ALBERT

Notes: When a rather extensive network of short distance refraction profiles was shot the following two observations were made. Firstly, the wave velocity in the weathered layer showed a quite considerable fluctuation in horizontal direction, the extreme values being of the order of 300 and 700 m/sec. A practical result of this scattering of the velocities is that an uncertainty of about 10% is introduced in the computation of the weathering corrections. The second observation is that, in the majority of cases, the travel time curve does not pass through the origin. It could be ascertained that this observation was not caused by errors in the method of observation. A probable explanation of the phenomenon is found in a theory that has been developed by Gassmann, who derived the velocity distribution for a hexagonal packing of spherical solid bodies. According to this theory extremely low velocities would occur in the first few centimeters of the crust of the earth. Qualitatively, our observations are in agreement with the theory of Gassmann.

Notes: The geophysicists who attempted to evaluate elastic anisotropy of some bedded formations most often gave but little information about recording and interpretating the measurements.May be they did not lay enough stress on the fact that any determination of the anisotropy factor is a critical operation and that, to have some certainty. it must be made under good conditions and then discussed.Due to the very favourable conditions offered: undisturbed tectonics and topography, relatively regular series the Berriane district in Northern Sahara, is rather well suited to accurate measurements and to an anisotropy study down to 1,250 meters. Since measurements have been carried out in the wildcat drilled at Berriane by S. N. Repal, it seems interesting to communicate the results obtained and to discuss them according to the influence of high velocity layers.It can be noted that in the clay and sand series which have been investigated, anisotropy coefficient amounts to 1.09 or so.To conclude, it seems desirable that determinations made by numerous operators should allow a more accurate knowledge of the anisotropy factor in the main types of rocks.

Notes: The aim of the present investigation is to examine the significance of the second derivative for the purpose of the prospective determination of the geological properties of the district of Offenburg, which are relatively wellknown as a result of both reflection seismic and bore profile findings.The calculation of the second derivative is carried out by means of three approximation formulae, which are compared with each other. In contrast to the isogam map the second derivative shows some additional characteristics, whose structural significance illuminates the comparison with the results of reflection seismics.A geological profile constructed on the basis of 6 wells completely confirms the geophysical findings.

Notes: The formulas derived by the author in a preliminary paper for taking into consideration refraction when dealing with the problem of a vertical plane are extended to the three-dimensional case. Vector analysis is extensively applied. Among others it is shown that in the general case the 3 horizontal twodimensional vectors, i.e.〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉1) the gradient of the time of reflection2) the direction of true dip3) the vector from the shot point to the projection of the reflecting point, point into 3 different directions.

Notes: The dependence of the apparent resistivity on the distance between the potential electrodes is examined and a numerical method is described permitting quantitative calculations. Such a numerical relation is also established for the transformation of Wenner graphs into Schlumberger graphs.In addition it is shown, in which manner the jumps in observed Schlumberger curves, that result from changing the probe spacing, must be smoothed out.

Notes: The luni-solar corrections are considered under the three following aspects:Quality of results: the application of tidal corrections to all stations is pointless as long as the operations do not substantially exceed two hours.Working conditions: it seems possible to increase the duration of programs without any loss of precision, but operating in such a way requires particular care.Behaviour of gravity meters: the introduction of tidal corrections allows to separate three kinds of instrumental drifts; a good knowledge of the mean operational drift enables to appreciate the quality of a given set of measurements.An example is given to show the possibility in some cases to detect small errors which are close to the limit of precision of the instrument.

Notes: Exploration of the Catania region was carried out for over a year by means of electrical soundings. The thickness of the overburden (lava and alluvium) was thus computed and the contour map of the blue clays basement shows the existence of several buried channels where new wells were drilled, all of them successful.

Notes: The paper consists of an account of a resistivity investigation into an old river valley in Coal Measure strata. This valley denuded several of the upper coal seams leaving behind unconsolidated material and it was the purpose of the work to be described to investigate how far the extent and nature of this material could be determined by resistivity methods conducted at the surface.As such the survey fits into a wider programme of research instigated by the National Coal Board.The feature, which is quite well known geologically, was surveyed by conventional methods and the results obtained are discussed in relation to the above project.Thus, the investigations succeeded in tracing the approximate centre line of the feature and in yielding some information on the nature and order of thickness of the deposits. Limitations of the method and its future application are also discussed.

Notes: The efficient production of “Geophysical Prospecting” depends upon the co-operation of the individual authors and this paper serves as a guide for them. Some suggestions are also made on the presentation of papers at meetings in the hope of promoting successful discussions.

Notes: A process is described whereby the interpretation of seismic reflection data is carried out by a preliminary two-dimensional plotting procedure followed by a three-dimensional migration. The concept of a surface of maximum convexity is introduced as an integral part of the process of migration. The procedures for deriving the necessary charts of curves are considered and a number of serviceable charts presented.

Notes: In the first part of the present paper we shall investigate the possibility of localising highly situated inclined faults with the aid of the vertical gradient and the second derivative in the direction of the vertical. Since these quantities have been computed from gravity values by means of formulae of approximation we shall have to study the question as to their applicability for possible quantitative interpretation. Particular caution should be exercised when making the usual comparison with theoretical test examples. For three effects have to be taken into account which result from the application of the formulae of approximation:〈list xml:id="l1" style="custom"〉1) The extreme values appear more or less smoothed out2) Extremal abscissae are being displaced3) The results are influenced by the orientation of the grid which forms the basis of the calculation.For a practical instance it was possible to locate a well under troublesome circumstances. This well is situated on the downthrown side of an inclined fault, the depth of the upthrown side being known as a result of another well.We shall show in the second part of the present paper how small, deeply situated structures may be recognised in the diagrams of the vertical gradient and of the second derivative. In the case of two practical instances the effect of these structures is rendered unrecognisable in the isogam map in view of regional influences. The results according to the formulae of Baranov, Elkins and Rosenbach are contrasted with each other.

Notes: It has been shown in a paper by L. Y. Faust that the wave velocity in rock depends on the depth below the ground surface according to a specified equation. It follows that the attitude of the planes of equal velocity is influenced by the topographic relief. Under these conditions the problem arises of how to place the reference plane in such a manner, that the fluctuations of the planes of equal velocity, that result from the fluctuations in the topography, shall not affect the results of the depth computations. In the present paper an analytical solution of this problem is given.

Notes: In a previous paper by the first author a method has been presented for computing the first vertical derivative of the gravity field or of the magnetic field. In the present paper an analysis is given of the errors in the first vertical derivative that result when the latter is computed by the above method. Two sorts of errors are considered. Firstly, the error in the first vertical derivative that results from the errors in interpolating between isogam lines on the Bouguer anomaly map. Secondly, the error in the first vertical derivative that results from the approximations upon which the computation method is based. The conclusion is reached that both sorts of error are only of minor importance.

Notes: The common notion, that the regional anomaly must be as regular as possible, can be translated into mathematical language by requiring that the regional anomaly shall be represented, over a not too large area, by a surface of the second or of the third degree. The residual anomaly is commonly defined by the requirement that its horizontal dimensions must be as small as possible. This implies that also its amplitude should be small. This requirement may be moulded into a mathematical form by stating that the square of the difference between the Bouguer anomaly and the regional anomaly, integrated over a certain area, must be a minimum. On these two definitions an analytic method is based for deriving the regional anomaly. Practical computation procedures are presented.

Notes: The different equations of elasticity concerning the departure of the behaviour of rocks from perfect elasticity are discussed. The theory of elastic afterworking and its significance for the propagation of elastic waves is studied in detail. It is found that this theory does not explain the observations on seismic waves in exploration geophysics so well as the theory of viscoelasticity suggested by Ricker.

Notes: The writer classifies problems of geophysical interpretation. He distinguishes four fundamental problems and indicates the methods of solving them. Among these methods he refers to classical methods and methods based on the writer's theoretical work.The geophysical examples are developed, as well as the very simple numerical examples. Methods of enumeration are also referred to. The whole object is to show that the practical application of the geophysical methods suggested will not give prospectors any difficulty.

Notes: The results obtained from a number of seismic velocity well-logging surveys and adjacent refraction sections are compared. The velocities derived by these two methods for a certain layer are found to differ appreciably. This is shown by presenting the time-depth relations of the well-surveys and the time-d stance relations of the refraction sections at three locations, plotted on graphs with sloping depth- and distance axes.

Notes: AS long as economics is conceived as a purely formal science of human action (praxeology) the basic concepts and findings of such behavioral sciences as psychology, sociology and cultural anthropology will be considered as irrelevant for economic analysis. However, if economics is considered as an empirical (substantive) science which starts from actual human needs and places man's dependence upon and interaction with his natural and social environment in the center of its investigation, the basic concepts and conclusions of the behavioral sciences cannot be dispensed with.ZUSAMMENFASSUNGNationalökonomie und die Wissenschaften vom menschlichen Verhalten. So lange die Nationalökonomie als eine rein formale Wissenschaft vom menschlichen Handeln (Praxeologie) begriffen wird, erscheinen die grundlegenden Konzeptionen und Erkenntnisse der Verhaltenswissenschaften wie der Psychologie, der Soziologie und der Kulturanthropologie für die ökonomische Analyse als irrelevant. Wenn indessen die Nationalökonomie als wirklich empirische Wissenschaft betrachtet wird, die von den tatsächlichen menschlichen Bedürfnissen ausgeht und die Abhängigkeit des Individuums von seiner natürlichen und sozialen Umgebung sowie deren Wechselwirkung in den Mittelpunkt ihrer Forschungen stellt, so können die grundlegenden Konzeptionen und Folgerungen der Verhaltenswissenschaften nicht übergangen werden.RÉSUMÉĽ economie politique et les sciences du comportement humain. Tant que ľéconomie politique sera concue comme une science purement formelle de ľ action humaine (praxéologie), les concepts fondamentaux et les découvertes des sciences du comportement humain telles que la psychologie, la sociologie et ľ anthropologie culturelle seront considéréd comme de peu ď importance pour ľ analyse économique. Cependant, si ľéconomie politique est considérée comme une science effectivement empirique qui part des besoins humains réels et place la dépendance de ľ homme de son ambiance naturelle et sociale ainsi que ľ action réciproque de cette dernière au centre de ses recherches, les conceptions et conclusions fondamentales des sciences du comportement humain ne peuvent etre négligées.The question then arises as to the proper method by which the results of one field of inquiry can be utilized in another. Such integration is possible only if we find or formulate common denominator concepts sufficiently broad to contain and cut across the subject-matter of several social disciplines. Which particular concepts are likely to prove useful for a “substantive” science of economics depends upon the nature of the central research problems of contemporary economic analysis. Since these germinal questions of modern economics are all related to the behavior of social groups and of individuals acting as members of structured social entities the basic concepts and findings of social psychology and cultural anthropology are likely to prove most useful for the substantive-empirical economist.Having outlined the major concepts which have proved helpful in the analysis of group decisions and the individual-group relationship the article concludes by setting forth the thesis that a substantive science of economics must be conceived from the very outset as an integral part of a science of man and culture. Such a “humanization” of economics would have the task of placing the living human being once more in the center of economic analysis and, at the same time, would provide a starting point for the solution of the urgent task of integrating our contemporary knowledge about man and culture.Es stellt sich dann die Frage, durch welche Methode die Ergebnisse des einen Forschungsgebiets im andern verwendet werden können. Eine solche Integration ist nur dann möglich, wenn für die verschiedenen Konzeptionen gemeinsame Nenner gefunden oder formuliert werden können, die weit genug sind, um den Gegenstand verschiedener Sozialwissenschaften zu umfassen. Welche Konzeptionen sich für eine wirklich empirische Wissenschaft als nützlich erweisen dürften, hängt von der Natur der zentralen Forschungsprobleme der heutigen ökonomischen Analyse ab. Da alle diese grundlegenden Fragen der modernen National ökonomie sich auf das Verhalten sozialer Gruppen und des Einzelnen beziehen, die als Glieder sozialer Gebilde von bestimmter Struktur handeln, dürften die grundlegenden Konzeptionen und Erkenntnisse der Sozialpsychologie und der Kulturanthropologie für den empirischen Ökonomen von grossem Nutzen sein.Nach einer Skizzierung der hauptsächlichsten Konzeptionen, die sich für die Analyse von Gruppenentschlüssen und der Beziehung zwischen Individuum und Gruppe als nützlich erwiesen haben, wird die These aufgestellt, dass eine wirklich empirische Nationalökonomie von allem Anfang an als ein wesentlicher Teil einer Wissenschaft vom Menschen und der Kultur begriffen werden muss. Eine solche “Humanisierung” der Nationalökonomie hätte zur Aufgabe, den Menschen - so wie er in Wirklichkeit ist - in den Mittelpunkt der ökonomischen Analyse zu stellen, und würde gleichzeitig den Ausgangspunkt darstellen für die Lösung der dringenden Aufgabe, unser gegenwärtiges Wissen über den Menschen und die Kultur zu integrieren.La question se pose alors de savoir par quelle méthode les résultats ď un domaine de recherche peuvent etre utilisés dans ľ autre. Une telle intégration n'est possible que si nous trouvons ou formulons pour les différentes conceptions des dénomina-teurs communs suffisamment larges pour contenir ľ objet des diverses sciences sociales. Quelles sont les conceptions pouvant se révéler utiles pour une science réellement empirique, voilà qui dépend de la nature des problèmes majeurs de recherches de ľ analyse économique actuelle. Comme toutes ces questions fondamentales de ľéconomie politique moderne se rapportent au comportement de groupes sociaux et de particuliers agissant en tant que membres ď entités sociales ď une structure déterminée, les conceptions fondamentales et les découvertes de la psychologie sociale et de ľ anthropologie culturelle devraient etre ď une grande utilityé pour ľéconomiste empirique.Après avoir esquissé les principales conceptions qui se sont révelées utiles àľ analyse des décisions de groupes et des rapports entre ľ individu et le groupe, ľ article se termine par ľnonce de la these qu'une Economic politique reellement empirique doit etre concue des Tabord commcar; part intégrante ď une science de ľ homme et de la culture. Une telle “humanisation” de ľéconomie politique aurait pour tǎche de placer ľ homme - tel qu'il est en réalité - au centre de ľ analyse économique et représenterait simultanément le point de départ de la solution de la tǎche urgente consistant à intégrer notre connaissance actuelle de ľ homme et de la culture.

Notes: It is now sometimes being said that the food supply is becoming so elastic that men need no longer be apprehensive lest population growth affect their welfare adversely. This assertion respecting the elasticity of the food supply lacks empirical validity so far as most parts of the world are concerned. It is true, however, that in some countries food is no longer the operative population-limiting factor, and food may cease to be such in yet other countries. It does not follow, however, that population-limiting factors will cease to be operative. The dynamics of culture, production, and consumption serve to change the character of these factors, but they do not remove them. For if one factor ceases to be operative, its place is necessarily taken by others. Population growth may not affect adversely man's consumption of food or some other item of living supposedly in highly elastic supply; but then it is quite likely, in many empirical situations, to make his consumption of some other items of living lower than it otherwise would have been.〈section xml:id="abs1-2"〉〈title type="main"〉ZUSAMMENFASSUNG Beschrdnkende Faktoren in der Bevölkerungstheorie. Es wird heute bisweilen gesagt, das Nahrungsmittelangebot sei im Begriffe so elastisch zu werden, dass die Menschheit nicht mehr befürchten müsse, ihr Wohlstand werde durch das Wachstum der Bevölkerung beeinträchtigt. Die Behauptung hinsichtlich der Elastizität des Nahrungsmittelangebots entbehrt jedoch der empirischen Gültigkeit mit Bezug auf den Grossteil der Erde. Es ist allerdings richtig, dass in einigen Ländern die Nahrungsmittel das Bevölkerungswachstum nicht mehr wirksam beschränken, und dies mag künftig auch in andern Ländern der Fall sein. Daraus folgt jedoch nicht, dass überhaupt keine solch beschränkenden Faktoren mehr wirksam sind. Die Dynamik der Zivilisation, der Produktion und des Konsums tragen dazu bei, den Charakter dieser Faktoren zu ändern, aber sie beseitigen sie nicht. Denn sobald ein Faktor nicht mehr wirksam ist, treten notwendigerweise andere an seine Stelle. Es mag sein, dass der individuelle Verbrauch an Nahrungsmitteln oder irgendeines andern Artikels mit vermutlich sehr elastischem Angebot durch eine wachsende Bevölkerung keine Beeinträchtigung erfährt; aber dann ist es in manchen konkreten Situationen wahrscheinlich, dass der Verbrauch anderer Artikel geringer sein wird als er es sonst wäre.〈section xml:id="abs1-3"〉〈title type="main"〉RÉSUMÉFacteurs limitatifs dans la théorie de la population. Certains prétendent aujourd'hui que ľ offre des denrées alimentaires serait en voie de devenir si élastique que les hommes n'auraient plus à craindre que ľ accroissement de la population ne porte préjudice à leur bien-etre. Cette affirmation sur ľélasticité de ľ offre de nourriture manque de toute justification empirique, tout au moins en ce qui concerne la plus grande partie de la terre. II est cependant exact que dans certains pays la nourriture n'est plus un facteur limitant en fait ľ accroissement de la population et il pourrait en etre de meme a ľ avenir dans ď autres pays. II ne s'ensuit pas toutefois que les facteurs limitatifs cesseront ď agir. Ľévolution de la civilisation, celle de la production et de la consommation contribuent à modifier le caractère de ces facteurs, mais elles ne les éliminent pas, car aussitǒt qu'un facteur n'agit plus, ď autres se substituent nécessairement à lui. Ľ accroissement de la population peut ne pas affecter la consommation individuelle de denrées alimentaires ou tout autre bien de consommation dont ľ offre est présumée très élastique; mais il est alors probable que dans maintes situations concrètes la consommation ď autres biens sera plus faible que ce ne serait autrement le cas.

Notes: In recent years there has been a great development of interest in the principles and the problems of rational decision-making and rational action. Economists, mathematicians, statisticians, logicians, engineers, and philosophers have all addressed their efforts to various phases of the general problem of rationality. This paper attempts a provisional synthesis of their basic results so far, in the form of a suggested preliminary definition of rationality that is sufficiently general to be applicable in all circumstances.ZUSAMMENFASSUNGBeitrag zu einer allgemeinen Definition des rationalen Handelns In den letzten Jahren ist ein zunehmendes Interesse an den Grundlagen und den Problemen der rationalen Entschlussfassung und rationalen Handelns festzustellen. Ökonomen, Mathematiker, Statistiker, Logiker, Ingenieure und Philosophen haben ihre Anstrengungen auf verschiedene Phasen des allgemeinen Problems des Rationalen gerichtet. Die vorliegende Studie macht den Versuch einer vorläufigen Synthese der bisherigen grundlegenden Ergebnisse in Form einer vorläufigen Definition des Rationalen, die genügend allgemein ist, um unter jeglichen Bedingungen anwendbar zu sein.RÉSUMÉRecherche ď une définition générate de ľ ction rationnelle. Durant ces dernières années, ľ intéret s'est fortement accru pour les principes et les problèmes relatifs à la décision rationnelle et àľ action rationnelle. Des économistes, des mathématiciens, des statisticiens, des logiciens, des ingénieurs et des philosophes ont concentrés leurs efforts sur les différentes phases du probléme général de la rationalité. La présente étude constitue un essai de synthèse provisoire des résultats fondamentaux obtenus jusqu'ici, sous la forme ď une définition préliminaire de la rationalité, par ailleurs suffisamment générale pour etre applicable dans toutes les circonstances.The general definition of rationality, to be usable for “practical” decisionmaking, must take full cognizance of each of the following characteristics of the “real” world, at least: the time-dimension of action and of the consequences of the action; the multitudinous side-effects of an action; the inevitable uncertainty of the “actor” in connection with the alternatives of action open to him and the consequences of each of these; the costs of information-gathering; the costs of performing logical operations; the variety of the value-criteria of different actors; the changes in the value-criteria of any given actor over time; and the “tastes” of the actor in relation to time-preference, risk-taking, logical processes, and the facing of uncertainty. The definition of rationality should specify the course of action which, in the light of all these factors, is the “best” one.The present suggested definition outlines a “rational” procedure for choosing one from among the set of all known possible actions, where the word “action” refers to a particular time-sequence of (a) acting (in the usual sense), (b) information-gathering, and (c) logical analysis. The procedure consists, roughly, of these four steps: (1) the specification of the set of known possible actions; (2) the determination, for each of the actions, and using all available relevant information, of the set of all possible consequences of that action and their respective probabilities; (3) the evaluation, in the light of the relevant value-criteria, of each of the possible consequences of each of the possible actions; and (4) the derivation from (3) of the “correct” action to be adopted. In carrying out these steps we employ a logical construction patterned after those of Carnap, Hempel and Oppenheim.For the sake of greater understandability, the definition is presented in two stages. The appendix to this paper contains a (grossly oversimplified) illustration of the application of the definition.Die allgemeine Definition des Rationalen - soil sie für praktische Entschlüsse verwendbar sein - muss zumindest folgende Charakteristika der “realen” Welt voll berücksichtigen: die Zeitdimension einer Handlung und der Konsequenzen der Handlung; die zahlreichen Nebenwirkungen einer Handlung; die unvermeidliche Ungewissheit des Handelnden mit Bezug auf die ihm offenstehenden alternativen Handlungen und auf die Folgen jeder dieser Handlungen; die Kosten zusätzlicher Information; die Kosten des logischen Vorgehens; die Mannigfaltigkeit der Wertkriterien der verschiedenen Handelnden; die Rnderungen in den Wertkriterien eines Handelnden im Zeitverlauf; die Einstellung des Handelnden hinsichtlich Zeitpräferenz, Risikobereitschaft, logische Verfahren und Ungewissheit. Die Definition des Rationalen sollte jenen Ablauf des Handelns aufzeigen, der im Lichte aller dieser Faktoren der “beste” ist.Die hier vorgeschlagene Definition skizziert ein “rationales Verfahren für die Wahl einer Handlung unter all den bekannten möglichen Handlungen, wobei das Wort “Handlung” sich auf eine besondere Zeitfolge von Handeln (im üblichen Sinn), Information und logischer Analyse bezieht. Das Verfahren besteht, grob gesprochen, in folgenden vier Schritten: I. Spezifikation der bekannten möglichen Handlungen; 2. Bestimmung aller möglichen Folgen und der Wahrscheinlichkeit dieser Folgen für jede der Handlungen, unter Verwendung aller verfügbaren relevanten Informationen; 3. Wertbestimmung jeder möglichen Folge von jeder der möglichen Handlungen auf Grund der relevanten Wertkriterien; und 4. Ableitung der “richtigen” vorzunehmenden Handlung aus 3. Bei der Ausführung dieser Schritte wird eine logische Konstruktion verwendet nach dem Muster von Carnap, Hempel und Oppenheim.Im Interesse einer grössern Verständlichkeit wird die Definition in zwei Stufen entwickelt. Der Anhang enthält eine (stark vereinfachte) Illustration über die Anwendung der Definition.Une définition générale de la rationalité - pour qu'elle soit utilisable pour des decisions pratiques - doit pour le moins tenir pleinement compte de chacune des caractéristiques suivantes du monde “réel”: la durée de ľ action et des conséquences de ľ action; la multitude des effets connexes ď une action; ľ inévitable incertitude de celui qui agit en ce qui concerne les alternatives qui s'offrent à lui et les conséquences de chacune de ces actions; le coǔt des informations complémentaires; le coǔt de ľ exécution logique des opérations; la diversite des criteres-valeur, suivant l'opinion de ceux qui agissent; les modifications dans le temps des critères-valeur ď un exécutant donné; la préférence que marque celui qui agit quant au temps, au risque, à la procédure logique et àľ incertitude. La définition de la rationalité devrait spécifier le déroulement de ľ action, qui, à la lumière de tous ces facteurs, apparaǐt comme “la meilleure”.La définition proposée ici esquisse une procédure rationnelle pour le choix ď une action parmi toutes les actions reconnues possibles; en ľ occurrence, le mot action se rapporte à une suite chronologique a) ď actions (au sens usuel), b) ď informations et c) ď analyses logiques. Grosso modo, le processus comprend les quatre étapes suivantes: I° la spécification des actions connues possibles; 2° la détermination pour chacune des actions, et en utilisant toutes les informations disponibles entrant en ligne de compte, de toutes les conséquences possibles et de leurs probabilityés respectives; 3oévaluation, à la lumière des critères-valeur entrant en ligne de compte, de chacune des conséquences possibles de chacune des actions possibles; et 4o la déduction de 3o de ľ action “correcte”à exécuter. En exposant ces étapes, ľ auteur utilise une construction logique calquée sur celles de Carnap, Hempel et Oppenheim.Afin ď etre mieux compréhensible, la définition est présentée en deux paliers. Ľ annexe à cet article contient un exemple (considérablement simplifyé) de ľ application de la définition.

Notes: Books reviewed in this article:ABS HERMANN J.: Fragen der Zahlungsbilanz, des Geld- und Kapitalmarktes in der Bundesrepublik. (Kieler Vorträge, Neue Folge 5.) 16 Seiten, Kiel 1954Aktuelle Genossenschaftsprobleme. Internationale Professoren-Konferenz über das Genossenschaftswesen, 7. bis 11. Oktober 1952, im Genossenschaftlichen Seminar Freidorf bei Basel. A. Francke AG, Bern 1953BARCLAY GEORGE W.: Colonial Development and Population in Taiwan. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N. J., 1954BARCLAY GEORGE W.: A Report on Taiwan's Population to the Joint Commission on Rural Reconstruction. Office of Population Research, Princeton University, Princeton N. J., 1954BOVET ERIC: L'organisation rationnelle de la distribution, moyen de stabilisation économique. Editions Delachaux & Niestlé, Neuchtel/Paris 1954Bureau International du Travail. Initiation à la pratique de la coopération. Genève 1952BURLEW JOHN S. (ED.): Algal Culture. From Laboratory to Pilot Plant. Carnegie Institution of Washington, Washington D. C. 1953CARONE G.: Der Fremdenverkehr undsein Anteil am Wirtschaftsleben der Region Trentino-Tiroler Etschland. Hg. vom Assessorat für Industrie, Handel, Fremdenverkehr und Transportwesen, Trento (Italien). Arti Grafiche R. Manfrini, Rovereto 1954CARELL ERICH: Allgemeine Volkswirtschaftslehre. 6. Aufl. Quelle & Meyer, Heidelberg 1954CASTILLON RICHARD: Les réparations allemandes. Deux expériences, 1919–1932, 1945–1952. 198 pages, Paris 1953CUVILLIER ARMAND: Introduction à la sociologie. 5e éd. revue et augmentée. Librairie Armand Colin, Paris 1954Defense against Recession: Policy for greater Economic Stability. A Statement on National Policy by the Research and Policy Committee of the Committee for Economic Development. New York 1954DUPLESSIS-LE GUELINEL GÉRARD: Les mariages en France. (Cahiers de la fondation nationale des sciences politiques, n 53), xi, 198 p., Paris 1954The Federal Reserve System, Purposes and Functions. Ed. by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. Washington, D. C., 1954Freedom and Welfare. Social Patterns in the Northern Countries of Europe. Edited by George R. Nelson, assisted by Aune Mäkinen-Ollinen, Sverrir Thorbjörnsson, Kaare Salvesen, and Göran Tegner. xiii, 540 pp., Kopenhagen 1954GLESKE LEONHARD: Die Liquidität in der Kreditwirtschaft. Verlag Fritz Knapp, Frankfurt a. M., (ohne Jahr)HAAVELMO T.: A Study in the Theory of Economic Evolution. Contributions to Economic Analysis III. North-Holland Publishing Company, Amsterdam 1954HEGELAND HUGO: The Multiplier Theory. Lund Social Science Studies No. 9. C. W. K. Gleerup, Lund 1954HEIMANN EDUARD: Wirtschaftssysteme und Gesellschaftssysteme. Veröffentlichungen der Akademie fur Gemeinwirtschaft Hamburg. J. C. B. Mohr (Paul Siebeck), Tubingen 1954HEINRICH KLAUS: Strukturwandlungen und Nachkriegsprobleme der Wirtschaft Spaniens. 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Notes: The energy in various model primitive Earth-Moon bodies containing a normal phase X and two high-pressure phases Y and Z has been examined. In each model, the first high-pressure phase Y has been taken to be in agreement with the data for the outer central core of Bullen's Earth Model B. On certain simplifying assumptions, it is then shown that disappearance of the phase Z from the primitive body would be accompanied by the release of sufficient energy to eject a body of the Moon's mass, provided that the radius of the region occupied by the phase Z was at least about 1500 km and that the density of Z is at least about 18 g/cm3. This result gives some quantitative support to Bullen's theory of the origin of the Moon, provided that his suggested mechanism of resonance could lead to sufficient distortion to take the primitive body over a potential barrier into the state in which the phase Z has disappeared.

Notes: The times of P in six Japanese and five “European” earthquakes, selected because good determinations of epicentres are possible from stations within 30°, are studied. Revised tables for earthquakes in Europe and Japan are constructed. Evidence concerning differences of the times at distances over 30° is some what conflicting; if there are any they do not exceed 28, but a difference of the order of I part in 300 between the velocities under the eastern and western halves of Eurasia is possible.

Notes: The propagation of waves of Rayleigh type in a uniform semi-infinite elastic medium with two uniform surface layers is discussed. The waves are dispersive, and the wave velocity equation is obtained as a determinant of the tenth order.By making infinite the thickness of the surface sheet one can derive the velocity equation for waves in an internal stratum. By making the thickness of either sheet zero one can retrieve the known equation for the velocity of Rayleigh waves in a medium with a single surface layer. If the wave-length is very small the determinant reduces to the product of three determinants which, equated in turn to zero, are the velocity equations of very short Rayleigh waves at the free surface and of very short waves of Rayleigh type at the two interfaces.The results of a numerical solution of the wave equation and the application to the surface waves of earthquakes will be communicated in a later paper.

Notes: A split-beam radio-echo technique has been used to measure the heights of the reflecting points of meteor trails. The measured width of the distribution of heights has been used in conjunction with the theories previously developed by Kaiser to determine the atmospheric scale height. The observations of sporadic meteors have been divided into velocity groups and values of the scale height have been calculated for each. A value of the atmospheric pressure at the mean height of each group is calculated from the evaporation theory of meteors. For purposes of comparison these results are converted into atmospheric densities which are compared with those obtained from rocket flights and meteor photographs made in New Mexico and Massachusetts. The present results for scale heights and densities are in close agreement with those obtained in New Mexico. In view of this a latitude variation in the density profile, which has been suggested as an explanation of the difference between the New Mexico and Massachusetts results, now seems unlikely.

Notes: Simultaneous measurements of the vertical component and two perpendicular horizontal components of gravity have been made in the I. C. I. Salt Mine at Winsford (Cheshire) over the period 1951 April 16 to 24. Apart from the gravitational tide the measurements show a well-developed influence of the variations in the maritime loading, especially in the horizontal components. A common drift in all components indicates the influence of meteorological pressure variations over a large area. Furthermore, diurnal variations of presumably meteorological origin have been observed. The “load tilt” has been determined. It is elliptical with an azimuth of N. 47° W. of the main axis and has an amplitude of 1.65 millisec per foot tide at Liverpool (5.5 millisec/m). The load influences in the vertical component are only 2.4 per cent of those in the horizontal direction and indicate the influence of more distant oceanic areas.

Notes: The effect of winds is to vary the length of day by 0.7 milliseconds between February and August. The bodily tides result largely in a semiannual variation of 0.4 ms. The combined effect of winds and tides is not far out of line with astronomical measurements since 1950. The fluid core of the Earth hardly participates in these variations in angular velocity and there is a half-year slippage of 23 metres between core and mantle at the equator. Eventually the astronomical measurements may provide a basis for determining the Love number h.

Notes: An analysis of the natural magnetic polarization of the basalt flows of Mull shows that many are adversely magnetized but the mean direction of magnetization of each flow, based on observations of a number of specimens, is not always significant. For such flows measurements of the magnetic stability, response to heat treatment, etc., suggest that the original intensities have been modified by later events. Finally, the observed natural intensities could be acquired by cooling in a field similar in magnitude to that of the Earth's present field.

Notes: Free air and Bouguer anomalies are given for 22 stations on Malta. A density of 2.25 g/c. c. is used for the Bouguer reductions on the basis of density measurements on five samples. In the second part of the paper discussion is made of the best Potsdam values for No. 3 dock Malta and at Tunis airport. The adopted values are shown to be consistent, within the rather low accuracy of the connections, with values accepted in Sicily.

Notes: The magnetic properties of oriented rock samples from some Tertiary igneous intrusions in the Isle of Mull have been investigated. Analysis of the directions of natural residual magnetization, supported by some subsidiary experiments, shows that most of the natural magnetization could have been acquired by cooling in an ambient magnetic field. The analysis reveals two main directions of magnetization, one approximately in the direction of the present terrestrial field and the other in opposition to it. Various possible causes of the reversed magnetization are discussed and a suggestion is put forward that it may have been produced by reversals of the terrestrial field in the past.