ALBERT

Description: Concentrically ringed manganese nodules, similar in form to many found on modern ocean and sea floors, occur in a very fine grained argillaceous sandstone bed of the Permian Park City Formation near Dillon, Montana. They are enriched in many rare elements and contain us much as 2.5 percent zinc, l.3 percent nickel, and 0.22 percent cobalt. The manganese minerals are chalcophanite and todorokite. The nodules probably formed in a shallow marine oxidizing environment on the western side of the Permian sedimentary basin. The occurrence of an appreciable amount of fluorite in the bed suggests that the water was saline.

Description: Ferromanganese nodules in the deep-sea and in freshwater lakes usually accrete layers rich in manganese oxides alternating with layers rich in iron oxides. The mechanism producing these alternating layers is unknown; indeed, the mechanism producing the nodules themselves is unknown. In Oneida Lake, New York, precipitants from the lake water and the surfaces of nodules at the sediment-water interface are enriched in Mn, whereas nodules buried in lake sediments have surface layers enriched in Fe. It is hypothesized here, using field and laboratory evidence, that reduction and mobilization of Mn from the nodule surface during periods of anoxic sediment cover produce the high Fe layers observed in the nodules.

Description: In the 1960s and 1970s, the Kennecott Corporation conducted a number of activities in the evaluation of manganese nodule deposits as well as in their possible hydrometallurgy.

Description: Manganese nodules have been analysed at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography after having been ground to to a diameter less than 74 microns. Some analysises were performed on pellets by X-ray Emission Spectroscopy for 1000 Seconds. All concentrations have been corrected to 110 degrees Celsius drying conditions (see: https://doi.pangaea.de/10.1594/PANGAEA.854202).

Description: This collection includes data on the chemical composition of ocean manganese nodules from the Pacific Ocean obtained with different methods.

Description: Mineralogical and chemical analyses performed on 67 ferromanganese nodules from widely varying locations and depths within the marine environment of the Pacific Ocean indicate that the minor element composition is controlled by the mineralogy and that the formation of the mineral phases is depth dependent. The pressure effect upon the thermodynamics or kinetics of mineral formation is suggested as the governing agent in the depth dependence of the mineralogy. The minor elements, Pb and Co, appear concentrated in the dMnO2 phase, whereas Cu and Ni are more or less excluded from this phase. In the manganites, Pb and Co are relatively low in concentration, whereas Cu and Ni are spread over a wide range of values. The oxidation of Pb and Co from divalent forms in sea water to higher states can explain their concentration in the dMnO2 phase.

Description: Manganese nodules recovered in the Pacific Ocean by the U. S. Bureau of Mines and by DeepSea Ventures Ltd. are studied for their chemical composition using X microprobe and X-ray fluorescence methods.

Description: Nine nodules collected from throughout the deep North Pacific were analyzed for their mineralogy and major-element composition before and after leaching with Chester-Hughes solution. Data indicate that the mineral phillipsite accounts for the major part (〉 75%) of the aluminosilicate fraction of all nodules. It is suggested that formation of phillipsite takes place on growing nodule surfaces coupled with the oxidation of absorbed manganous ion. All the nodules could be described as ternary mixtures of amorphous iron fraction (Fe-Ti-P), manganese oxide fraction (Mn-Mg Cu-Ni), and phillipsite fraction (Al-Si-K-Na), these fractions accounting for 96% of the variability of the chemical composition.

Description: Experimental substitutions of transition and alkaline earth cations into synthetic 10angstrom(Na-)-manganate show that cation uptake and the stability of the cation-substituted mineral increase with stability of the hydroxide of the cation. Hydrothermal treatment of synthetic 10angström-manganates with different metal contents as well as marine diagenetic and hydrothermal 10angstrom-manganates shows that the stabilities of their structures are enhanced with increasing temperature. The stabilization is due to reinforcement of the "tunnel" walls supporting the [Mn4+O62-] octaheral layers. The diagenetic 10angström-manganates have initially unstable buserite-like structures with each interlayer wall composed of two [Mn2+O3+x2-(OH-)3-x] octahedra (0 less-than-or-equal-to x less-than-or-equal-to 3) with either a [Na+O2x2-(OH-)n-2x] unit (n = 6 and/or 8) or less frequently a [Mn2+O2x2-(OH-)6-2x] octahedron in between. Some of these cations in the walls are post-depositionally substituted by highly hydrated divalent metal cations, particularly Cu2+ and Ni2+, while some of the Mn2+ ions are slowly oxidized to Mn4+. These interlayer changes result in higher crystal field stabilization energy and shifts from interlayer Van der Waal's forces and weak coordination links to strong coordination links which stabilize the mineral structures. Low-temperature hydrothermal 10angstrom-manganates have todorokite-like structures with "tunne"' walls constructed predominantly of [Mn2+O3+x2-(OH-)3-x] and [Mn2+O2x2-(OH-)6.2x] octahedra. High-temperature hydrothermal 10angstrom-manganates have stable todorokite structures with the walls constructed of [Mn4+O62-] octahedra. The positive correlation between the formation or post-depositional alteration temperatures and the mineral stability is due to the increase in oxidation rate of interlayer Mn2+ ions with increasing temperature of the hydrothermal fluids. Marine 10angstrom-manganates can be used as genetic indicators for manganese concretions and the sediments in which they occur and as a geothermometer in the search of ancient and modern hydrothermal vents, where massive sulphide deposits are often found.

Description: The accretion rate of manganese nodules and the sedimentation rate of the underlying sediment has been studied with 10Be and 14C on a nodule covered hill in the Madeira Abyssal Plain. The accretion rate of (3.2 +/- 0.6) mm/Ma for the nodules is considerably smaller than the average sedimentation rate of 12 mm/ka for the last 50-100 ka. The mechanism that kept the nodules at the surface in this specific environment during the last 40 ka is likely to be flotation. The discovery of a large manganese-covered concretion in a piston core points to a long period of sediment winnowing. The 14C analyses also seem to point to an increase in the sedimentation rate round 6500 yrs B.P.

Description: Manganese nodules from 36 stations in the Cape Leeuwin field were analyzed for Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu and Co and the results were combined with earlier work to demonstrate quantitative and geographic variations. Nodules in this field are moderately enriched in Ni, moderately depleted in Cu, and contain intermediate values of Co. The sum of Ni + Cu vs. Mn/Fe plots along a hyperbolic regression line derived from nodules of the southeastern Pacific, suggesting that this relationship has general applicability. Regional variations in nodule grade (Ni + Cu + Co) assist in defining pathways of Antarctic Bottom Water between the Southeast Indian Ridge and the Wharton basin.

Description: An area of about 22,000 km² on the northern Blake Plateau, off the coast of South Carolina, contains an estimated 2 billion metric tons of phosphorite concretions, and about 1.2 billion metric tons of mixed ferromanganese-phosphorite pavement. Other offshore phosphorites occur between the Blake Plateau and known continental deposits, buried under variable thicknesses of sediments. The phosphorite resembles other marine phosphorites in composition, consisting primarily of carbonate-fluorapatite, some calcite, minor quartz and other minerals. The apatite is optically pseudo-isotropic and contains about 6% [CO3]**2- replacing [PO4]**3- in its structure. JOIDES drillings and other evidence show that the phosphorite is a lag deposit derived from Miocene strata correlatable with phosphatic Middle Tertiary sediments on the continent. It has undergone variable cycles of erosion, reworking, partial dissolution and reprecipitation. Its present form varies from phosphatized carbonate debris, loose pellets, and pebbles, to continuous pavements, plates, and conglomeratic boulders weighing hundreds of kilograms. No primary phosphatization is currently taking place on the Blake Plateau. The primary phosphate-depositing environment involved reducing conditions and required at least temporary absence of the powerful Gulf Stream current that now sweeps the bottom of the Blake Plateau and has eroded away the bulk of the Hawthorne-equivalent sediments with which the phosphorites were once associated.

Description: Depth profiles of 10Be and 9Be concentrations have been measured in five manganese nodules from widely varying locations of the Pacific Ocean. Mean accumulation rate of these manganese nodules ranges from 2.7 to 8.0 mm/m.y.. The variation of 10Be and 10Be/9Be with depth or time is found to be less than ±30% for periods from 0.4-1.0 m.y. back to 6 m.y. B.P. Surface 10Be/9Be atomic ratio is found to be (9-13) x 10**-8, that shows authigenic nature of manganese nodule acuumulation by comparison with (12-31) x 10-8 for deep-sea water, (2-7) x 10**-8 for clay sediments and (7-9) x 10**-8 for fossil-rich sediments.

Description: Methods of estimating manganese nodule grade and concentration were investigated using data from a well-explored east-central Pacific manganese nodule deposit. Bulk chemical analyses of 159 nodules recovered from 21 box cores show that the range in metal values between nodules from a single box core is commonly small but may be greater than the range in mean metal content of nodules from widely separated box cores. The metal exhibiting the greatest variability in the 21 box cores is Zn, followed in decreasing order by Cu, Mn, Co, Ni, and Fe. Approximately half of the box cores required analysis of 11 nodules or more to predict metal content within plus or minus 10 percent of the mean value.

Description: The report is divided into three sections: morphology, mineralogy and elemental composition. The nodule morphology section defines what is considered a nodule for the study, and details the external characteristics and internal structure. Nodule mineralogy is discussed in three sections: manganese minerals, iron oxide minerals, and accessory minerals. The major manganese minerals discussed are todorokite, birnessite, and vernadite. The iron oxide minerals are less well known and include feroxyhyte, goethite, and lepidocrocite. Accessory minerals present include quartz, clays, and other silicates and nonsilicates. A discussion on moisture content is also included. The elemental composition section presents data on 74 elements occurring as cations or anions. Summary data, histograms, and interelement correlation coefficients are presented.

Description: A model that predicts the flux of 222Rn out of deep-sea sediment is presented. The radon is ultimately generated by 230Th which is stripped from the overlying water into the sediment. It is shown that the continental contribution of ionium is not significant, and that at low sedimentation rates, biological mixing and erosional processes strongly affect the surface concentration of the ionium. Two cores from areas of slow sediment accumulation, one from a manganese nodule region of the central Pacific and one from the Rio Grande Rise in the Atlantic were analyzed at closely spaced intervals for 230Th, 226Ra, and 210Pb. The Pacific core displayed evidence of biological mixing down to 12 cm and had a sedimentation rate of only 0.04 cm/kyr. The Atlantic core seemed to be mixed to 8 cm and had a sedimentation rate of 0.07 cm/kyr. Both cores had less total excess 230Th than predicted. Radium sediment profiles are generated from the 230Th model. Adsorbed, dissolved, and solid-phase radium is considered. According to the model, diffusional losses of radium are especially important at low sedimentation rates. Any particulate, or excess radium input is ignored in this model. The model fits the two analyzed cores if the fraction of total radium available for adsorption-desorption is about 0.5-0.7, and if K, the distribution coefficient, is about 1000. The flux of radon out of the sediments is derived from the model-generated radium profiles. It is shown that the resulting standing crop of SUP-222 Rn in the overlying water may be considered as an added constraint in budgeting 230Th and 226Ra in deep-sea sediments.

Description: Relationships among Th and Ra isotopes in nodule, sediment and water phases at MANOP Site S establish the most likely source for Th in the nodules, the frequency of nodule turning, and the similarity of micro and macro nodules. Manganese nodules and bottom waters have 230Th/232Th activity ratios considerably higher than other phases at this site suggesting that sea water is the likely source of Th for the nodules. Similar 230Th/232Th activity ratios in nodule tops and bottoms and in certain cases departure from expected 226Ra/230Th activity ratios in nodule tops and bottoms indicate that the nodules rotate every one to ten thousand years. The micro nodules have diffusion coefficients of Ra similar to macro nodule bottoms. I suggest that they may act as a carrier phase for transporting metals through oxic sediments to nodules.

Description: This paper presents data on the chemical composition of iron-manganese nodules and associated sediments collected during the 35th voyage of the R/V "Vityaz" in 1962. The samples were made available to the author by Prof, P. L. Bezrukov. Data on the general distribution of manganese nodules at the bottom of the Indian Ocean were already given by P. L. Bezrukov (1962, 1963). Here the author analyzed the geochemistry of nodules samples from seven stations and four samples from the associated sediments. The analysis separates the outer layer of nodules from their apparent internal core.

Description: The porewater and sediment composition of two boxcores and of a small gravity core, taken on a manganese-nodule-covered hill and in the Madeira Abyssal Plain proper respectively, are compared. The pore-water study of the two boxcores indicates that oxic conditions prevail in both cores. In addition, it indicates that no detectable fluxes of Mn or Fe occur from the porewater to the ocean bottom water. Variations in the geochemical composition of the sediments can be explained by fluctuations in the amount of carbonate, which acts as a diluting agent. A clear carbonate minimum is observed at 20-22 cm depth in the two cores. This minimum is likely to be associated with the last glacial period (10-20 kyr B.P.). This association is supported by the sediment accumulation rate of 15 mm/kyr as found by extrapolation from the rate for pelagic sediments in the Madeira Abyssal Plain. The bulk composition of the manganese nodules recovered from the submarine hill is chemically almost identical to the average composition of Atlantic nodules. The trace metal and Rare Earth Elements composition indicate a hydrogenous origin for the manganese nodules of this study. On the basis of the chemical composition, and that of nodules relative to that of the adjacent sediments, an average nodule accretian rate of 2.8-3.3 mm/myr has been calculated. Although the analyses of the entire ferromanganese nodules that have been studied seem to indicate a homogenous composition, internal structures of the nodules reveal great inhomogeneity, both visually and chemically. These fluctuations may be related to variations in the fluxes of Mn and Fe, which in turn could be climate-related.

Description: The book is a compilation of all available data at the time of publication (1965) on the subject of marine minerals together with the author's original ideas regarding their exploitation. It is one of the most significant publications on ocean resources. It is particularly focused on manganese deposits, their description, sedimentary setting, formation and geochemistry.

Description: Iron-manganese concretions, closely related to lacustrine ores and deep sea manganese nodules, are presently forming in different parts of Gulfs of Bothnia and Finland. They can be divided according to physical form into three distinct groups: (1) round pea-shaped concretions, (2) ring-shaped concrections, and (3) flat sheets and crusts of concretionary material. A definite correlation was found to exist between the form i.e. type of concretions and their chemical composition (Mn/Fe ratio). Trace element concentrations were generally rather high, although not as high as in deep sea manganese nodules. X-ray and DTA was used to study the mineralogy and crystal structure of the concretions. Surface concentrations and geographical distribution of the concretions were estimated on the basis of samples, diving observations and echo-grams.

Description: Seven manganese nodules, eight ferromanganiferous shales from the Cretaceous Wai Bua Formation of Timor, and a pelagic limestone with four ferromanganese enriched layers from the Middle Eocene of Timor have been analysed. The nodules are compared with modern deep-sea nodules, and the ferromanganiferous shales are contrasted with relatively shallow marine manganiferous shales. The conclusion is reached that these rocks from Timor were probably deposited in a bathypelagic environment. There is a total absence of any indication that volcanic material has contributed to these deposits. The chemical composition of the ferromanganiferous rocks are discussed and some indications of biogenic influences are noted. The Middle Eocene pelagic limestone is compared with a similar modern sediment described from the Easter Island Rise in the Pacific.

Description: Although various models have been proposed to explain the origin of manganese nodules (see Goldberg and Arrhenius), two major hypotheses have received extensive attention. One concept suggests that manganese nodules form as the result of interaction between submarine volcanic products and sea water. The common association of manganese nodules with volcanic materials constitutes the main evidence for this theory. The second theory involves a direct inorganic precipitation of manganese from sea water. Goldberg and Arrhenius view this process as the oxidation of divalent manganese to tetravalent manganese by oxygen under the catalytic action of particulate iron hydroxides. Manganese accumulation by the Goldberg and Arrhenius theory would be a relatively slow and comparatively steady process, whereas Bonatti and Nayudu believe manganese nodule formation takes place subsequent to the eruption of submarine volcanoes by the acidic leaching of lava.

Description: Concentrations of the rare earths have been determined in ten modern manganese nodules from the Atlantic, Pacific, and Indian Oceans, the Baltic Sea, and Lake Charlotte in Nova Scotia. A nodule from a Paleozoic era sea in Montana, a manganese film from a coral found on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, and samples of the manganese and phosphorite pavements fround on the Blake Plateau were also analyzed. The manganese pavement, a mixed manganese-phosphate concretion from the Blake Plateau and one of the Atlantic nodules with its underlying red clay core were segmented and analyzed.

Description: This text offers a general introduction to the geological history of the North-Tethys Platform from the Malm to the Lower Eocene periods. It is followed by three parts: a sedimentology development, a geochemical study and a part devoted to the reconstitution of the environment and the sedimentation rates, the subsidence, the depth and the morphology of the seabed and therefore the paleogeography of the Briançonnais domain. The last two chapters deal, one with the evolution of the Briançonnais domain in the context of events affecting Western Tethys and the Central Atlantic, and the other with two sedimentation models deduced from the previous study.

Description: Manganese nodules collected from four sites in the N.W. Indian Ocean by R.R.S. Discovery have been analysed for a range of elements. At two of the sites, samples were collected from two morphological populations, at one of these sites each population being a distinct chemical population also. In addition, considerable differences have been observed in the composition of morphologically similar modules from sites a few miles apart. The information obtained is of significance in any consideration of the genesis of the nodules and could have practical implications in the event that manganese nodules become a potential source of manganese and other metallic elements.

Description: Horizons of several types of Upper Jurassic to Lower Cretaceous manganese nodules occur locally in sequences of radiolarian cherts within the Nicoya Ophiolite Complex (NW Costa Rica). Field studies, X-ray diffraction analysis, petrographic, chemical and experimental studies give evidence of a sedimentary, early diagenetic origin of the nodules, in contrast to earlier suggestions. Smooth, discoidal, compact and very dense nodules with diameters of some mm to 9 cm dominate. They are characterized by braunite, hollandite, pyrolusite and quartz as well as 39-61% Mn, 0.9-1.6% Fe, 5-26% SiO2, 1.3-1.9% Al2O3, 1.5-3.0% Ba, 460-5400 ppm Cu, 85-340 ppm Ni and 40-130 ppm Co, among others. It is suggested that the original mineralogy (todorokite?) was altered during thermometamorphic (braunite) and hydrothermal (hollandite. pyrolusite) events. Petrographic similarities between the fossil nodules and modern deep-sea nodules are striking. Using standard hydrothermal techniques in an experimental study it is shown that under special conditions, braunite can be produced from modern nodule material.