ALBERT

Notes: Few studies have been performed on the occurrence of enterovirus contamination of ground water. In this study, 99 ground-water samples were examined for the presence of enteroviruses, total bacteria, fecal coliforms, and fecal streptococci by standard methods. Enteroviruses were isolated from 20% of the samples. Viruses were isolated from 12 samples which contained no detectable fecal organisms per 100 ml. No statistical correlation between presence of virus and bacteriological indicators could be determined. The widespread failure of current bacteriological standards to indicate the presence of potentially pathogenic enteroviruses in ground water is an area of concern that requires more study.

Notes: Flow to wells in leaky artesian aquifers is intimately related to changes in aquitard storage, well storage capacity, and degree of well penetration. The manner and extent to which these and other factors affect water levels may be evaluated with aquifer test data. Families of type curves describe time-drawdown in the aquifer and aquitard under complex aquifer and well penetration conditions. Analysis of leaky artesian aquifer test data is possible with the array of equations derived largely in the 1950's through 1970's. Erroneous data analysis will result unless complicating factors are fully recognized and taken into account. A review of leaky artesian aquifer test evaluation methods is presented in this paper together with the field application of selected methods to foster greater use of current theories.

Notes: Illinois aquifers furnish approximately 233 mgd (10.2 m3/s) of water to 677 public-water supplies outside the six-county area of northeastern Illinois. Ground water is usually obtained from sand-and-gravel deposits in the glacial drift or from limestone or sandstone formations in the underlying bedrock. The most favorable ground-water conditions are found in the northern third and the southern tip of the State, while, elsewhere, major aquifers are sand-and-gravel deposits of the Mississippi, Illinois, buried Mahomet, Wabash, Ohio, Kaskaskia, and Embarrass valleys.A brief review was made of data and information in the State Water Survey files for each public ground-water supply, and an assessment was given as adequate, marginal, or deficient, in terms of present demands. Twenty-four supplies were studied in greater detail, including calculations of aquifer sustained yields. The study indicated that 39 supplies were marginal and four were judged deficient in meeting current demands. The majority of the marginal and deficient supplies are located in the central third of the State; but so are most of the supplies (outside of north-eastern Illinois).The study represents the first of a three-part plan to: (1) define problem areas and determine priorities for studies in greater detail, (2) conduct regional studies, including test drilling, in problem areas to determine how great the water resource is, and (3) determine the water resource alternatives available to public ground-water supplies that are found to be inadequate.

Notes: An industrial waste liquid containing organonitrile compounds and nitrate ion has been injected into the lower limestone of the Floridan aquifer near Pensacola, Florida since June 1975. Chemical analyses of water from monitor wells and backflow from the injection well indicate that organic carbon compounds are converted to CO2 and nitrate is converted to N2. These transformations are caused by bacteria immediately after injection, and are virtually completed within 100 m of the injection well. The zone near the injection well behaves like an anaerobic filter with nitrate respiring bacteria dominating the microbial flora in this zone.Sodium thiocyanate contained in the waste is unaltered during passage through the injection zone and is used to detect the degree of mixing of injected waste liquid with native water at a monitor well 312 m (712 ft) from the injection well. The dispersivity of the injection zone was calculated to be 10 m (33 ft). Analyses of samples from the monitor well indicate 80 percent reduction in chemical oxygen demand and virtually complete loss of organonitriles and nitrate from the waste liquid during passage from the injection well to the monitor well. Bacterial densities were much lower at the monitor well than in backflow from the injection well.

Notes: Abstract. This investigation was to determine whether data on irrigation-well registration forms as reported by well drillers can be used in hydrologic studies. Transmissivity maps were prepared for Hamilton County, Nebraska using only specific capacity values computed from yield and drawdown data, as reported on irrigation well-registration forms. On one map each control point was the mean of the transmissivity values calculated for all wells in a section. On a second map each control point was the mean of the means for four contiguous sections sharing a common corner. The second map was similar to that of a previously prepared map based on control point values computed from specific capacities of selected wells, test hole logs, and geologic interpretations. These results suggest that reported registration data for a given area have a normal population distribution. In situations where individual data are unverified the data base can be treated as samples of a population where the mean of the means of several samples for adjacent areas is representative of actual field conditions.

Notes: A new method of testing anisotropic, inhomogeneous multiple aquifer systems developed by the author makes use of small diameter bore construction techniques and enables simultaneous testing of superposed aquifers and aquitards (aquicludes).Because of the low cost of the method the hydraulic properties of the multiple aquifer system can be determined at many sites distributed throughout the area of interest, enabling simulation of the local and regional ground-water flow conditions and other hydrological characteristics of the system.Since its development in 1964 the technique improved and was employed in ground-water investigations. Data and results from the inhomogeneous, anisotropic multiple aquifer system west of Melbourne are given.

Notes: Chemical and isotopic analyses were made of water from wells in and downgradient from a landfill to determine chemical and isotopic effects of generation and migration of leachate on ground water. The distribution and wide concentration range of oxygen and methane permit the delineation of an anaerobic zone, a regional oxygenated zone and an intermediate zone. The ratio of reduced nitrogen to nitrate indicates location of reducing fronts as the leachate migrates. The pH of the native ground water is low (≥5.0) primarily because of the low pH of rainfall and the lack of calcareous or other soluble minerals in the aquifer material. The pH is higher (∼6.6) in the leachate because of generation of carbon dioxide, ammonia, and methane. The native ground water has a low TDS (80 mg/l) while the leachate has an average TDS of 2800 mg/l and is primarily a NaHCO3 type water. Sulfate concentrations are extremely low and H2S was not detected.We suggest that a major source of cations may be their exchange from the clays by the ammonium generated in the leachate. High concentrations of Fe and Mn are attributed to a source in the refuse but more important to reduction of oxide cements and coatings resulting from degradation of organic matter. The main source of bicarbonate is from organic degradation with minimal CO2 from the soil zone. At one landfill site 52% of the total alkalinity is attributed to organic compounds, mainly organic acid anions. The δ13C of bicarbonate in the leachate is exceedingly heavy (+18.400/00) which results from fractionation during the formation of methane. The 10 per mil deuterium enrichment of water may be due to decomposition of deuterium-enriched compounds and bacterial processes that preferentially consume the lighter hydrogen isotope.

Notes: Rapid fissure flow has been recognised as an important factor in understanding the hydraulic behaviour of the Lincolnshire Limestone aquifer of eastern England. A study of the hydrogeology of a Lincolnshire Limestone spring-fed catchment enables three zones of discharge to be defined, based on their relative elevation along the valley floor. Comparison of the discharge characteristics of each zone reveals the existence of rapid ground-water flow associated with a discrete fissure system. Comparison of spring discharges and ground-water storage during a period of “high,”“low” and “typical” recharge enables a conceptual flow model of the aquifer to be constructed. A two-layered model is proposed, in which the secondary zone (upper unit) is characterised by higher transmissivity and lower storativity than the primary zone (lower unit). In addition, there is evidence of a rapid increase in transmissivity with water-table elevation in the secondary zone. The areal distribution of the secondary zone is associated with a net work dry valleys. The spatial distribution of the two zones is explained by geological structure, lithological variations and the post-glacial history of the area. A two-layered model is developed with these concepts in mind in order to simulate the spring discharges. Once proven, the model can be integreated with the regional hydrogeology and incorporated into existing digital models of the aquifer.

Notes: Abstract. An evaluation was made of the usefulness of the gamma-ray logger in delineating glacial-drift and bedrock stratigraphy in southwestern Ohio. The logger was useful in delineating gross stratigraphic units in a glacial outwash aquifer. The gamma log also provided a clearer indication of the clay content of sand and gravel units than did the driller's log.On the uplands, away from the valleys filled with glacial outwash, the logger could not be used to locate the thin, poorly-sorted, interstadial sand and gravel deposits between thicker till sheets. It could, however, be used to distinguish formational contacts in the upper Cincinnatian Series.

Notes: Injection of waste liquids into Florida's subsurface is physically feasible in many places but should be accompanied by monitoring of the waste-receiving aquifer system in addition to the injection facility. Monitoring of the interaction of factors including hydrogeologic conditions, well construction, waste volumes and characteristics, and potable-water sources is desirable to assure that fresh-water resources are not being adversely affected. An effective aquifer-system monitoring program includes on-site wells located close to an injection well and open to the next-higher permeable stratum, satellite wells located hundreds to several thousands of feet from an injection well and open to the receiving aquifer, and regional wells located miles from individual injection wells and open to the receiving aquifer. An extensive aquifer-system monitoring program associated with two waste-injection facilities near Pensacola, Florida, has provided data which have aided hydrologists to understand the aquifer system's response to the injection and, accordingly, to evaluate the potential for affecting the area's fresh-water resources.

Notes: Overexploitation of ground water in Krishni-Hindon interstream region (Lat. 29°05′N-29°29′N and Long. 77°19′E-77°32′E) in Uttar Pradesh, India, prompted us to carry out aquifer modeling studies. The area lies in Gangetic alluvial plain. The interconnections in the phreatic aquifer and the lower semiconfined aquifer led to the assumption of a single-story aquifer for which an R-C analog model was constructed.The input-output quantities in the model have been simulated using current/voltage generators and current sinks which are appropriately programmed in time-domain with the help of wave-form synthesizers for a realistic representation of the field system.The model study shows that the aquifer can sustain the present output rate of 200 mcm/year without much damage to the ground-water regime. In another scheme, an annual increase of 5% in exploitation rate, shows deleterious effects on the aquifer. Decreased rainfall/ droughts would worsen the situation.The influence of hydraulic connectivity between the aquifer and the Krishni-Hindon river system is quite significant. If the present exploitation rate were to continue for 20 years, the annual inflow to the aquifer from rivers is estimated to increase by about 36.0 mem.More hydrogeological data is required for further validation and refinement of the model.

Notes: Generally, the 208 planning approach is deficient in a number of ways. Its origin lies in Public Law 92-500, which focuses on protection of surface water and special uses of water for fish, wildlife, and recreation. Little ground water is used for these purposes. Nonpoint sources have not been defined in terms that have hydrogeologic significance. Local and State regulatory agencies have often been unsuccessful in controlling ground-water pollution, yet the 208 approach tends to disregard the reasons for this situation. The reasons for ground-water pollution in an area must be understood before meaningful control measures can be enacted. These include both technical and institutional problems.Planners are placed in the forefront of many 208 programs at the local level and often their backgrounds are inadequate in ground water. There is a great lack of ground-water professionals in regulatory agencies involved, particularly in the Southwest. This deficiency is paramount at high levels and in many regional offices of EPA. There are no provisions in the approach to insure that qualified ground-water geologists or hydrologists will be involved. Academic training in ground water is presently oriented toward ground-water development and not pollution. Lastly, public participation is greatly limited by the general lack of knowledge regarding ground water and its pollution.Successful 208 programs in terms of ground water have been enacted when ground-water professionals have had major roles. Changes are necessary in the academic training of ground-water geologists and hydrologists. The public must be educated concerning the long-term consequences of ground-water pollution. Lastly, ground-water professionals must assume the leadership in ground-water protection.

Notes: It is herein submitted that the nearly universal phrase “shall not cause pollution of the ground waters and surface waters” written into the State regulations for waste disposal operations not only refutes a sound technical alternative, but is impractical, uneconomical and often unworkable.It is a fact that all ground waters are not created equal, as governed by certain irrefutable physical laws including the water budget equation and Darcy's Law which states that the quantity of ground water available is subject to wide variation from location to location. While an aquifer is a relative term, major, minor and nonaquifers can be identified within a given geographic area with respect to cost-effective ground-water resource development. Likewise, the natural quality of ground water is also a significant variable with certain parameters often exceeding drinking-water standards. The land application of wastes overlying the ground waters of an area should, therefore, also be subject to a certain degree of flexibility for prudent management of both the waste operation and the ground-water resources.Numerous investigations and empirical data can be cited to substantiate the fact that many wastes and their associated leachates can be safely assimilated into the environment with reliance on attenuation and controlled degradation of ground water by utilization of a mixing zone or zone of renovation with a specified distance from a disposal operation. As increased emphasis is placed on the land disposal/management of wastes/residuals and as the cost of these operations continue to mount, it is strongly recommended that controlled ground-water degradation be utilized in those areas where a “true” ground-water resource does not exist. Protection of such a “true” ground-water resource is obviously necessary as our demands for a potable water supply also continue to grow.

Notes: Ground-water computer models are, certainly, toys which provide intellectual stimulation. They can be useful tools for advancement of the ground-water profession, but I believe that they have been blown out of proportion and that this might cause irreparable damage to our profession.It is important to see where computer models fit into the ground-water problem-solving process. I believe that ground-water computer programs are simply a complicated “turn the crank” tool for making projections. They're one type of tool out of several which requires aquifer and confining bed characteristics to facilitate making projections. A second approach for making projections involves the direct extrapolation or manipulation of data which does not require transmissivity, storage coefficient, leakance, and other interpreted characteristics. Further, I believe that the collection and evaluation of data are of greater importance than the projection methods and/or tools in arriving at answers.Advantages of ground-water computer models include: speedy analyses once a program is working, ability to handle many parameters, and utilization of a large data base. The disadvantages include: use of computer models as end goals, tendency for misapplications, time-consuming setup, a waste of time and money in some cases, and diversion of human talent from useful ground-water work.

Notes: While it is true that waterborne diseases are still with us, and probably always will be, we cannot classify them as a current threat in the sense that they were 100 years ago. The discovery that chlorine would disinfect water supplies removed these diseases from a “current threat” category to the “historical lesson” category. We are not faced with unknowns which we are unable to attack. We have only to look at what others have done to protect themselves and follow the same or improved practices.If the record of waterborne outbreaks in public water supplies in this country from the end of World War II up to the present is examined, it will be found that all are caused by breakdowns in disinfection procedures or carelessness. The record is replete with statements such as “improper disinfection after repair,”“breakdown or lack of disinfecting equipment,”“back siphonage,” and other similar statements all pointing to failure to follow practices which the history of water treatment has shown to be necessary for protection against waterborne disease. Carelessness allows recurrence of disease outbreaks. If the lessons of history were followed, the conquest of waterborne disease transmission by public water systems could be complete.

Notes: The increasing use of ground water and its true role as a source of water supplies in the United States have sometimes been interpreted incorrectly. The total use of ground water has indeed increased tremendously during the last 20 years (by almost 80%), but so has the total use of water (over 70%). And ground water is still far from being a primary source of water supplies. In 1975, only 20% of the total amount of water withdrawn in the United States for various uses came from ground-water sources.Statistical analysis of ground-water data for the period 1950-1975 has shown that the ground-water usage is changing only very slowly. Relation of ground-water use to total water use expressed in percent was used as an indicator of changes of ground-water use patterns. This percentage has not changed significantly, and it has fluctuated around 19%. In 1975, only 6 States used more ground water than surface water for their water supplies, and in 23 States ground-water use was less than 10% of total use. Even more unfavorable is the magnitude of change in ratio of ground-water use relative to total water use. From 1955 to 1975 only 13 States show an increase in the ratio. In 28 States the ratio has decreased, and in 7 it has remained the same.

Notes: An objective view of the need for ground-water quality standards requires that an individual recognize the value that ground water contributes to the water supply needs of our nation. A vast number of people living in rural areas and a large number of communities are dependent upon ground water as their sole source of water for domestic, industrial, commercial, and agricultural needs.This large use and dependency upon ground water dictates that these resources are valuable and must be protected for both present day and future uses. There are many examples where present methods of disposal of wastes generated in America have not been satisfactory from an environmental standpoint, with an exception of projects where disposal sites have been properly designed, operated, and managed for protection of the ground water.One possible solution for ground-water protection is the establishment of ground-water quality standards. The purpose of such standards is to protect the public health and welfare and maintain the quality of ground waters in all usable aquifers for individual, public, industrial, and agricultural water supplies. A legal basis must exist and the prescribed steps must be followed as dictated by the rule making process. The primary aim of such standards is to prevent the degradation of ground waters such as they will not become a public health hazard or harm the users of the ground water.The backbone of such a standard rests on the completion of a hydrogeological study which is necessary to determine background water quality information, set up the monitoring program and outline sampling to determine when water quality changes are taking place and what is a significant change.

Notes: Half the population depends on ground water for domestic uses. Use is increasing 25 percent per decade. Ground water is generally used with little or no treatment.Some persons would transfer the discharge of our waste products from contaminated surface streams to the land and thus relatively clean ground waters.No standards exist that protect ground-water quality. Research necessary to give assurance that natural interaction of waste water and soils will remove, to acceptable levels, potentially harmful contaminants, organic and inorganic, that permeate today's waste streams and today's health concerns, has not been done.Success reports on land treatment of waste water have a not evaluated deterioration of ground water from organic contamination. Most waste waters contain synthetic organics in varying concentrations. EPA recommends their reduction in drinking water to the lowest possible level.Most instances of ground-water contamination have been discovered after drinking water is contaminated. Unless the public is willing to treat ground water as it does water from surface streams, greater control of land disposal practices must be exercised. Current practice does not indicate the necessary controls are contemplated or recognized. It follows that the widespread use of the land treatment alternative is, in reality, an accident waiting to happen.

Notes: The Nation's ground-water resources constitute a vast and often unprotected resource. The Environmental Protection Agency is about to launch a number of programs designed to protect what is, in many cases, a virtually non-renewable resource. Separate regulatory activities mandated under the Safe Drinking Water Act, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act and the Clean Water Act must be carefully coordinated if they are to be effective.The current implementation efforts within the agency are being framed in view of our major principles which will be the focus of public comment in the months ahead. These principles are:First, the administration of the related programs will be a cooperative effort involving Federal, State and local governments, all of which must participate in formulating the program if it is to be effective.Second, the focus of the programs will be on the prevention of contamination rather than on its treatment at the point of withdrawal.Third, the applicable standards will be based primarily on technology rather than ambient ground-water quality considerations since the effects of discharges upon ambient quality are complex, difficult to predict, and of long duration.Fourth, there is a need to balance environmental protection, energy development and continued economic prosperity objectives so that the resulting programs fully protect public health while being realistically implementable.All of us—government, industry and citizens, through acts of commission or omission—have contributed to the potential problem. We must work together if we are to get on with the important task of protecting the quality of the Nation's ground-water resources.

Notes: Small programmable calculators have recently become available that will allow many routine pumping or injection well calculations to be made rapidly, accurately and inexpensively. Programs and example calculations are given for the exponential integral and multiple well-multiple rate pumping or injection well equations using water well and oilfield units. The programs are for the TI 59 card programmable calculator.

Notes: Because of the relatively low stiffness properties of thermoplastic materials, casings made from these materials may be more susceptible to collapse. For many applications, when a surrounding material tends to support the casing, the casing resistance to collapse should be significantly increased. The Morley equations of equilibrium for two radial collapse pressure loading conditions were modified to include the support of the surrounding medium and were solved using the Galerkin method. Parametric studies were conducted for typical water well casings and restraint values. Simple collapse prediction formulas are proposed for predicting collapse for the two loading conditions considered. Collapse pressures predicted by the proposed formulas for uniform collapse pressure are approximately 25% lower than those values predicted by the current ASTM formula. Collapse pressures for linearly varying pressure were found to be 12% higher than the corresponding values for uniform pressure. When the radial stiffness of the surrounding medium is included in the analysis, the collapse pressure resistance of the casing was found to be significantly increased over the collapse resistance of an unsupported casing.

Notes: Precise geophysical surveys across ground failure zones related to ground-water withdrawal at nine sites in Picacho basin in south-central Arizona indicate that earth fissures in alluvium near exposed bedrock are spatially associated with local gravity and magnetic anomalies ranging from local highs to convex-upward changes in slope. We interpret the gravity anomalies, which range from 0.1 to 1 mGal with half-widths of 50 to 300 m (160 to 980 ft), to be caused by convex-upward irregularities in the bedrock surface underlying the alluvial aquifer. Most irregularities are inferred to be at depths less than 250 m (820 ft). Bedrock irregularities were not detected beneath failures that are more than 2 km (1.2 mi) from bedrock outcrop. The association of earth fissures with zones of variable aquifer thickness suggests that differential compaction is occurring near these fissures. Theoretical estimates, based on the finite element method, of horizontal strains generated by localized differential compaction suggest that this mechanism is the dominant source of horizontal tension causing earth fissures in Picacho basin. Our analysis indicates that tensile strains at fissures at the times of their formation ranged from 0.1 to 0.4 percent.Prediction of the location of earth fissures near exposed bedrock in Picacho basin and in adjacent basins with similar geologic settings appears feasible by delineation of convex-upward bedrock irregularities. Failures far from exposed bedrock, however, may not be as readily predicted on this basis. If the rheological properties and thicknesses of subsurface materials are known, prediction of the magnitude of water-level decline required to induce sufficient differential compaction to cause failure at potential earth fissures appears feasible.

Notes: On September 30, 1977, a large industrial plant in Fernandina Beach, Florida, shut down six artesian wells that had been pumping continuously for several weeks from the Floridan aquifer. Two wells continued pumping until November 20, 1977, at which time the shutdown wells were restarted. A water-level recorder on an observation well recorded the changing water level following shutdown and startup. Pumping rates of the wells ranged from 400,000 to 590,000 cubic feet per day (11,000 to 16,000 cubic meters per day). Distances from the pumped wells to the observation well range from 660 to 7,920 feet (200-2,420 meters). Analysis of the water-level data was further complicated because the wells were neither turned off nor restarted simultaneously; during recovery one well was restarted and pumped for several hours; and at the beginning of startup, a well that had been pumping continuously during the shutdown was turned off. The Cooper-Jacob graphical method, based on the principle of superposition and using values of specific drawdown or specific recovery (s/Q) and weighted logarithmic mean of the distance squared divided by time 〈inlineGraphic alt="inline image" href="urn:x-wiley:0017467X:GWAT525:GWAT_525_mu1" location="equation/GWAT_525_mu1.gif"/〉, was applied to determine the aquifer coefficients for the upper water-bearing zone of the aquifer. A transmissivity of 30,000 feet squared per day (2,800 meters squared per day) and a storage coefficient of between 2.5 × 10-4 and 4.0 × 10-4 were computed.

Notes: A sequence of simple statistical tests was used to interpret the data from a routine water sampling project for a stream that was contaminated with effluent from a sewage treatment plant. The contamination of this stream was apparent from the murky condition of the water and its pungent odor. The outlet of the sewage treatment plant enters the stream at its origin.The chemical variables analysed were Ca, Mg, Na, K, Cl, nitrates, TDS, and hardness. Background data from other streams in this drainage basin and data from the stream under investigation were subjected to cluster analysis in order to classify the sampled area into geochemical provinces. The contaminated stream under investigation comprised one province and the background streams constituted another province. A linear regression performed on the data showed a statistically significant decrease of several variables with increasing distance from the outlet of the sewage treatment plant. An abrupt decrease in concentration of iron some 450 m below the plant outlet implied the presence of two populations with different means, which was statistically verified with a trimmed t-test.Use of these simple tests greatly facilitated interpretation of the data.

Notes: Geochemical factors controlling water chemistry in an influent stream and adjacent flood-plain sediments were determined during a four-year study. The stream has a drainage basin that is similar to many streams draining carbonate terranes in the eastern United States. It receives sewage effluent, farm and urban runoff and supplies recharge to an aquifer under extensive development.Water beneath the flood plain, springs, and channel were calcium bicarbonate as expected; however, the prevalent chemical character of soil water beneath the channel was sodium bicarbonate. HCO3 within soil water beneath the stream is three times (1,500 mg/l) that beneath the flood plain, Na+ is two orders of magnitude greater (400 mg/l), K+ reaches 10 mg/l which is twice as great while CA2+ and Mg2+ may be one-fifth as high as concentrations beneath the flood plain with ranges from 15 to 20 mg/l and 5 to 10 mg/l respectively. Waters 3 to 7 feet (0.9 to 2.1 m) below the flood plain contain intermediate Na+ values from 25 to 75 mg/l.Ion exchange appears to be the mechanism accounting for the sodium bicarbonate water observed under the channel. The same relationship should occur in other areas with available carbonate rock, base exchange minerals, and an organic source.

Notes: From the 195O's to the early 1970's expansion of sanitary sewerage in southwest Nassau County contributed to progressive declines in ground-water levels. Since the early 197O's, however, 10 years after the area was fully sewered, water levels have not declined significantly, which suggests that the water table may have reached a new equilibrium position. Double-mass-curve analyses show that during 1953-76 the average weighted ground-water levels in a 32-square-mile (83-square-kilometer) part of the sewered area declined 12.2 feet (3.73 meters) more than those in the unsewered area to the east. However, by 1973 this decline was 13.5 feet (4.1 meters). Finite-difference digital-model results indicate that 3.6 feet (1.1 meters) of the relative 1953-76 decline was due to pumping in adjacent Queens County and that most of the remaining decline was a result of sewerage. Streamflow within the sewered area decreased in response to the lowered ground-water levels, and ground-water levels in the adjacent unsewered area were also lowered because of the sewerage.

Notes: One of the most valuable and practical tools the ground-water manager can use is the computer model, be it wellfield, conjunctive, solute transport, or statistical. Although these models vary in complexity, the end product is purely a function of the user's ability to select the appropriate level of modeling for a particular project. Any professional working in the field of hydrogeology should adapt to and use ground-water models to be truly efficient.

Notes: Land application of treated waste water can provide unique opportunities, not only for a final high level of waste-water treatment but for reuse of nutrients as well. Recent laws passed by Congress have made it necessary to consider land treatment when planning and designing new waste-water treatment facilities. The three types of land treatment commonly used are (1) irrigation, (2) overland flow, and (3) rapid infiltration. Selection of the most appropriate type of land treatment for a specific site is based on several considerations, including soil conditions, geology, topography, proximity to surface and subsurface water, and climate.Ensuring the protection of ground water is essential when siting or designing a land treatment system. Ground water is an important natural resource, having considerable impact on human life and well-being as well as high economic value. Safeguarding this important resource from contamination includes careful site selection, appropriate pretreatment of waste water prior to its application, and a program of regularly scheduled monitoring to ensure that the waste water is being properly renovated for safe release to the environment.Utilization of municipal sludge on land for agricultural production is encouraged by federal law, as is land treatment of waste water. Sludge contains concentrated wastes, and there are practical limitations on the levels of heavy metals, salts, and toxic substances in sludges applied to agricultural lands. Sludge is generally stabilized before being applied, to destroy pathogens, and reduce weight, volume and odor.Several case studies of successful land treatment systems presently in operation are presented to demonstrate the viability of the land treatment concept.

Notes: Control of epidemic waterborne disease of an infectious nature has been made practical through modern drinking-water treatment practices. Certainty of such control depends upon treatment plant reliability. The possibility of the transmission of newly recognized infectious diseases by the water route must be considered. The presence of trace amounts of chemicals in drinking water that are potential agents of chronic disease, particularly cancer, poses many questions concerning the safety of our water supplies.

Notes: Few would argue that ground-water pollution is a problem and that serious ground-water pollution problems do exist. As serious as some isolated ground-water pollution problems are, regionally and nationally, it is only a limited problem. An industrial landfill may result in a leachate plume contaminating ground water over an area of up to several square miles downgradient from the disposal site. Municipal landfills or chemical/petroleum spills can result in polluted ground water over areas measured in square miles. Surrounding these areas of ground-water pollution, however, are tens and hundreds of square miles of area where the ground water moving through the aquifers maintains its natural good quality. The ratio of good quality to contaminated water is such that ground-water pollution can really only be considered as a limited problem.The problem will most likely remain limited as existing and future regulations continue to restrict the poor disposal practices that have been responsible for much of the past and existing pollution problems. Technology has advanced to the point that with proper management and sound governmental regulations, control, isolation and cleanup of contamination sources and areas of polluted ground water can be so effective that migration of the pollution front can be stopped and actually reversed with time.The same technology that provided us with the new chemicals and the wastes that show up in water analyses, has also provided us with the means of detecting many more contaminants at much lower levels of concentration in a water sample than was possible 50, 25 or even 10 years ago. One must thus ask, has ground-water pollution really become a national crisis, or do we just know more about an old problem made apparently more complicated by our own technological advances?

Notes: Proposals to establish national ground-water quality standards appear to be premature, and redundant because of the geohydrologic and geochemical factors governing the occurrence and development of ground water. Although it can be reasoned that there is no “good time” to establish additional governmental standards (and the resultant additional governmental regulations), it can also be strongly argued that now is a “bad time” to consider establishment of the proposed standards.First, a present mood of the general public is away from more governmental involvement in the business and private sectors, and a rebellion against the increasing cost of government. Second, the applicability and workability of present Federal (and some State) laws that could be used to adequately protect ground-water quality, have yet to be implemented or otherwise sufficiently tested.The full force and effect of the Water Pollution Control Act (PL 92-500 with amendments) has yet to be implemented, and Congress is still considering its “oversights” in their drafting of same.The Safe Drinking Water Act (PL 93-523), particularly those sections designed or usable to protect ground-water quality, have yet to be tested by the EPA. Like PL 92-500, the deadline for implementation of parts of PL 93-523 has long since passed.And the far-reaching effects on ground-water quality protection that three other federal laws-the Resource Conservation Recovery Act (PL 94-580); the Toxic Substances Control Act (PL 94-469); and Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act (PL 95-87)—are totally unknown, since the procedures for full implementation of these acts have yet to be developed.Therefore, it appears that establishing a new ground-water quality control act prior to testing existing law and thereby learning from their flaws or shortcomings, could result in unnecessary proliferation of law without its reasonable testing.This appears to be good time to interrupt the geometric progression that tends to spawn additional laws when laws are developed ahead of their established need.Equitable and workable ground-water quality protection could be fostered through the enactment of the long overdue requirements for the integration of surface-and ground-water development and management structures. This integration would decrease inefficiency of use of these water resources—which are actually inseparable in identity to their users, the American taxpayers.

Notes: Recent research has expanded our understanding of the suitability of waste disposal in various hydrogeologic settings. Although more research is needed, our knowledge can provide a basis for preparing guidelines for action that will protect ground water from waste disposal practices. It is impossible, however, to prevent accidental spills, unlawful dumping, and ground-water contamination or pollution resulting from some old, unregulated waste disposal practices. Therefore, more than 170 case histories of subsurface contamination or pollution were studied to evaluate the effectiveness of remedial action in different geologic environments. The case studies indicate that the severity and extent of ground-water contamination is determined by (1) the hydrogeologic setting, (2) the nature of the contaminant, and (3) the effectiveness of regulatory action.Industrial wastes are the most common sources of ground-water contamination. The most serious incidents are those that pollute or threaten water supplies and those that cause a fire or explosion. Once ground water is contaminated, remedial action is time consuming and expensive. Each incident must be handled as a separate problem. Although prompt action is essential to limit contamination and minimize remedial action, no strategies have been established for rapid response to contamination or pollution problems.Ground-water contamination will continue, but its impact can be reduced. The role of hydrogeologists in regulatory agencies should be strengthened to provide proper evaluation of potential sources of contamination and to aid in remedial action when ground water is contaminated. Cooperative efforts to develop strategies will ensure proper handling of future emergencies.

Notes: The opportunity to begin formulating a national ground-water quality protection program is at hand. In building the new program we should use the host of lessons learned in the experience of related environmental programs. This is necessary so that the new program will be realistic at the outset and congruent with the integrated planning and management of the ground- and surface-water resources of the nation.The keystone of program development, implementation, and evaluation is and will continue to be water quality standards. To the extent that the goal “Safe Drinking Water for Americans” has already been established, the point-of-use regulations (IPDW Regs and the RPDW Regs), should serve as water quality objectives thus facilitating ground-water program formulation and evaluation. The major regulatory thrust of the program, the water quality standards, must be technology-based site selection, construction and operational standards, with only limited monitoring in a conventional water supply and water pollution control context.

Notes: The necessary administrative mechanisms for protection of our underground drinking water sources, and coordination of natural resource and energy development and environmental quality programs, should be provided by a federal ground-water control program, else today's underground contaminant disposal activities will be tomorrow's undoing. Federal regulations, however, must provide flexibility to States and industry to find the least costly means of meeting national environmental goals.A growing body of literature clearly documents cases of underground drinking water source contamination, sometimes severe, from a large variety of conditions and practices. Existing studies also indicate that this problem is pervasive: aquifers have been adversely affected in every region of the country.A federal ground-water protection program which (1) reflects consideration of total long-range natural resource protection and environmental quality benefits, (2) regulates in a manner so that the benefits to the environment generally exceed the regulatory costs and (3) encourages more efficient ways of meeting environmental goals in the least costly manner can and must be developed by the Environmental Protection Agency. Without an effective Federal ground-water protection program, the underground contamination problem will likely worsen.

Notes: Overexploitation of ground water in Krishni-Hindon interstream region (Lat. 29°05′N–29°29′N and Long. 77°19′E–77°32′E) in Uttar Pradesh, India, prompted us to carry out aquifer modeling studies. The area lies in Gangetic alluvial plain. The interconnections in the phreatic aquifer and the lower semiconfined aquifer led to the assumption of a single-story aquifer for which an R-C analog model was constructed.The input-output quantities in the model have been simulated using current/voltage generators and current sinks which are appropriately programmed in time-domain with the help of wave-form synthesizers for a realistic representation of the field system.The model study shows that the aquifer can sustain the present output rate of 200 mcm/year without much damage to the ground-water regime. In another scheme, an annual increase of 5% in exploitation rate, shows deleterious effects on the aquifer. Decreased rainfall/droughts would worsen the situation.The influence of hydraulic connectivity between the aquifer and the Krishni-Hindon river system is quite significant. If the present exploitation rate were to continue for 20 years, the annual inflow to the aquifer from rivers is estimated to increase by about 36.0 mcm.More hydrogeological data is required for further validation and refinement of the model.

Notes: In order to regulate the use of ground water, State agencies and local government, together with local public participation, have developed a management policy which is now being implemented in Nebraska. A water-resource agency, a geological survey, and a local, multi-county governmental unit are combined with several other governmental units to investigate water problems and guide a variety of vested interests toward a common goal of efficient water-resource management. The key government document delegating the authority and guiding the agencies is the Nebraska Ground Water Management Act of 1975. This Act specifies a procedure whereby local residents concerned about misuse and depletion of their ground-water supplies can request that official hearings be held, water-supply evaluations be made, and consideration be given by the Nebraska Department of Water Resources to establish what is called a “control area.” Designation of a control area allows development and enforcement of methods to deal with the water-resource problem within that area. The management alternatives provided for by this Act include well spacing, rotation of pumping, allocation of water, and moratoriums on drilling. The Act does not, however, address conjunctive use of surface water and ground water, guidelines for management policies, and rights to artificially stored ground water.

Notes: An important aspect of the pollution of a phreatic aquifer by hydrocarbons is the oil-water contact and transfer of soluble substances from the oil into the ground water.A systematic study of this transfer of matter in a saturated porous medium (initial condition of contact when the impregnation body is submitted to fluctuations of the piezometric level) is performed with an experimental device made up of a porous matrix containing the oil phase, steady and crossed by a unidirectional flow of water. The transfer is very efficient; for all compounds which have been studied, the maximum possible concentration is reached after a distance of the order of 10 cm with specific flow rates greater than those generally encountered in a gravel-sand aquifer. The selective impoverishment of the oil product with time, due to differences in the solubility of various hydrocarbons, modifies the dissolved phase composition. Downstream of an in-situ impregnation body, this phenomenon only appears after a constant concentration has been reached for a long time. A source model is thus obtained, where the pollutant massic flow rate is proportional to the flow rate of the water which crosses the impregnation body. Such an initial condition has a fundamental effect on the determination of the contaminated aquifer domain, with the help of the dispersion scheme, with hydrocarbon concentrations evolving according to a general diffusion-convection law.

Notes: Increasing population and industrial development in northwestern Ohio indicated the need for an evaluation of the bedrock ground-water resources of the region. A digital ground-water model was designed and used as a tool for predicting water-level declines resulting from projected ground-water withdrawal. Potentiometric surfaces, keyed to historic, accelerated, and peak projected ground-water withdrawals, were predicted by decades to the year 2036. These withdrawals at the calculated rates will cause severe overdrafts at Lima, Toledo, and Findlay, Ohio, and at Ft. Wayne, Indiana, by the year 2036.

Notes: The artesian Casper aquifer, comprised of 700 ft of interbedded limestones and sandstones, currently supplies 70 percent (3.5 Mgal/d) of the municipal-water needs of Laramie, Wyoming. Large transmissivities occur in fracture zones associated with faults and folds in the area, and water discharges from several springs localized along these structures. Transmissivities in fracture zones are 100 times greater than those in unfractured parts of the aquifer. The overlying Satanka Shale is a regional confining unit even in most areas of fracturing, and is a source of poor quality ground water. Prospecting for new ground-water supplies near Laramie involves mapping the tectonic structures and drilling into them once they are identified.

Notes: Data from over 800 well samples collected and analyzed during a study of ground-water quality in Sussex County, Delaware revealed that the water-table aquifer contains excessively high concentrations of nitrate in several areas. Over 20 percent of the wells sampled contained concentrations that exceeded 45 milligrams per liter (mg/l), and in many areas, over 50 percent of the wells sampled exceeded 45 mg/l.Sussex County is part of the Atlantic Coastal Plain Province, geologically consisting of a series of unconsolidated sands, gravels, silts, and clays that contain extensive ground-water reserves of generally high quality. On the basis of iron and nitrate concentrations, two major areas of differing water quality were delineated: one in which the ground water contained variable concentrations of nitrate with low concentrations of iron (〈0.2 mg/l), and another in which it contained large concentrations of iron (〉2.0 mg/l) and little detectable nitrate.Nitrate concentrations ranged from zero to 224 mg/l; average and median values determined for the area of nitrate occurrence were 33.9 mg/l and 25 mg/l respectively. Treatment of the nitrate data allowed depicting of 19 areas of possible excessive nitrate contamination. Nitrate occurrences were closely related to land use, soil permeability, water-table depths and aquifer chemistry. The greatest incidence of high nitrate concentrations was associated with confined feeding operations. Other nitrate sources are septic tank effluent, natural and chemical fertilizers, foliage in forests, and precipitation.

Notes: Lubbock is located in the center of the semiarid High Plains of Texas. Due to a shortage of adequate water-based recreational facilities in the region, the City Planning Department developed a scheme for converting an eight-mile intracity canyon into a linear park containing a series of small recreational lakes. Funds amounting to over 11 million dollars were committed to the project by a local bond issue and various governmental organizations.The proposed lake makeup water is unique. Never before has a serious attempt been made to develop recreational lakes utilizing urban runoff and twice-used reclaimed municipal waste water as the sole source of supply. The majority of the makeup water will be obtained from wells on a farm which has received the major portion of Lubbock's secondary treated sewage since 1938 and used it for irrigation purposes.In order to ascertain the suitability of utilizing this reclaimed sewage effluent for recreational purposes, the Texas Tech University Water Resources Center with the aid of an OWRT grant constructed a model system designed to simulate the lake project. Research performed to date includes algal growth potential studies, water quality analyses, bacteriological assays, viral assays, and fish life studies.

Notes: An attempt was made to locate ground water in an arid, mountainous area in the Santa Catherina region of southern Sinai. A combination of classical geological methods, together with geophysical techniques was found to be particularly useful for the locality studied. It was found that water flow was mainly through the joints of the crystalline basement and that under favorable circumstances, fair ground-water supplies can be found in alluvial valley fill. It was concluded that recharge of valley fill is derived mainly from the joint system of the bedrock and only partially from flooding.

Notes: Cement grout surrounding a well casing generates heat, called heat of hydration, as it hardens. This heat can raise the temperature of the casing-grout-soil system significantly. Because the strengths of plastic casing materials decrease relatively rapidly with increasing temperature, it is important to have some idea of the temperature increase to be expected. Solution of the radial heat-flow equation predicts temperature rises at the outer casing boundary of 9°C (16.2°F) to 55°C (99°F) as the grout envelope around a 6-inch, water-filled casing varies from 1.5 inches to 12 inches. The time required for the peak temperature to be reached varies from 7 to 22 hours. The temperature increase is relatively insensitive to casing diameter and thermal properties of the casing and soil. It is relatively sensitive to the type of cement used in the grout and the material filling the casing while the grout is curing. All types of plastic casing have been used successfully for years. This is due partly to the fact that in most grouting operations from the bottom up, forces on the casing are such that there is little or no tendency for collapse. However, if an air-filled, plastic casing were grouted from the top down, heat-induced collapse would be much more likely, particularly in zones where caving took place during well drilling.

Notes: During 1976-1977 nitrate-nitrogen (NO3-N) concentrations exceeded 10 mg/1 in 183 of the 256 ground-water samples collected from parts of Buffalo, Hall, and Merrick counties in Nebraska. Comparison of the isotopic values with those of potential nitrate sources suggested that the primary source of contamination in most wells was fertilizer and that a small percentage of the wells contained significant concentrations of NO3-N derived from animal wastes. A combination of two or more sources of contamination was assumed for those samples for which the source could not be identified. Significant negative correlations between δ15N and NO3-N (-0.35 in Buffalo and Hall Counties) and between δ5N and depth to water (–0.55 in Merrick County) indicate that denitrification is the major factor in isotopic fractionation of nitrogen from the nitrate sour

Notes: The benefits of employing the 208 planning approach in the protection of surface water or ground water are twofold—one, involvement of the public early in the planning process and two, determination of solutions that are implementable. With increased public awareness precipitated by the required involvement in Water Quality Management Planning (WQMP), the ensuing public interest will ultimately force ground-water issues which have been neglected for many years. The preparation of a “5-Year Strategy” in each State coupled with USEPA's new emphasis on aquifer protection as a priority issue will provide the mechanisms for funding ground-water planning under 208 programs. As the cry for ground-water management planning is adopted by the public as well as technicians, emphasis will shift and programs will develop. In addition, planning programs under 208 are usually regional in nature in contrast with the ground-water studies in recent years which have been site-specific, directed toward the identification and alleviation of local problems. Since the management approach requires that the evaluation of available alternatives include those mechanisms necessary to implement the recommendations, viable alternatives without either management agencies or financial considerations will not be acceptable. Therefore, the strength of the WQMP approach to ground-water protection lies in those concepts that make planning under 208 a new breed of governmental program.

Notes: Man's activities are an ever-increasing threat to ground-water quality. New EPA policies encourage cities to discharge sewage effluent on land. Irrigated agriculture is incompatible with high-quality ground water where deep percolation water is not removed by drainage. Present drinking-water quality standards cannot be used to determine the suitability of water for potable use if such water is waste-water-derived. Where sewage effluent is applied to land, persistent trace organics occur in underlying ground water. Some of these organics may be carcinogenic or otherwise toxic, and much additional research is needed. Controlled degradation of ground water still is degradation. High-quality ground-water resources either are to be protected, or aquifers eventually must be abandoned as sources of high-quality drinking water. In the long term, there is no in-between. The choice will be dictated by economic and environmental considerations. For example, the most economical use of aquifers below irrigated valleys ultimately may be to serve as facilities for treatment, storage, and conveyance of municipal waste water from surrounding communities, so that this water can be used again for unrestricted irrigation. While such uses of aquifers may be far off, they should be anticipated now to allow proper planning.

Notes: A total of 192 outbreaks of waterborne disease affecting 36,757 persons were reported in the United States during the period 1971-1977. More outbreaks occurred in nonmunicipal-water systems (70%) than municipal-water systems; however, more illness (67%) resulted from outbreaks in municipal systems. Almost half of the outbreaks (49%) and illness (42%) were caused by either the use of untreated or inadequately treated ground water. An unusually large number of waterborne outbreaks affected travelers, campers, visitors to recreational areas, and restaurant patrons during the months of May-August and involved nonmunicipal-water systems which primarily depend on ground-water sources. The major causes of outbreaks in municipal systems were contamination of the distribution system and treatment deficiencies which accounted for 68% of the outbreaks and 75% of the illness that occurred in municipal systems. Use of untreated ground water was responsible for only 10% of the municipal system outbreaks and 1% of the illness. The major cause of outbreaks in nonmunicipal systems was use of untreated ground water which accounted for 44% of the outbreaks and 44% of the illness in these systems. Treatment deficiencies, primarily inadequate and interrupted chlorination of ground-water sources, were responsible for 34% of the outbreaks and 50% of the illness in nonmunicipal-water systems.

Notes: The significance of ground-water pollution depends on our perspective. To those individuals who are directly affected, it is an imminent disaster. Once contaminated, ground water may remain in an unusable or even hazardous condition for decades or even centuries as illustrated by situations in central Ohio, New York, London and many others. All polluted water can be treated to make it potable, but the expense may far exceed the resources of the individual homeowner.

Notes: Land treatment uses a combination of processes to manage and beneficially use waste water. It represents a revolution in sewage treatment because it (1) transforms sewage treatment from a single purpose activity into a multipurpose activity, (2) changes sewage treatment construction grants from subsidies into investments in the production of food and fiber, and (3) requires the participation of a variety of disciplines to implement successfully. Because it is revolutionary to the sewage treatment field, three situations have developed. First, it is displacing traditional technology at a record-breaking pace. Second, its logical appeal to thinking decision makers has created a situation in which the policy makers are ahead of many technicians. Third, it is attacked with a fervor heretofore unknown in the sewage treatment field.Land treatment has logged an enviable track record in the United States. Existing systems have produced a high quality effluent at economically competitive prices. In addition, in terms of relative risk, the threat to environmental quality from a land treatment system compares favorably with advanced waste treatment systems.

Notes: The results from a 1 1/2-year study of ground-water quality in the vicinity of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, support the suggestion by other researchers, that chloride and sulfate are the principal products of urbanization which alter ground-water chemistry. In addition to chloride and sulfate, ground-water samples, from the Menomonee River Watershed contained relatively high concentrations of ammonium, fecal coliform and fecal streptococci bacteria. Field data suggest that contamination of ground water is caused by infiltration of surface water polluted by municipal and industrial wastes and (or) leakage from sewer lines. Some additional chloride contamination by infiltration of road salt is also suggested.

Notes: In an area of faulted, cavernous, carbonate rocks of Ordovician age near Lebanon, Missouri, sewage-treatment-plant effluent was traced from Dry Auglaize Creek, a losing Ozark stream, to Sweet Blue and Hahatonka Springs in an adjacent basin. Rhodamine WT dye (20-percent solution) was used to trace the subsurface movement of the effluent. Activated charcoal packets and grab samples of water were collected at 10 sites where dye might be expected to reappear and at a control site outside the area. The leading edge of the dye reached Sweet Blue Spring, a distance of 22.5 km from the injection point, 25 to 30 days after injection, and Hahatonka Spring, at a distance of 29.0 km, 45 to 50 days after injection. The apparent underground travel rate, based on straight-line distances between injection and resurgence points, was 0.6 to 0.8 km per day.

Notes: For 110 years, Laramie, Wyoming, has obtained most of its municipal water from the Casper aquifer. As demands on the supply increased, the philosophies governing the management of the aquifer gradually changed. There has been an evolution through the following policies: (1) initial inflow-outflow safe yield concept, (2) simple conjunctive-use ground- and surface-water system, and (3) the beginnings of a conjunctive-use system that relies heavily on the storage properties of the aquifer.The evolution of management policy resulted from the press of changing demands on the system rather than innovative technical or scientific insights. Most technical advice solicited by the city in the past dealt with the immediate problem of how to augment the total supply. Through experience, the city became aware of the physical response and storage properties inherent in the aquifer, and by 1940 peak demands were being met by pumpage of water from storage. The city is currently weighing the advantages of purchasing additional surface-water rights, and has seriously asked its advisors if the aquifer can be managed solely as a peak-use reservoir. Under the proposed regime, large volumes of water would be withdrawn periodically from storage to meet summer and drought demands, while normal demands would be met from impounded surface water in the Laramie River.

Notes: Recent advances in the automatic inversion of vertical electrical sounding data offer the opportunity to describe the relationship of the resistivity of a granular aquifer to its hydraulic conductivity. This type of relationship, together with aquifer thickness, can be used to determine the transmissivity of the aquifer.Vertical electrical soundings and pump-test data along the axis of a glacial outwash aquifer in central Illinois have indicated an inverse relationship between aquifer resistivity and hydraulic conductivity. This relationship has been attributed to differences in sorting of the outwash sediments. But studies of granular aquifers deposited in other geologic environments are needed before meaningful generalizations can be made.

Notes: Mathematical models of ground-water aquifers with complex geologic and hydrologic factors have been used effectively since 1960 in the world. In these models first the past hydrogeological conditions are simulated, then it is possible to impose on the model the future conditions by increasing, redistributed pumping, artificial recharging or many other factors which may change the existing hydro-geological conditions.Different numerical methods such as finite difference, finite element and dynamic programming are used in mathematical simulation of the aquifers.The study of different aquifers in Iran by classical methods has been started systematically since 1962, and during this period more than 200 aquifers (550,000 km2 or 212,000 sq mi) are studied in reconnaissance phase and about 80 aquifers (250,000 km2 or 96,500 sq mi) in semi-detailed phase. In 1967 the mathematical model technique was introduced to ground-water researchers of Iran. Actually 39 aquifers are studied by 2- or 3-dimensional flow models covering nearly 40,000 km2 (15,440 sq mi) of Iranian aquifers. In these studies finite difference methods are largely used, and only a few aquifers are studied by dynamic programming, but the finite element has never been used in Iran.

Notes: Maine's population is highly dependent upon ground-water supplies that are obtained from low-yield, fractured, crystalline bedrock aquifers. Although most domestic bedrock wells yield less than 10 gallons per minute (gpm), there are a number of bedrock wells that yield 10 to 300 gpm. Many of these wells are drilled in the vicinity of major faults. Some bedrock wells intersect fractures that open directly to the land surface, which causes them to be particularly susceptible to contamination. The glacial cover is generally less than 20 feet thick and is not considered a significant aquifer in most places. Sand and gravel aquifers are scattered across the State, but in total cover only about 15% of the surface. Coastal residents commonly obtain water from the fractured rock aquifer. Salt-water intrusion occurs, but in most places appears to be caused by the geometry of the rock fractures, rather than by excessive pumping. Ground-water quality is generally good because of low solubility of the crystalline rocks, and because of dilution by plentiful rainfall.

Notes: Ground-water protection is one of the water quality management priorities that Section 208 planning is addressing. Examples are derived from the experiences of selected 208 planning agencies, among them Nassau-Suffolk Regional Planning Board (NY), Old Colony Planning Council (MA), and Ventura Regional County Sanitation District (CA). These agencies have used 208 funds to identify problems such as salt-water intrusion and contamination from storm runoff. Through ground-water studies, each assessed the extent of the problems and used their analysis to produce protection and control recommendations.Section 208 requires that designated State and area-wide agencies plan for ongoing water quality management to meet the 1983 goal of restoring and maintaining the chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's water. The Section, which originated with the Federal Water Pollution Control Act of 1972, contains the only extant provision for nonpoint source pollution control. Opportunities for integration of 208 with other Clean Water Act programs as well as with programs established under the Safe Drinking Water Act and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act are now being explored as a means of increasing water quality management efficiency and quality.

Notes: The support for controlled degradation and/or protection zones arises from the fact that cleaning up existing bodies of contaminated ground water, almost without exception, has not been successful because of technical difficulties and extremely high costs inherent to abatement procedures. With regard to potential future sources of ground-water contamination, controlled degradation and/or protection zones are attractive because the state-of-the-art for containment of pollutants has not advanced to the degree that full ground-water protection can be guaranteed. Methods used to carry out a program of controlled degradation and/or establishment of ground-water protection zones can be applied on both a regional and site-specific level.

Notes: This paper examines the situation when, due to heavy rainfall, rapid transfer of water occurs in the upper highly permeable region of an unconfined aquifer. The conventional modelling approach of a single transmissivity, which either remains constant or increases with the saturated depth, is shown to be unsatisfactory. Instead it is necessary to consider the aquifer as consisting of two systems with flow always occurring in the primary system but only entering the secondary system during periods of high recharge. This is necessary because the velocities in the different regions of the aquifer are of significantly different magnitudes.The Lincolnshire Limestone aquifer in England is used as an illustrative example. Initially a one-dimensional approximation to the aquifer is considered so that the different features of the flow mechanism can be examined in detail. The method of dividing the recharge between the primary and secondary systems is shown to be of great importance. Then a preliminary two-dimensional model of the whole region is considered. The model response is shown to be of the same form as that observed in the field and described in greater detail by Smith (1979).

Notes: Abstract. Both irrigated agriculture and areas with dry, hot-rock formations at relatively small depth are ubiquitous in the western United States. The former produces saline percolation water, while the latter needs water to transfer the heat to the surface to enable exploitation of the geothermal energy. Thus, it seems logical to investigate the possibility of converting irrigation return flow, which often presents an environmental liability, into a useful asset by pumping it into artificially stimulated hot-rock formations. When brought up as hot fluid, the water can then be used for generating power, producing fresh water, and/or space heating. The paper summarizes quantity and quality of irrigation return flow, various types of geothermal systems, and quantities of power and fresh water that can be derived from steam or hot water.

Notes: A structure-imitating numerical model is described that simulates one-dimensional ion movement with chemical reactions. The reactions include nonlinear ion exchange, dissolution, precipitation and ion complex formation and dissociation. The reactions assume equilibrium conditions and the model accounts for hydrodynamic dispersion. A two-step computational approach separates the convective and dispersive transport from the chemical reactions. This procedure allows ease in changing grid size, time step size and permits the simple insertion of alternative chemical reactions as subroutines. Chemical parameters for the model were developed in the laboratory using batch experimental techniques. The model, with these experimental parameters, was used to predict solute concentrations exiting from a laboratory column. A field study was also modeled using these same chemical parameters. Verification of the model's predictive capabilities was extablished by comparison between the numerical results of the model and the values from the field experiment.

Notes: This paper addresses both the pros and cons of ground-water modeling and is presented from a neutralist's standpoint. The list of individual modeling pros and cons is extensive but is condensed into three main points for each side of the ledger.The three main characteristics that put the use of ground-water models into the class of intellectual toys are as follows. First, the wrong model is frequently chosen for problem solving of which overkill by use of an overly sophisticated model is an example. Secondly, the paying agency or client is often disillusioned with the model results because of frequent modeler oversell in the early stages of project planning and budgeting. Thirdly, the problems are often solved with a numerical code that is a mystery to all except the modeler himself.The three main characteristics that make ground-water models very practical tools are as follows. First, there is no doubt that the models of today can solve extremely complex ground-water flow problems. Having methods available for solution of complex problems is an advantage that we have not always had Secondly, the models of today are available to virtually everyone in the ground-water business. The days of specialty laboratories for complex ground-water model solving are over and the tools are now in the hands of those doing the local work. And thirdly, having a computer code and data deck available is a perfect tool for transferring information to another person as to how a problem was solved. There is no doubt as to the exact assumptions used and the step-by-step solution of the problem which produces the results of the entire analysis.This paper also includes a very brief description of the state-of-the-art of ground-water modeling and a very comprehensive reference list of useable models.

Notes: Abstract. Several of the newer models of programmable pocket calculators can accept programs that permit them to rapidly and accurately solve the Theis converging series formula. By freeing the Theis equation from the W(u) reference table, multiple well, variable pumping rate programs can be designed for operation on a simple input-output basis, using additive drawdown and image well theory.

Notes: Past and present guidance in landfilling has been based on inadequate information. More recent information indicates past and present recommendations/guidance may not be accurate. Current trends, as a result of RCRA (PL 94-580), are generally following the same recommendations. The result can be greater problems from landfills constructed now and in future years than have occurred from past landfills, such as the well-known Llangollen landfill. It is time for Congress, EPA, and others to recognize what is and is not known about the pollution potential from landfills and waste disposal, in general.

Notes: In order to discuss the adequacy or inadequacy of State ground-water protection programs, it is helpful to establish a base line which may be used as a frame of reference for the discussion. To provide that frame of reference, the 50 States were contacted and representatives were questioned as to the nature and extent of their existing ground-water programs. The survey of States produced a wealth of information relative to the structure of various State programs and this information is presented graphically in the neutral presentation. The subject of multiple agency involvement is addressed.In addition to looking at the structure of State programs, information was collected regarding the nature of existing State statutes and regulations. Tabulation and interpretation of this information is provided to illustrate how the institutions are providing for the protection of our ground-water resources. In addition to evaluating the various types of statutes, existing enforcement mechanisms were researched and are presented for review. Graphic presentations of the national data base are used and again several States’procedures are reviewed in detail. The topic of ground-water quality standards was specifically addressed during interviews in order to note the extent of this developing regulatory technique.

Notes: The primary reason State ground-water protection programs are inadequate is that the resource is misunderstood, surrounded by misconceptions and, due to its occurrence, is “out of sight and out of mind.” To most people, ground water is a very elusive and somewhat magical resource, whose significance in the over-all picture of water resources has not been realized by those who have the power and authority to rectify the present state of affairs. The need for adequate protective legislation and sufficient financial and manpower resources commitment is even more difficult to justify because there has not, to date, been a citizenry outcry for such measures.To ascertain the status of current State ground-water protection programs, a survey of State legislation concerning ground water was undertaken; additionally, a questionnaire was sent to the agency in each State responsible for administration of ground-water protection programs. The results of this survey indicate that most States have broad authority over ground-water resources through general water resources legislation, but the majority do not have specific ground-water protective legislation. In many cases, the broad legislative authority is inadequate or, if legislation is adequate, implementation of legislative mandates is not sufficient to provide adequate protection. Lack of ground-water quality and quantity data is severe to the point that many agencies do not have a realistic characterization or identification of the ground-water resources they are to protect.

Notes: An assessment of the adequacy of State involvement should include a historical perspective of resource management in the nation. A review of the record indicates that up until the 70's, Federal policy was virtually nonexistent with respect to ground-water protection programs.Efforts of the ground-water industry and related scientific community to gain legislative action has, within the last few years, shown progress within State government. The Federal EPA, in response to efforts of the only significant constituency, the NWWA, is now requiring ground-water protection in their regulations.Institutional arrangements, whether national, State or local, will at least for some years to come by political necessity require central involvement of the States in ground-water protection.The legislative and executive branch in many States have shown their willingness to act; however, without an active political constituency, legislative appropriations are provided after actual problems arise due to drought or contamination problems. Rainfall provides extra time to address quantity problems but there may not be a second chance to protect ground-water quality. These branches of government have the monetary and legal authority to act once the need is demonstrated. The record of the judicial branch indicates a need for the legislative and executive branch to design and manage programs that will avoid the necessity of court action. Continued advocacy efforts for ground-water protection programs yet remains the responsibility of the water well industry and a small ground-water technical constituency. The public and the politicians need to be further informed and educated about the need for ground-water protection.