion 12.5.2 Trace Gases 12.6 Timing of Climate Events Exercises 13 Satellite Remote Sensing of Glaciers and Ice Sheets 13.1 Introduction 13.2 Optical Sensors and Applications 13.2.1 Sensors and Satellites 13.2.2 Applications 13.3 SAR Methods and Applications 13.3.1 Radar Signal Interaction with Snow and Ice 13.3.2 SAR Sensor and Image Characteristics 13.3.3 InSAR Measurement Principles and Applications 13.4 Satellite Altimetry 13.4.1 Altimetry Missions 13.4.2 Measuring Elevation Change 14 Geophysics 14.1 Geophysical Methods: Overview 14.2 Passive Methods 14.2.1 Gravimetry 14.2.2 Magnetics 14.2.3 Seismology 14.3 Active Methods: Basics 14.3.1 Propagation Properties and Reflection Origin 14.3.2 Seismic System Set-Up 14.3.3 Radar System Set-Up 14.4 Data Acquisition and Processing 14.5 Seismic Applications in Ice 14.5.1 Ice Thickness and Basal Topography 14.5.2 Subglacial Structure and Properties 14.5.3 Rheological and Other Englacial Properties 14.6 Radar Applications in Ice 14.6.1 Internal Layer Architecture and Ice Dynamics 14.6.2 Subglacial Conditions 14.6.3 Englacial Conditions 14.7 Notes and References 14.7.1 Further Reading 14.7.2 Gravimetry 14.7.3 General Wave Equation and Solution 14.7.4 Seismic Waves 14.7.5 Electromagnetic Waves Exercises 15 Glacial Isostatic Adjustment 15.1 Introduction 15.2 Earth Response to Loading 15.2.1 Rheology of the Earth 15.2.2 Building an Earth Model 15.2.3 Earth Models Used in Glaciology and Glacial Isostatic Adjustment 15.3 The Cryosphere and Sea Level 15.3.1 Factors Affecting Sea-Level Change 15

Note: Contents 1 Introduction 1.1 Leningrad—1982 1.2 ‘Global Warming’ or ‘Global Weirding’ 1.3 My Background 1.4 What Is Science? 1.5 The Observational Sciences 1.6 The Compexity of Nature 1.7 Summary 2 Discovering Climate 2.1 Defining ‘Climate’ 2.2 Numerical Descriptions of Climate 2.3 How Science Works 2.4 Summary 3 The Language of Science 3.1 Numbers and Symbols 3.2 Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, and Calculus 3.3 Shapes 3.4 Orders of Magnitude and Exponents 3.5 Logarithms 3.6 Logarithms and Scales with Bases Other Than 10 3.7 Earthquake Scales 3.8 The Beaufort Wind Force Scale 3.9 Extending the Beaufort Scale to Cyclonic Storms 3.10 Calendars and Time 3.11 Summary 4 Applying Mathematics to Problems 4.1 Measures and Weights 4.2 The Nautical Mile 4.3 The Metric System 4.4 Temperature 4.5 Precisely Defining Some Words You Already Know 4.6 Locating Things 4.7 Latitude and Longitude 4.8 Map Projections 4.9 Trigonometry 4.10 Circles, Ellipses, and Angular Velocity 4.11 Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces 4.12 Graphs 4.13 Exponential Growth and Decay 4.14 The Logistic Equation 4.15 Statistics 4.16 Summary 5 Geologic Time 5.1 Age of the Earth—4004 BCE, or Older? 5.2 The Discovery of the Depths of Time—Eternity 5.3 Geologic Time Punctuated by Revolutions 5.4 Catastrophism Replaced by Imperceptibly Slow Gradual Change 5.5 The Development of the Geological Timescale 5.6 The Discovery of the Ice Age 5.7 The Discovery of Past Warm Polar Regions 5.8 Throwing a Monkey Wrench into Explaining Climate Change 5.9 Crustal Mobility’ to the Rescue 5.10 The Return of Catastrophism and the Idea of Rapid Change 5.11 The Nature of the Geologic Record 5.12 The Great Extinctions and Their Causes 5.13 Summary—A History with No Dates 6 Putting Numbers on Geologic Ages 6.1 1788—An Abyss of Time of Unknown Dimensions 6.2 1863—Physics Comes to the Rescue—Earth Is Not More than 100 Million Years Old 6.3 What We Now Know About Heat from Earth’s Interior 6.4 Some Helpful Background in Understanding Nineteenth-Century Chemistry 6.5 Atomic Weight, Atomic Mass, Isotopes, Relative Atomic Mass, Standard Atomic Weight—A Confusing Plethora of Terms 6.6 1895–1913—The Worlds of Physics and Chemistry Turned Upside Down 6.7 Henri Becquerel and the Curies 6.8 Nonconformists and the British Universities Open to All 6.9 The Discovery of Electrons, Alpha-Rays, and Beta-Rays 6.10 The Discovery of Radioactive Decay Series, Exponential Decay Rates, and Secular Equilibrium 6.11 The Mystery of the Decay Series Explained by Isotopes 6.12 The Discovery That Radioactive Decay Series Might Be Used to Determine the Age of Rocks 6.13 The Discovery of Stable Isotopes 6.14 Rethinking the Structure of the Atom 6.15 From Science to Science Fiction 6.16 The Discovery of Protons and Neutrons 6.17 Arthur Holmes and the Age of the Earth 6.18 The Development of a Numerical Geological Timescale 6.19 Summary 7 Documenting Past Climate Change 7.1 What Is ‘Climate’? 7.2 A Brief Overview of Earth’s Climate History 7.3 The Cenozoic Climate ‘Deterioration’ 7.4 From Ages to Process Rates 7.5 Radiometric Age Dating in the Mid-Twentieth Century 7.6 Potassium—Argon Dating 7.7 Reversals of Earth’s Magnetic Field 7.8 Fission Track Dating 7.9 Astronomical Dating 7.10 Tritium, Carbon-14, and Beryllium-10 7.11 The Human Acceleration of Natural Process Rates 7.12 The Present Climate in Its Geologic Context 7.13 Steady State Versus Non-steady State 7.14 Feedbacks 7.15 Summary 8 The Nature of Energy Received from the Sun—The Analogies with Water Waves and Sound 8.1 Water Waves 8.2 Special Water Waves—Tides and Tsunamis 8.3 Wave Energy, Refraction, and Reflection 8.4 Sound Waves 8.5 Sound Waves and Music 8.6 Measuring the Speed of Sound in Air 8.7 Measuring the Speed of Sound in Water 8.8 The Practical Use of Sound in Water 8.9 Summary 9 The Nature of Energy Received from the Sun—Figuring Out What Light Really Is 9.1 Early Ideas About Light 9.2 Refraction of Light 9.3 Measuring the Speed of Light 9.4 The Discovery of Double Refraction or ‘Birefringence’ 9.5 Investigating the Dispersion of Light 9.6 Figuring Out the Wavelengths of Different Colors of Light 9.7 Diffraction 9.8 Polarization of Light 9.9 Eureka!—Light Is Electromagnetic Waves 9.10 A Review of the Discovery of the Invisible Parts of the Electromagnetic Spectrum 9.11 The Demise of the ‘Luminiferous Æther’ 9.12 Summary 10 Exploring the Electromagnetic Spectrum 10.1 Spectra and Spectral Lines 10.2 The Discovery of Helium—First in the Sun, Then on Earth 10.3 The Discovery That Spectral Lines Are Mathematically Related 10.4 Heinrich Hertz’s Confirmation of Maxwell’s Ideas 10.5 Marconi Makes the Electromagnetic Spectrum a Tool for Civilization 10.6 Human Use of the Electromagnetic Spectrum for Communication, Locating Objects, and Cooking 10.7 Summary 11 The Origins of Climate Science—The Idea of Energy Balance 11.1 What Is Heat? 11.2 Thermodynamics 11.3 The Laws of Thermodynamics 11.4 The Discovery of Greenhouse Gases 11.5 Kirchhoff’s ‘Black Body’ 11.6 Stefan’s Fourth Power Law 11.7 Black Body Radiation 11.8 Summary 12 The Climate System 12.1 Insolation—The Incoming Energy from the Sun 12.2 Albedo—The Reflection of Incoming Energy Back into Space 12.3 Reradiation—How the Earth Radiates Energy Back into Space 12.4 The Chaotic Nature of the Weather 12.5 The Earthly Components of the Climate System: Air, Earth, Ice, and Water 12.6 The Atmosphere 12.7 The Hydrosphere 12.8 The Cryosphere 12.9 The Land 12.10 Classifying Climatic Regions 12.11 Uncertainties in the Climate Scheme 12.12 Summary 13 What Is at the Bottom of Alice’s Rabbit Hole? 13.1 Max Planck and the Solution to the Black Body Problem 13.2 The Photoelectric Effect 13.3 The Bohr Atom 13.4 Implications of the Bohr Model for the Periodic Table of the Elements 13.5 The Zeeman Effect 13.6 Trying to Make Sense of the Periodic Table 13.7 The Second Quantum Revolution 13.8 The Discovery of Nuclear Fission 13.9 Molecular Motions 13.10 Summary 14 Energy from the Sun—Long-Term Variations 14.1 The Faint Young Sun Paradox 14.2 The Energy Flux from the Sun 14.3 The Orbital Cycles 14.4 The Rise and Fall of the Orbital Theory of Climate Change 14.5 The Resurrection of the Orbital Theory 14.6 Correcting the Age Scale: Filling in the Details to Prove the Theory1 14.7 The Discovery that Milankovitch Orbital Cycles Have Affected Much of Earth History 14.8 Summary 15 Solar Variability and Cosmic Rays 15.1 Solar Variability 15.2 The Solar Wind 15.3 Solar Storms and Space Weather 15.4 The Solar Neutrino Problem 15.5 The Ultraviolet Radiation 15.6 Cosmic Rays 15.7 A Digression into the World of Particle Physics 15.8 How Cosmic Rays Interact with Earth’s Atmosphere 15.9 Carbon-14 15.10 Beryllium-10 15.11 Cosmic Rays and Climate 15.12 Summary 16 Albedo 16.1 Albedo of Planet Earth 16.2 Clouds 16.3 Could Cloudiness Be a Global Thermostat? 16.4 Volcanic Ash and Climate Change 16.5 Aerosols 16.6 Albedo During the Last Glacial Maximum 16.7 Changing the Planetary Albedo to Counteract Greenhouse Warming 16.8 Summary 17 Air 17.1 The Nature of Air 17.2 The Velocity of Air Molecules 17.3 Other Molecular Motions 17.4 The Other Major Component of Air—Photons 17.5 Ionization 17.6 The Scattering of Light 17.7 Absorption of the Infrared Wavelengths 17.8 Other Components of Air: Subatomic Particles 17.9 Summary 18 HoH—The Keystone of Earth’s Climate 18.1 Some History 18.2 Why Is HOH So Strange? 18.3 The Hydrologic Cycle 18.4 Vapor 18.4.1 Pure Water 18.5 Natural Water 18.6 Water—Density and Specific Volume 18.7 Water—Surface Tension 18.8 Ice 18.9 Earth’s Ice 18.10 How Ice Forms from Freshwater and from Seawater 18.11 Snow and ICE on Land 18.12 Ice Cores 18.13 Ice as Earth’s Climate Stabilizer 19 The Atmosphere 19.1 Atmospheric Pressure 19.2 The Structure of the Atmosphere 19.3 The Troposphere 19.4 The Stratosphere 19.5 The Mesosphere 19.6 The Thermosphere 19.7 The Exosphere 19.8 The Magnetosphere 19.9 The Ionosphere 19.10 The Atmospheric Greenhouse Effect 19.11 Th