ALBERT

Notes: We argue that the Kearney/Foreign Policy (KFP) index of globalisation is constructed by making some problematic assumptions about the measurement, normalisation and weighting of the variables included in the index. We propose alternative measurement, normalisation and weighting rules, and using these rules, recalculate the ranking of the fifty countries, using the original KFP data. Specifically, we use, in various combinations: (i) variables ‘adjusted’ for geographical characteristics of countries; (ii) statistically optimal weights obtained by principal components analysis; (iii) a normalisation rule that treats different years of observations separately. We find that the country rankings change significantly when adjusted variables are used, indicating that the original KFP index is partially measuring geographical differences between countries.

Notes: The integration of the former communist countries of central and eastern Europe into the European Union creates a dilemma for the EU's regional policy. The EU's expenditure on regional policy (its ‘active’ regional policy) has been guided by political reactions to deepening or enlarging the EU, not by a rational strategy for regional policy. In contrast, the strong EU instrument of state aid control, developed for competition policy (its ‘reactive’ regional policy) has been relatively successful in avoiding a national race of regional subsidies among the member states. We show that a shift from active regional policy to reactive, competition-oriented, regional policies is the preferred way for the established member states to handle the challenge of enlargement. At the same time, however, this shift is politically difficult for the accession countries to accept, despite the fact that this shift might prove better for them economically. This regional policy dilemma is one of the major obstacles for the full integration of the accession countries into the EU.

Notes: The rules governing trade and capital flows have been at the centre of controversy as globalisation has proceeded. One reason is the belief that trade and capital flows have massive effects on the labour market – either positive, per the claims of international financial institutions and free trade enthusiasts, or negative, per the ubiquitous protestors at WTO, IMF and World Bank meetings demanding global labour standards. Comparing the claims made in this debate with the outcomes of trade agreements, this paper finds that the debate has exaggerated the effects of trade on economies and the labour market. Changes in trade policy have had modest impacts on the labour market. Other aspects of globalisation – immigration, capital flows and technology transfer – have greater impacts, with volatile capital flows creating great risk for the well-being of workers. As for labour standards, global standards do not threaten the comparative advantage of developing countries nor do poor labour standards create a ‘race to the bottom’.

Notes: Developing countries have been increasing their participation in the formal institutions and proceedings of the multilateral trading system. A prominent example is their more frequent involvement as defendants and plaintiffs in GATT/WTO trade disputes. This paper provides an initial economic appraisal of developing country performance in the GATT/WTO dispute settlement system. We measure the economic resolution of these disputes through trade liberalisation gains, and our results suggest that developing country plaintiffs have had more success under WTO disputes than was the case under the GATT. We also document evidence on potential determinants of this success: the capacity for plaintiffs to make credible retaliatory threats and the guilty determinations by GATT/WTO panels. Finally, there is also some evidence that developing countries have recognised the importance of retaliatory threats and have responded by changing their pattern of dispute initiation under the WTO to better take advantage of the instances in which they have sufficient leverage to threaten retaliation and induce compliance with GATT/WTO obligations.

Notes: The proliferation of preferential trading agreements (PTAs) in different regions of the world has been a significant development over the last two decades. South Asian countries have been slowly moving towards a South Asia Free Trade Area (SAFTA) in recent years. The desirability of SAFTA has been questioned by some observers recently. Will SAFTA create gains for its members or not? Is it better for South Asian countries to promote non-discriminatory trade liberalisation rather than SAFTA? The main objective of this paper is to address the above questions, especially the desirability of SAFTA, using a global computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. From the existing empirical and theoretical studies, we have identified three viewpoints on the desirability (or viability) of SAFTA: pessimistic, optimistic, and moderate. The results from two policy scenarios (unilateral liberalisation and SAFTA) confirm the pessimistic view by showing that unilateral liberalisation would benefit South Asian countries much more than preferential liberalisation (SAFTA). In fact, under preferential liberalisation, small countries in the region would gain little or even lose. The present political climate in South Asia also seems to support the pessimistic view.

Notes: The SPS Agreement and the related WTO dispute settlement mechanism are an important first step in strengthening the global trade architecture, bringing in greater transparency and orderly conditions to world food trade. However, implementation of the new trade rules has turned out to be a more complex task than the traditional market access issues handled by the WTO. Several factors, including inadequate financial and technical resources, have constrained devel-oping countries from becoming effective participants in the implementation process, and there is widespread suspicion that SPS regulations are being used as hidden protectionist devices by developed countries. However, despite all the problems, some developing countries have been quite successful in penetrating developed country food markets; they have done so by accepting the consumer preferences and standards in quality-sensitive high-income markets and implementing domestic supply-side measures. While making full use of available international assistance initiatives, developing countries should view the task of complying with SPS standards not just as a barrier but also as an opportunity to upgrade quality standards and market sophistication in the food export sector.

Notes: Because many authors have proposed stimulating the ailing Japanese economy by monetary expansion and yen depreciation, we explore the repercussions of depreciating the yen against the dollar on the other East Asian economies – which largely peg to the dollar. Since 1980, economic integration among Japan's neighbours – China, Hong Kong, Indonesia, Korea, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand – has intensified and (except for China and Singapore) their business cycles have been highly synchronised. These cycles have been closely linked to fluctuations in the yen/dollar exchange rate – through changes in the export competitiveness, inflows of foreign direct investment and intra-Asian income effects. We show that a major yen devaluation would have a negative impact on incomes in other East Asian economies and that it is not a sensible policy option for Japan.

Notes: The large and vibrant informal trade between India, and Bangladesh continues to thrive despite unilateral/regional/multilateral trade liberalisation in these two countries. This calls for an in-depth analysis of India's informal trade with Bangladesh. Using insights from the New Institutional Economics informal and formal institutions engaged in cross-border trade are contrasted to examine whether informal trading arrangements provide better institutional solutions. The analysis, carried out on the basis of an extensive survey conducted in India and Bangladesh reveals that informal traders in India and Bangladesh have developed efficient mechanisms for contract enforcement, information flows, risk sharing and risk mitigation. Further, informal traders prefer to trade through the informal channel because the transaction costs of trading in the informal channel are significantly lower than the formal channel implying that informal trade takes place due to the inefficient institutional set up in the formal channel. The principal policy implication from the study is that unless the transacting environment of formal traders improves, informal trade will continue to coexist with formal trade, even if free trade is established in the SAARC region.

Notes: This paper applies modern tools of economic analysis to examine the nature of transnational terrorism and associated collective action concerns that arise in the aftermath of September 11. Throughout the paper, the strategic interaction between rational terrorists and targeted governments are underscored. Networked terrorists draw on their collective strengths to exploit a maximum advantage over targeted governments’ inadequate and uncoordinated responses. A wide range of issues are explored including governments’ deterrence races, undersupplied pre-emption, and suicidal attacks. Myriad substitutions by terrorists limit government anti-terrorism policy effectiveness. A host of policy responses are evaluated in light of economic analysis and past econometric evidence.

Notes: We discuss the possible dynamic benefits of economic integration for the new members of ASEAN. Direct evidence on regional integration and growth is weak, but three indirect channels are possible. Openness increases access to foreign knowledge, which could help productivity growth. Trade liberalisation is likely to stimulate investment and might promote the integration of the regional production network. Binding liberalisation under AFTA would help ‘lock-in’ and accelerate liberal economic reforms. These gains are not automatic, however. Discriminatory liberalisation will switch imports from sources with high stocks of knowledge towards ASEAN countries, which have lower stocks, and so may lower productivity growth. We term this ‘dynamic’ trade diversion. In addition, local absorptive capabilities must be developed to benefit fully from technology transfer. Finally, we recommend extending AFTA commitments on an MFN basis in order to avoid static and dynamic trade diversions.

Notes: Books reviewed:William C. Hunter, George G. Kaufman And Michael Pomerleano (eds.), Asset Price BubblesNancy Birdsall And John Williamson (With Brian Deese), Delivering on Debt Relief: From IMF Gold to a New Aid ArchitectureKatrin Springer, Climate Policy in a Globalizing World

Notes: Multi-functionality is a currently fashionable argument, especially within the EU, for continued support of the farming sector. However, there is a substantial danger that this will be used, and be seen to being used, as a façade for continued traditional support and protection. If so, the current trend towards liberalised agricultural markets, on which much of the developing world depends, will be frustrated. Nevertheless, farming does matter to many communities, over and above its marketable surplus and the incomes so generated. It follows that any negotiations aimed at liberalising agricultural trade have to take these arguments seriously. To do so requires that the critical elements of the debate be widely understood. This paper outlines these critical elements, in the light of a previous contribution from Hodge (2000). It argues that there are ways in which quasi-market systems can be used to correct market failures implicit in the notion of multi-functionality. It also argues that proper compensation to existing supported farmers is a necessary and separate condition for sensible policy reform. Much of the commentary on farm trade liberalisation confuses the two separate conditions for reform: multi-functionality and compensation. This confusion threatens progress towards agricultural trade liberalisation, without generating any reliable benefits of a more multifunctional agriculture.

Notes: A key element of the EU's free trade and preferential trade agreements is the extent to which they deliver improved market access and so contribute to the EU's foreign policy objectives towards developing countries and neighbouring countries in Europe, including the countries of the Balkans. Previous preferential trade schemes have been ineffective in delivering improved access to the EU market since only a small proportion of the available preferences have actually been utilised. The main reason for this is probably the very restrictive rules of origin that the EU imposes, coupled with the costs of proving consistency with these rules. If the EU wants the ‘Everything but Arms’ agreement and free trade agreements with countries in the Balkans to generate substantial improvements in access to the EU market for products from these countries then it will have to reconsider the current rules of origin and implement less restrictive rules backed up by a careful safeguards policy..

Notes: When the effective protection concept was first developed it was widely regarded as a key measure of the structure of protection and became widely deployed. It was however, subject to a theoretical critique on the grounds that it was essentially a partial equilibrium measure, which could not be easily embedded in a general equilibrium framework. Notwithstanding this critique, the concept has continued to be widely used, especially in the context of policy reform and policy appraisal in developing countries. This paper re-appraises the concept, reviews the extent of its application and discusses the factors behind its longevity as an investigative tool. The paper concludes that the measure still has a role to play in evaluating the structure of protection.

Notes: After briefly explaining the causes of the Japanese asset-price bubble in the 1980s, this paper analyses why the bursting of the bubble developed into a full-fledged financial crisis in the late 1990s. In order to cope with this crisis, the Government has injected capital directly into the banking sector and banks have written off enormous amounts of bad loans. However, the Japanese financial sector remains very weak and Japan still faces a number of problems in its financial system. Firstly, the profit margin of banks is too small to cover the increased default risk following the bursting of the bubble, and there are market distortions created by the government-backed financial institutions and the requirements on new lending to small and medium sized companies. Secondly, banks still have excessive stock investment and crossholding of shares between banks and other companies has weakened the market discipline on entrenched management. Thirdly, the government guarantee of all banking-sector liabilities should be removed. Once the financial system is stabilised, a risk-adjusted deposit insurance premium should be introduced so as to strengthen market discipline on banks, and the huge postal saving system should be privatised to create a level-playing field among deposit taking financial institutions. Besides the foregoing, the weak corporate governance structure of Japanese financial institutions has to be remodelled. The management of banks has shielded themselves by extensive cross-shareholdings, especially with life insurance companies. There has been extensive mutual provision of capital, most large life insurance companies have weak corporate governance, and many of the large shareholders of banks are life insurance companies. This double gearing between banks and life insurance companies has therefore weakened the market control of Japanese financial institutions.

Notes: This paper first summarises Japan's fiscal policies in the 1990s. Then, we investigate the macroeconomic impact of government debt and the sustainability problem. We find that the Keynesian fiscal policy in the 1990s was not effective and fiscal sustainability may therefore become a serious issue. We also estimate the optimal level of deficits and evaluate fiscal reconstruction movements. It is shown that the actual deficit exceeded the optimal level in the late 1990s. We then inspect fiscal reconstruction movements in the Hashimoto Administration in 1997 and find that the major factor of recession in 1997 was not fiscal consolidation. An important lesson from Japan's fiscal policies in the 1990s is that long-run structural reform is more important than short-run Keynesian policy.

Notes: This paper evaluates Burundi's progress with trade policy reform, by comparing earlier analyses of Burundi's trade policies undertaken in the 1980s with that of the WTO's recent Trade Policy Review. Since the mid-1980s Burundi has been trying to reform its trade and macroeconomic policies against the background of continuous socio-political tensions and periodic outbreaks of violent tribal conflict. A ‘then and now’ comparison allows us to assess both the extent of the trade reforms and of the economic return to those reforms. It is evident that there has been a significant rationalisation and simplification of trade policy. Burundi has eliminated most quantitative import restrictions and reduced the average level and range of its tariffs. The scope for allocative distortions, undesirable redistributive effects and for impediments to investment and growth has been substantially reduced. However, a return to reform in terms of export growth or diversification and of overall economic growth is not discernible yet. This is unsurprising, given the scale of the economic disruption. Sustained socio-political stability, among other things, will be required to induce the investment in human and physical capital needed for a positive return to trade policy reform.

Notes: The World Trade Organisation published a Trade Policy Review of Canada in 2003. In this paper, we discuss the WTO Review and augment the discussion by presenting original data and reviewing the empirical literature. The WTO concludes that Canada's trade regime is open and transparent but maintains barriers in a few important sectors. We subject this claim to empirical scrutiny, comparing Canada's actual imports to a multilateral benchmark based on the gravity equation. We show that Canada imports about what should be expected given the size of its economy and its location. In a second benchmarking exercise, we show that Canada's anti-dumping initiations are in proportion to its imports and that Canada's exports are targeted less by other countries’ anti-dumping investigations than what might be expected based on Canadian export levels. Like many other countries, Canada has pursued trade liberalisation through the World Trade Organisation while simultaneously signing multiple regional trade agreements. Our summary of the recent literature indicates that Canada's regional trade agreements have generated more trade creation than trade diversion. Canada has also spurred imports from the least developed countries by unilaterally eliminating tariffs and quota barriers on 48 of the world's poorest countries in January 2003. We also discuss Canadian progress in opening its agriculture and clothing industries. Overall, we conclude that Canada appears committed to advancing globalisation through multilateral trade liberalisation supplemented by unilateral and bilateral initiatives.

Notes: This paper draws on Hinkle and Schiff (2003). It analyses the planned Economic Partnership Agreements (EPAs) between the EU and Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) from a development perspective. It does not take a position on whether SSA should enter into EPAs with the EU. Rather, it starts from the notion that the process of forming EPAs is unlikely to be reversed and examines the conditions that will maximise SSA's benefits from the EPAs. If this notion is correct, then the analysis presented in the paper applies. On the other hand, Pascal Lamy, the EU Trade Commissioner, made a proposal at the May 2004 G-90 summit in Dakar that might lead to a change in the EPA process. He proposed that the G-90, a group consisting of ACP and non-ACP LDC countries, should not have to make concessions at the WTO Doha Round of multilateral trade negotiations, i.e., he proposed a ‘free round’ for the G-90. This proposal opens the door to the possibility that the same might apply to the ACP countries in the EU-ACP negotiations and that the EPA process might be reversed. The paper considers the key issues raised by the planned EPAs, their relationship to the WTO's Doha Round and the EU's Everything-but-Arms Initiative, the changes needed to make the EPAs internally consistent, the domestic reforms in SSA that would need to accompany trade liberalisation in both goods and services, and the potential effects of the EPAs on regional integration in SSA. The EPAs will pose a number of policy challenges for SSA countries, including: restructuring of indirect tax systems, reduction of MFN tariffs, liberalisation of service imports on an MFN basis and related regulatory reforms in the services sector, and liberalisation of trade in both goods and services within the regional trading blocs in SSA. The paper also finds that the EPAs provide an opportunity to accelerate regional and global trade integration in SSA. To realise the potential development benefits of the planned EPAs, two steps are essential. First, the EU must, as it has stated, truly treat the EPAs as instruments of development, subordinating its commercial interests in the agreements to the development needs of SSA. Second, the SSA countries need to implement a number of EPA-related trade policy reforms. However, the latter is far from certain, given the lack of reform momentum in SSA.

Notes: Tunisia and Egypt have both recently undertaken significant steps toward trade reform. They have committed to a partnership agreement with the European Union. Both countries have also joined the WTO and are participating in Doha Round discussions on the liberalisation of non-tariff barriers on both goods and services trade. These developments provide an interesting context within which to investigate not only the changes in welfare associated with reforms affecting the trade in goods, but also the impacts of services liberalisation. Using open-economy computable general equilibrium models for both Tunisia and Egypt, this paper explores the reasons why structural differences in these two economies imply different opportunities and challenges with trade reform and services liberalisation. The gains from eliminating barriers at the border for goods trade are significantly greater for Tunisia than Egypt. Both countries, however, gain substantially from liberalisation of foreign direct investment in services. Furthermore, economic growth is more evenly distributed across sectors than with liberalisation of trade in goods alone. In addition to reporting on the impact of alternative policies on income, output, employment and trade, sector-level effects are also considered.

Notes: This paper analyses the impact of rules of origin on patterns of trade in the context of the pan-European system of diagonal cumulation. The paper first highlights the importance of rules of origin in all preferential trading arrangements while arguing that those rules can easily lead to trade suppression and/or trade diversion. We then focus on the introduction of the pan-European system in 1997 and show evidence to suggest that the introduction of the system materially impacted on trade between the EU, and its CEFTA, EFTA and Baltic states partner countries. The main body of the paper then empirically explores the impact of the lack of cumulation in the textile industry on the countries of the Southern Mediterranean. The results suggest that rules of origin may indeed substantially constrain trade between non-cumulating countries, possibly by as much as 70–80 per cent in aggregate. While preferential trading agreements thus serve to increase intra-PTA trade through the liberalisation of trade barriers, they may also be doing so by effectively raising external barriers to trade through the use of constraining rules of origin. To the extent that they do so increases the likelihood of trade diversion and trade suppresion.

Notes: The central theme of this paper is that sustained rapid growth cannot be achieved without rapid growth in trade. A review of the experience during the past four decades offers virtually no examples of countries achieving sustained rapid growth – called miracles in this paper – without simultaneously experiencing sustained rapid growth in trade in the presence of low or high but declining barriers to trade. Simultaneously, the claim that opening to trade leads to sustained income losses is unfounded. A review of the experience of the countries that have faced stagnation or declining per-capita incomes on a long-term basis – called debacles in this paper – reveals no connection to a sustained surge in imports.

Notes: Book reviewsINTERNATIONAL MONETARY FUND, Fiscal Adjustment in IMF-Supported Pro-grams: Evaluation Report.MAGNUS BLOMSTRÖM (ed.), Structural Impediments to Growth in Japan.EDWIN M. TRUMAN, Inflation Targeting in the World Economy.

Notes: This paper discusses the potential impacts of services trade liberalisation on developing countries and reviews existing quantitative studies. Its purpose is to distill themes from current literature rather than to advocate specific policy changes. The picture emerging is one of valiant attempts to quantify in the presence of formidable analytical and data problems yielding only a clouded image of likely impacts on trade, consumption, production and welfare emerging to the point that the policy implications of results are not always clear.A central intuition would seem to be that with genuine two-sided (OECD/non-OECD) liberalisation in services that are seemingly considerably labour-intensive in delivery, the potential should be there for significant developing country gains from global liberalisation allowing full cross-border delivery. However, this picture is neither fully endorsed by available studies, neither is it explicitly contradicted. This seems to be the case for a number of reasons.One difficulty with the studies is that the conceptual underpinnings of what determines trade in services and how this trade differs analytically from that of trade in goods (if at all) is an issue prior to assessments of impacts of liberalisation of trade in services on developing countries being discussed. Key issues here are the treatment of mobility for service providers (both firms and workers), and the differing analytical structures needed to analyse individual service items (banking, insurance, telecoms, etc.). Some recent analytical work suggests that liber-alisation in some service items, such as banking, need not always yield gains, and this contrasts with quantitative studies where analytical structures mirror conventional trade in goods treatments.The discussion and measurement of barriers to service trade in both developed and developing countries is also problematic. One is talking of domestic regulation, entry barriers, portability of providers, competition policy regimes more so than only barriers at national borders, as with tariffs. Both representing and quantifying such barriers raise major difficulties, and these are also spelled out in the paper. Which barriers actually restrict trade, and which do not because they are redundant is one issue, for instance. It is also often misleading to represent barriers in simple ad valorem equivalent form. As a result, numerical modelling work on the effects of service trade barriers which is based on ad valorem equivalent modelling is often not fully convincing.In addition, individual country results vary considerably across studies in ways that it is frequently hard for outsiders to understand. Studies do, however, point towards a tentative conclusion that effects are small and positive for developed and most developing countries if FDI flow changes accompanying service trade liberalisation are excluded from the analysis, but much larger and more variable across countries if they are present. This could be taken to suggest that mode 3 GATS liberalisation (roughly captured in some studies) might be important for developing countries; but mode 4 GATS liberalisation could be even more important given large barriers to labour flows across countries. Thus, if service trade liberalisation is thought of primarily as a surrogate for improved functioning of global factor markets in which more capital flows to developing countries and more labour flows from them to developed countries, then developing countries could benefit in a major way from genuine two-sided (OECD/non-OECD) liberalisation. Developing countries fear, however, that in global negotiations on services liberalisation where there is an asymmetry of power that largely one-sided liberalisation may be the outcome, and their gains will be correspondingly limited. The paper concludes by evaluating econometric studies on linkage between services liberalisation and country growth rules, and briefly discusses some key sectoral issues in health services and transportation.

Notes: Books reviewed:DOUGLAS A. IRWIN, Free Trade Under FireBARBARA BLASZCZYK, IRAJ HOSHI and RICHARD WOODWARD (eds.), Secondary Privatisation in Transition Economies: The Evolution of Enterprise Ownership in the Czech Republic, Poland and SloveniaJAGDISH BHAGWATI (ed.), Going Alone: The Case for Relaxed Reciprocity in Freeing TradeTHEO S. EICHER and STEPHEN J. TURNOVSKY (eds.), Inequality and Growth: Theory and Policy Implications

Notes: We examine in this paper the effects of WTO Accession on policy-making and institutional reforms in transition countries. This is done by looking at the experience of those transition countries which are already Members of the WTO and/or which have recently acceded. We start by trying to distinguish between effects of accession negotiations and from those which are the results of autonomous policy initiatives. The areas of domestic policy-making which are considered in the analysis include market access, governance, government budget, structural reforms, trade and investment arrangements with regional partners and macroeconomic management. We find that no precise blueprint of accession conditions can be ascertained and argue that the WTO played a role, albeit not an exclusive one, in the process of liberalisation. We also find that the costs of WTO Accession are not negligible, but that the benefits of WTO Membership are significant in terms of improved, more predictable, market access and its stability, improved governance and a recourse to better economic policies without significant loss to government revenues.

Notes: In large measure, the voice that developing countries were able to exercise in Cancun was a result of their effective coalition formation. In this paper we present a brief overview of the various coalitions that played an important role at Cancun. The greater part of this paper focuses on one among these various coalitions: the G20 on agriculture. The G20 presents an especially fascinating case of a coalition that combined a great diversity of members and apparently incompatible interests. All theoretical reasoning and historical precedent predicted that the group would collapse in the endgame. And yet the group survived. We investigate the sources of the unity of this group and trace them to a process of learning that allowed the group to acquire certain structural features and develop strategies that helped to cement it further. While our central dependent variable is the cohesion of the G20, we also address the derivative question of the costs and benefits of maintaining such coalitions. The Cancun coalitions give us an excellent case of coalitions that managed to retain their cohesion, but also ended up with a situation of no agreement rather than a fulfilment of even some of their demands. We examine some of the causes behind the impasse in the negotiation process and suggest ways in which future outcomes could be improved.

Notes: This paper sheds light on the risks associated with currency board arrangements, referring to the severe liquidity crisis that emerged in Argentina in November 2000. The inability of the Argentinean economy to grow because of an overvalued peso and the massive borrowing needs of the government in the context of rapidly rising borrowing costs seriously undermined the credibility of the fixed-exchange rate regime. Given the widespread dollarisation of the financial sector on the liability side, Argentina had arguably little choice but to stick to the currency board. A series of measures aimed at reviving growth were implemented but with no signs of upturn in demand, increasingly distrustful international investors and growing social unrest, the country was forced into default in December 2001, putting an abrupt end to its decade long experiment with hard money. This study shows that with rigid labour markets, a lack of fiscal discipline and the absence of a natural anchor currency, Argentina was never a strong candidate for a hard peg.

Notes: For FDI to help alleviate absolute poverty and stimulate economic growth in developing countries, two conditions have to be met. First, developing countries need to be attractive to foreign investors. Second, the host-country environment in which foreign investors operate must be conducive to favourable FDI effects with regard to overall investment, economic spillovers and income growth. This paper argues that it is more difficult to benefit from FDI than to attract FDI. The widely perceived concentration of FDI in few developing countries tends to obscure that, in relative terms, various small and poor countries are fairly attractive to FDI. Yet, the mobilisation of domestic resources remains by far, more important than attracting FDI for financing investment and stimulating economic growth. Furthermore, high inward FDI is no guarantee for poverty alleviation and positive growth effects. In particular, the empirical evidence suggests that host-country conditions typically prevailing in poor countries, including weak institutions and an insufficient endowment of complementary factors of production, constrain the growth-enhancing and poverty-alleviating effects of FDI. The crux is that creating an environment in which FDI may deliver social returns will take considerable time exactly where development needs are most pressing.

Notes: Prior to the onset of the Asian financial crisis there was a deterioration in the external trade position of most countries that were affected by the Asian currency crisis. However, little is known about why this occurred. This paper aims to identify the causes of a slowdown in export growth in Malaysia. While misaligned exchange rates have been widely cited as a cause of the slowdown in East Asia; in the Malaysian context at least a vulnerability to the downturn in the electronic cycle could also be a major factor leading to poor export performance. Using the US/yen dollar rate as a proxy for exchange rate misalignment and US total new orders for electronics as a proxy for global electronics demand, cointegration analysis was used to establish the likely causes of a slowdown in Malaysia's export performance. The empirical evidence suggests that the coincidence of exchange rate misalignment with a downturn in the global electronics demand cycle was responsible for the sharp deterioration in export performance.

Notes: Two basic views can be discerned in post-mortems of Argentina's currency board: (1) that weak fiscal policy was fundamentally to blame, and (2) that the peso had become too severely overvalued for the peg to survive. This paper evaluates the evidence for these rival interpretations. The real effective exchange rate index did not indicate massive overvaluation, but this index does not capture the effects on the equilibrium rate of the ‘sudden stop’ in capital flows to emerging markets after 1998. It also understates the amount of adjustment required for Argentina to reach the equilibrium rate, because neighbour countries’ dollar exchange rates were held up by Argentina's overvaluation, as is indicated by their depreciation in 2002. Argentina was particularly vulnerable to the sudden stop because of the extreme volatility of its portfolio inflows. Fiscal policy simulations suggest that, even with a substantially improved primary balance from 1994 onwards, loss of investor confidence would still have triggered unsustainable debt dynamics once the recession began to bite after 1998. The stagnation of output and prices in Argentina created a yawning gap between the interest rate on debt and the rate of growth of nominal GDP. Had the currency been floated in, say, 1995, the real devaluation of the peso would still have pushed up the debt/GDP ratio, but higher output would have left greater scope for addressing this by running a sizeable primary surplus. Moreover, the more gradual depreciation under floating might have allowed the economy to adjust to higher debt service payments without resort to default. The IMF has criticised itself for not pressing for tighter fiscal policy in the 1990s. A more fundamental criticism would be that it was seduced by the bipolar model into complacency about adjustment to real shocks and forgetting the teachings of optimum currency area theory.

Notes: Books reviewed:Robert E. Litan, Michael Pomerleano and V. Sundararjan (eds), The Future of Domestic Capital Markets in Developing CountriesPedro-Pablo Kuczynski and John Williamson (eds), After the Washington Consensus: Restarting Growth and Reform in Latin America

Notes: Democratising the governance of the IMF will significantly improve the institution's capacity to manage crises. The implementation of a democratic framework requires a reform of the Fund's ‘quota regime,’ which mediates the distribution of voting power. An optimal reform of the quota regime that reflects the increased weight of emerging economies requires matching the number of policy objectives with the number of policy instruments. Presently, there is a classic ‘assignment problem’ whereby one policy instrument (i.e., the quota regime) is aimed at achieving three objectives (i.e., member contribution obligations, access rights, and voting rights). Three different instruments need to be adopted. Member contributions should be based on member's capacity to pay; access to resources should be based on need; and voting rights should balance the rights of creditors with the principle of sovereign equality. These reforms will enhance the Fund's legitimacy and accountability as a forum for global economic policy-making.

Notes: The issue of special and differential treatment (SDT) for developing countries in the WTO has become a source of tension in North-South trade relations. The absence of an effective SDT regime clearly contributed to the failure of the Cancún Ministerial meeting of the WTO. This paper argues for a new approach that puts the emphasis on efforts to improve the development relevance of WTO rules and create mechanisms which allow greater differentiation across WTO members in determining the applicability of WTO disciplines; complemented by non-discriminatory liberalisation of trade in goods and services in which developing countries have an export interest. The former is key in allowing the WTO to expand its reach to new ‘behind the border’ policies; and the latter is important to establishing a development dimension in multilateral trade negotiations.

Notes: Increasing attention is being paid to political economy dimensions of the IMF's operations. However, up until now, the literature has lacked a systematic overview of how politics and economics interact in this context. This paper sets out to fill the gap. Its conceptual basis is that of the ‘life cycle’ of an IMF programme. What determines the decision to turn to the Fund for financial assistance, what determines the outcome of negotiations, what determines whether a country will come back to the Fund? Answers to these questions cannot be satisfactorily given by examining economics alone. The paper draws on existing evidence to provide an empirically based discussion of the issues involved. It also points the direction in which future research needs to go. Some of the policy implications of the analysis are also examined.

Notes: The review of India's trade policy by the WTO, the third of its kind, is in three parts: the report by the WTO secretariat, a statement by the government of India and minutes of the discussion of the report by the trade policy review board. The review provides detailed information not only on India's trade and foreign investment policies but also an analytical review of India's export and economic performance. The review notes that India has made considerable progress with the liberalisation of its trade and investment regime, but it has a long way to go if it were to achieve a growth rate of eight to nine per cent, the stated objective of the policy makers. This paper, drawing upon the material in the report, analyses India's growth prospects and endorses the broad conclusions of the report.

Notes: This paper provides a selective review of the recent analytical and empirical literature on the benefits and costs of international financial integration. It discusses the impact of financial openness and capital flows on consumption, investment and growth, as well as the impact of foreign bank entry on the domestic financial system. It argues that, for small open developing countries, the benefits of financial integration are mostly long term in nature, whereas risks can be significant in the short run. Careful preparation and management are therefore essential to ensure that short-run costs do not lead to policy reversals. It also stresses that the empirical evidence on the impact of foreign direct investment on domestic capital formation and growth, as well as on the effects of foreign bank entry, should be viewed with caution. In particular, the possibility that foreign bank penetration may lead to adverse changes in the allocation of credit cannot be dismissed on the basis of the existing evidence.

Notes: We discuss liberalising the temporary mobility of workers under Mode 4 of the GATS, particularly the movement of medium and low skilled service providers between developing and developed countries. Such mobility potentially offers huge returns: a flow equivalent to three per cent of developed countries’ skilled and unskilled work forces would generate an estimated increase in world welfare of over US$150 billion, shared fairly equally between developing and developed countries. The larger part of this emanates from the less-skilled, essentially because losing higher-skilled workers cuts output in developing countries severely. The mass migration of less skilled workers raises fears in developed countries for cultural identity, problems of assimilation and the drain on the public purse. These fears are hardly relevant to temporary movement, however. The biggest economic concern from temporary mobility is its competitive challenge to local less skilled workers. But as populations age and the average levels of training and education rise, developed countries will face an increasing scarcity of less skilled labour. Temporary mobility thus actually offers a strong communality of interest between developing and developed countries.The remainder of the paper looks at the GATS provisions on Mode 4 and the commitments that have been made under it. The paper reviews several official proposals for the Doha talks, including the very detailed one from India, and considers several countries’ existing schemes for the temporary movement of foreign workers. Many countries have long had bilateral foreign worker programmes, and some regional agreements provide for liberal and flexible movement. These show what is feasible and how concerns can be overcome. We caution that, to be useful, any WTO agreement must increase mobility, not just bureaucratise it.The paper concludes with some modest and practical proposals. We suggest, inter alia, that licensing firms to arrange the movement of labour is the most promising short-term approach to increasing temporary mobility.

Notes: This paper focuses on the US tariff preference afforded to Mexico relative to non-NAFTA trading partners and evaluates the trade effects of NAFTA in a manner consistent with the idea behind a preferential trading agreement. The estimation technique exploits the time-varying dimension of the tariff preference over 1989 to 2001. This is important because the tariff preference for Mexico into the United States market existed prior to NAFTA. Further, the NAFTA preference was phased in over time. We find that a higher US tariff preference for Mexico corresponds to increased US import demand for Mexican goods, and that a higher Mexican tariff preference for the United States corresponds to increased Mexican demand for US exports. Interestingly, import demand was more responsive to changes in the tariff preference once NAFTA was in place than it was on average.

Notes: Far from being the leader, the US has been a ‘domino’ belatedly falling into line in the global rush toward bilateral and regional free trade arrangements. Often the initiative for negotiations has come from seemingly weaker trading partners. Once in the game, however, and aware of the asymmetries of market power and issue salience that enhance US bargaining leverage, the US has been aggressively pursuing a variety of commercial and diplomatic interests, both tactical and strategic, that include bolstering local democratic institutions and processes of economic reform, strengthening US security ties, accelerating region-wide commercial liberalisation by allying with a regional leader, establishing new precedents to use as bench markers in future trade negotiations, and otherwise using free trade accords to advance its comprehensive global trade policy agenda. Bilateralism and regionalism have opened the door to an explicit introduction of political criteria, in contradiction to GATT/WTO apolitical universalism. While often reactive to the initiatives of other nations, the US has not been indiscriminate, deflecting the entreaties of suitors where US international political economy interests are not served.

Notes: This paper describes the United States recently enacted Africa Growth and Opportunity Act (AGOA) and assesses its quantitative impact on African exports. The AGOA expands the scope of preferential access of Africa's exports to the United States in key areas such as clothing. However, its medium-term benefits – estimated at about US$100-$140 million, an 8−11 per cent addition to current non-oil exports – would have been nearly five times greater (US$540 million) if no restrictive conditions had been imposed on the terms of market access. The most important of these conditions are the rules of origin with which African exporters of clothing must comply to benefit from duty-free access.

Notes: I employ two alternative intra-industry trade Applied General Equilibrium (AGE) models to explain some stylised facts of the British economy. The model with skill-biased technical change (i.e. exogenous skill-biased technical change à la Solow) can explain the rise in wage inequality between skilled and unskilled workers, the decline in manufacturing and the expansion of modern services. However, the model where technical change is trade-induced (i.e. endogenous sector-biased technical change à la Romer) performs better, because it can also explain the exponential rise of imported intermediate capital goods and developments in the wage rate of unskilled workers.

Notes: We examine the competitiveness of Hungarian agriculture and food processing, in relation to that of the EU, based on four indices of revealed comparative advantage, using highly disaggregate data for the period 1992 to 1998. Consistency tests suggest that the indices are less satisfactory as cardinal measures, but are useful in identifying the demarcation between comparative advantage and comparative disadvantage. Hungary is shown to have a comparative advantage in a range of agri-food products, including animals and meat. This complements the findings of those studies that have used price and cost based approaches in identifying competitiveness in cereals and crops. Results indicate that the RCA indices, when interpreted as a binary measure, have remained surprisingly stable during the period of transition, although there is evidence of a weakening in the level of comparative advantage as revealed in the Balassa index.

Notes: This article summarises, extends and updates previous empirical work on the distributional implications of alternative health care financing arrangements in a selection of European countries and the US. On the one hand, total health care payments are almost proportional to ability to pay in most countries. This is predominantly driven by a high reliance on public financing. On the other hand, private payments – out-of-pocket payments as well as private insurance premiums – are highly regressive. More extended reliance on private financing may therefore endanger the equitable nature of financing systems. In addition, private payments put a heavy burden on unfortunate households.

Notes: Judges rated the intensity of NaCl solutions and orange drinks of varying sweetness using category scales and line scales. They performed under four response conditions that varied in reliance on memory: (1) verbal response (2) written response with no retasting and the response sheet removed (3) written response with a single response sheet which allowed past scores to be reviewed and amended but with no retasting (4) the same as ‘3’ but with retasting. Discrimination errors decreased from conditions ‘1’ through ‘4’ indicating how allowing judges to ‘refresh the memory’ improved discrimination. The cognitive processes involved in rating and consequences for scaling protocols and the experimental design for descriptive analysis are discussed in the light of these findings.

Notes: The effects of sweetener type, sweetener concentration, and fruit flavor on the sensory attributes of soy fortified yogurt were determined. Soy fortified dairy yogurts were made by the addition of soy protein concentrate (0, 2.5, 5%) to standard yogurt mixes prior to fermentation. Sweetener type (sucrose, fructose, sucrose/fructose) and sweetener concentration (6, 8, 10%) were incorporated into yogurts in a split plot experiment with soy concentration as a subplot factor. Flavor effects (plain, lemon, strawberry) were studied in a 3 × 3 factorial experiment (soy concentration × flavor). A trained descriptive panel (n=13) evaluated yogurts for seven flavor and aroma terms. Sweetener type had no effect on sensory properties with the exception of perceived sweetness. Soy flavors and astringency decreased with increasing sweetener concentration. Fruit flavors decreased soy aromas, soy flavors, and astringency in yogurts containing soy protein. These results indicate that sweetener concentration and fruit flavors play a crucial role in formulating yogurts fortified with soy protein.

Notes: A two-part study determined the effectiveness of gum-based rinses with or without oil for alleviating residuals of a bitter (0.8 g/L caffeine solution) and an astringent (1g/L alum solution) stimuli in serial responses using a sip and spit method. In Experiment 1, rinsing with deionized water was compared to rinsing with 0.3% xanthan gum in water alone or with 5% corn oil and 0.55% carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) in water alone or with 5% or 10% corn oil. The 0.3% xanthan gum and 5% corn oil mixture resulted in the highest stimulus intensity difference before and after rinsing, whereas 0.55% CMC had a value of nearly zero for residual effect. Results of a two-alternative forced choice test used in Experiment 2 indicated that both were equally effective for reducing bitterness residuals, but 0.55% CMC solution resulted in the lowest (p=0.007) residual effect for astringency. Therefore, the 0.55% CMC rinse was considered an effective interstimulus rinse to use for assessing both bitterness and astringency in model solutions.

Notes: For discrimination tests not requiring the nature of the difference to be specified in the instructions, such as the triangle, duo-trio and same-different protocols, it is usually assumed that the decision rule used by the subject in order to generate an answer involves the comparison of the relative sensory distances between the samples. However, there is evidence that an alternative cognitive strategy, the β-strategy, involving the absolute categorization of the sensations could be used by the subject when performing these protocols. This paper introduces the characteristics of this alternative strategy by discussing its statistical power (higher than the traditional strategies) and by describing means of investigating which strategy is used by the subject during an experiment as well as illustrating the experimental conditions that might facilitate the use of this particular decision rule.

Notes: The perception of astringency and basic taste in mixtures and their interaction effects were investigated by two procedures. In Experiment 1, focused and nonfocused testing procedures were compared using mixtures of low and high concentrations of alum and basic taste solutions. Both procedures yielded taste and astringency intensities that were modality-dependent. Nonfocused testing was used in Experiment 2 to investigate the interactions of astringent phenolic (tannic acid) and nonphenolic (alum) compounds with each basic taste. Sweetness of sucrose increased with increased concentration with or without alum or tannin present. Changes in salty, bitter, and sour taste intensities were modality-dependent. Astringency either remained unchanged or decreased with the addition of sucrose, sodium chloride, citric acid, or caffeine depending upon the taste concentration. Bitterness of tannin and alum at high concentrations was suppressed by the addition of sucrose, sodium chloride, or citric acid; sourness also decreased in the presence of sucrose or sodium chloride as well as a high level of caffeine.

Notes: Principal component similarity (PCS) analysis was used to evaluate judge performance from a wine competition. Data were analyzed for five international judges and seven wine makers, for 42 white, 30 red and 25 specialty wines, using a 20-point quality scoring system. Principal similarity plots were used to group judges according to judging 'style’ and to identify outliers, for each wine category. Judge groupings were consistent when three different references were used; however, the most interpretable PCS plot was obtained when the overall mean-judge-score was used as the reference. Results from PCS were compared to principal component analysis (PCA). PCS analysis allowed the information from all significant principal components to be graphically represented in two dimensions and was more successful in classifying judges than plots based on the first three principal components. The technique of PCS is an important complement to existing methodologies, and can provide wine competition coordinators with an objective technique for judge evaluation and selection.

Notes: Exact tables calculated directly from the probability function of a beta-binomial distribution are provided for replicated difference and preference tests. The tables can be used for small experiments when the numbers of replications and trials are not more than five.

Notes: Dependence among responses in using the A-Not A or “ Yes-No” task are accounted for in new hypothesis testing models. The new models involve adjustments to Pearson's and McNemar's chi-square statistics and to the variance of d', a measure of signal detectability or sensitivity.

Notes: Anecdotal evidence suggests that astronauts’ perceptions of foods in space flight may differ from their perceptions of the same foods on Earth. Fluid shifts toward the head experienced in space may alter the astronauts’ sensitivity to odors and tastes, producing altered perceptions. Our objective was to determine whether head-down bed rest, which produces similar fluid shifts, would produce changes in sensitivity to taste, odor or trigeminal sensations. Six subjects were tested three times prior to bed rest, three times during bed rest and two times after bed rest to determine their threshold sensitivity to the odors isoamylbutyrate and menthone, the tastants sucrose, sodium chloride, citric acid, quinine and monosodium glutamate, and to capsaicin. Thresholds were measured using a modified staircase procedure. Self-reported congestion was also recorded at each test time. Thresholds for monosodium glutamate where slightly higher during bed rest. None of the other thresholds were altered by bed rest.

Notes: The effect of liking, brand and price label on purchase intention were studied on crisp snacks in branded, supermarket own label and economy form. Unlabeled assessment segregated the products into differing levels of liking which did not correspond to marketed price and brand location. Level of liking dominated purchase intention under partial label (price or brand alone) and full label (price with brand) conditions. Relative and derived purchase intention measures gave clearer label effects with significance for brand and price. Consumers who professed higher price awareness were more influenced by price, but those professing brand as a main purchase intention reason gave more weight to liking. Results from analysis of purchase intention and degree of liking measures according to private body conscious level were inconclusive.

Notes: Reaction Time (RT) procedures are widely used in cognitive and behavioral experiments. In the sensory realm RT has been traditionally applied to measure visual, auditory or motor responses. The application of the RT method to gustatory stimuli has proved to be difficult. Attempts to develop automatic control techniques have been restrained by difficulties related to the control of variables, e.g. physiochemical characteristics of chemical solutions and the procedure for stimulus presentation. In this report we describe a computer based system that was designed to measure the reaction time to taste solutions dropped on the tongue. The equipment consists of a pumping system, an interface between the computer and the pumping system, the software required to control the interface and to measure reaction time, and a push button to detect the subject's response. The system can be used as a tool for both research and evaluation tests.

Notes: Caffeine contributes to the flavor profiles of beverage and food products, and other bitter compounds, such as quinine, cannot replicate caffeine's bitterness. Research also has indicated caffeine's ability to enhance desirable tastes, such as sweetness and saltiness, in beverages by modifying neurological pathways. Caffeine may reduce potential “ off-flavors” by solubilizing some compounds, while having little effect on other compounds considered important in beverage flavor profiles. Exposure to caffeine may enhance cognition and potentially heighten the capacity for smell and taste. Thus, use of caffeine in beverages may positively affect flavor profiles and the experience of beverage consumption.

Notes: Commercial production of catfish requires frequent feeding, which contributes to effusive microbial blooms in ponds. Microbial production of the muddy metabolite 2-methylisoborneol (MIB) can reduce fish flavor quality. Although commercial seasonings may be added to fillets, little information is available concerning the sensory interaction of seasonings and MIB. The replicate sensory evaluation of catfish fillet samples containing either 1.0 or 10.0 ppb chemically-synthesized MIB conducted under controlled conditions indicated a more frequent acceptance of fish as on-flavored in samples treated with a “ lemon-pepper” commercial seasoning preparation than either untreated samples or those treated with a “ cajun-spice” seasoning blend. In addition, experimentation conducted with fish containing MIB from biological sources within the production pond, indicated a similar reduction in MIB flavor of lemon-pepper-treated samples. Although a 4-terpenol co-eluted with MIB from lemon-pepper treated samples subjected to gas chromatography mass spectroscopy, the compound(s) in the lemon-pepper preparation that interfere with the perception of MIB was (were) not identified.

Notes: The focus in this study was to study time intensity (TI) methodology and procedures of getting the sensory panel acquainted with this technique. By means of a descriptive profiling exercise effects of altering the structure of a β-lacto-globulin gel, laced with banana aroma on the perception of banana flavor were obtained and a suitable attribute for TI was selected. Samples made up by protein, without any fat are not ideal for a TI study of flavor release because of the fast release of aroma. However, although the concentration of banana aroma was identical in the four groups of gels the intensity was perceived as different. This was reflected in the descriptive profiling as well as in the dynamic study. The TI study showed that it is important to minimize distractive, noncrucial information during the exercise. The assessors had different abilities to connect with the dynamic data acquisition procedure and training made the assessments more congruent. The results also indicate a relationship between the appearance of the TI-curve and the score of the total banana aftertaste.

Notes: The effect of warm-up on performance for repeated triangle tests is studied according to assessors’ expertise level for both triangle test strategy and the pair of products to compare. Three experiments performed with orange flavored soft drinks show that the effect of warm-up depends on the assessors’ expertise: (1) naive assessors do not increase their performance with warm-up; (2) assessors with a moderate practice of both triangle tests and the pair of products improve their performance with warm-up; (3) assessors with a moderate practice of triangle tests, but not familiar with the pair of products, improve their performance with warm-up too; and (4) assessors highly experienced for both triangle tests and products do not improve their performance with warm-up. These results support the idea that the positive effect of warm-up is due to an attentional process: Warm-up seems to help assessors focusing their attention on the dimension on which the two products are actually different and ignoring the other dimensions. Thus, results show that assessors are able to learn the difference between the two products and to learn to focus their attention on this difference at any time. They also suggest that prior knowledge of the triangle test scheme is required to benefit from warm-up.

Notes: Many factors contribute to the total perception of a food product. The visual packaging attributes of products can be considered important by contributing to their “ on the shelf” presentation which predisposes consumers to purchase. Such extrinsic product packaging attributes can be considered appearance stimuli and thus differ from the intrinsic sensory attributes of a product only in that the packaging attributes are judged by sight and not using the other senses of mouthfeel, olfaction and gustation during consumption. A new approach to measuring product packaging attributes could be to use descriptive sensory analysis. In order to attempt this, 15 assessors, trained in descriptive analysis procedures generated individual vocabularies to describe Cheddar cheeses’ packaging attributes using the repertory grid method. Vocabulary development sessions were subsequently carried out, during which assessors agreed on a vocabulary of 20 defined packaging attributes. The packaging of 8 Cheddar cheeses was then evaluated using standard descriptive analysis procedures. Analysis of Variance found all attributes to discriminate between the eight cheeses (p〈0.01) and Principal Components Analysis allowed the relationships between cheeses and packaging attributes to be viewed. The analysis also indicated that assessors agreed with each other on the meaning of the packaging attributes and could reproduce their evaluations. Limitations in the use of this method were also considered, particularly in relation to scaling of some of the attributes, and the potential subjectivity of others. Despite this, the study showed it was possible to apply descriptive techniques to describe the packaging attributes of Cheddar cheese.

Notes: A new ‘bipolar’ R-index analysis was proposed and evaluated. Eighteen judges evaluated red color in eight wine samples by comparing each sample with the control. Judges indicated whether the sample had ‘more’, the 'same’, or ‘less’ red color than the control, and whether they were sure or unsure of their decision. Three computational methods were used to examine the results: the ‘traditional’ R-index, the ‘bipolar’ R-index (Rmore or Rless) and the ‘weighted-bipolar’ R-index. While all three methods provided consistent results, the ‘bipolar’ R-indices reflected bidirectional differences among the samples thus providing more information. A refinement to the computation (‘weighted-bipolar’ R-index) was an approach for eliminating the bias associated with overestimation of the sample size and accordingly changed some of the significance levels. Further research is currently underway to expand the scope and application of this method.

Notes: Coffee powders available commercially are of different qualities. The quality variations may be due to inherent quality of coffee beans, storage time and packaging materials used. Sensory profiles of brewed and soluble coffees were studied through profiling. Canonical discriminant analysis (CDA) used for positioning the different coffee samples showed that freshly made coffee from plantation arabica (PA), Pea berry (PB), PA with chicory (PAC), PB with chicory (PBC) and their blends viz. PA + PB and PAC + PBC occupied the quadrant where coffee aroma and overall quality rated higher. Other roasted & ground (R&G) coffee (market) samples were positioned where oily, fermented, musty, stale and caramelized notes dominated. In case of soluble coffee, the flavored coffee procured from the western market (S3, S6, S9 and S8) dominated the quadrant where other added flavor and oily notes dominated. The typical soluble (instant) coffee without any added flavor S10, S12 and S13 occupied another quadrant. The soluble coffee powder with spice incorporation took a separate quadrant where other added flavor and bitter taste dominated. The dominant quality attributes for the groups are different and are discussed in relation to the directional vectors.

Notes: Judges were required to rate the total intensity of NaCl solutions using a variety of unstructured category and line scales under a ‘rank-rating’ protocol and a traditional protocol that did not allow retasting or the reviewing of scores. The various scales and protocols induced two types of scaling errors. The first type was named a different-stimulus error. This involved a judge rating a stronger stimulus as equal to or less than a weaker stimulus. The second type was named a same-stimulus error. This involved a judge giving different ratings to two stimuli of equal concentration. For all scales, judges made a higher proportion of same-stimulus errors than different-stimulus errors. ‘Rank-rating’ only reduced the proportion of different-stimulus errors. It was hypothesized that a category scale with fewer categories would induce a higher level of different-stimulus errors but lower level of same-stimulus errors. These trends were noted but not always significantly. For line scales, the equivalent hypotheses regarding line length were either weak or not supported. It would appear that increasing the length of a line scale is not always equivalent to increasing the number of categories in a category scale.

Notes: The assessor performance is a key point in a sensory evaluation. In particular, at the end of a session, a decrease of the performance can be feared. We propose to analyze this performance with various criteria: usual ones as the main product effect or the error variance; a new one measuring the perceived products variability. The performance can then be studied all along the session from two points of view: in taking into account the only products tested at a given instant (named instantaneous); in taking into account all the products tested up to a given instant (named cumulative). In the presented example, in spite of the large number of products successively tested by each assessor, the instantaneous performance of the panel shows no significant deterioration. Furthermore, when the number of products tested by each assessor increases, more significant product effects can be obtained thanks to the accumulation of the amount of data. This shows that the number of products that can be reasonably studied by one assessor during one session is generally underestimated.

Notes: Two experimental procedures recommended for the evaluation of the psychophysical characteristics of odorous compounds, olfactory matching with the 1-butanol scale and cross-modality matching with the finger span are compared. The intensity of ethyl butyrate and guaiacol solutions presented at four different concentration levels was evaluated by a panel of sixteen subjects over five repetitions using the two methods. Each stimulus was delivered to the subject from a Teflon bag through a nose-shaped glass sniffing port.The discrimination ability, repeatability, panel homogeneity and within-subject variability of the methods were assessed. Results indicate that with both methods, subjects were able to highly discriminate the presented concentration levels of the odorants. There were no great difference in repeatability and the same individual variability was observed between both methods. However, the smaller within-subject variability highlighted for the 1-butanol scale method suggested that this method is potentially more powerful than finger-span method.

Notes: People can eat a food without having a strong preference for it, and people can prefer a food without eating it. Given this seeming disconnect between attitude and behavior, which type of measure or segment can best be used to profile or identify loyal consumer segments of a food, such as soy? This research compares a usage-based method (heavy-light-nonusers) with a new attitude-based method (seeker-neutral-avoider), and finds that the attitude-based method differentiates purchase-related intentions better than the usage-based method. Implications for profiling consumer taste patterns and consumer segments are provided.

Notes: Astringent and bitter sensations are characteristic sensory qualities of black tea. Three different classes of potential astringent reference standards (two concentrations each of alum and tannic acid and three fruit juices) were evaluated in this study. The perceived astringency, bitterness and sourness of each were profiled using computerized time-intensity and compared with the astringent intensity of a standardized brew of black tea. The differences in temporal profiles of potential reference standards across taste attributes were evident and intensity ratings were found to be dependent upon the stimulus and its concentration. Both concentrations of tannic acid were evaluated as the highest in perceived bitterness. For the juices, a strong sour taste was perceived in addition to astringency. It was concluded that the best reference standard for the astringency of black tea is a solution of 0.7 g/L alum as it is low in perceived bitterness and sourness.

Notes: We developed an alternative method for the determination of 6-n propylthiouracil (PROP) taster status that is based on the comparison of intensity ratings of PROP solutions with intensity ratings of visual, tactile, and kinesthetic (physical) stimuli. We then compared the classification obtained with this method to those derived from traditional approaches. One hundred and forty-two subjects rated the perceived intensity of 0.000032, 0.00018, 0.00032, 0.0018, and 0.0032 M PROP, and 0.01, 0.032, 0.1, 0.32, and 1.0 M NaCl, as well as five levels each of perceived roughness of sandpaper, grayness of shades, and thickness of honey and water mixtures on the Labeled Magnitude Scale (LMS). Ratings for 0.00032 M PROP and 0.1 M NaCl were also compared in a one solution test. Subjects were classified as PROP nontasters, tasters or supertasters by all three procedures. Seventy-six percent of panelists were classified in a similar way by the physical stimuli and NaCl procedures, while 70% percent of panelists were classified similarly by the physical stimuli procedure and the one solution test, as well as by the NaCl procedure and the one solution test. Only 65% of panelists were classified similarly by all three procedures. Further, in replicate ratings of PROP solutions, supertasters’ evaluations of PROP at all concentration levels decreased significantly (P 〈 0.01) from the first to the second rating. It is evident from these findings that the method used to determine PROP taster status can greatly influence the outcome of any investigation of PROP taster status on other phenotypes.

Notes: The objective of this study was to verify key aroma-active compounds responsible for reconstituted fresh skim milk powder (SMP) aroma using threshold analysis, odor activity values, and model systems. Twelve odor-active compounds of SMP and one odor-active compound from fluid milk were selected based on flavor dilution factors from gas chromatography-olfactometry. Thresholds for the 13 odor-active compounds were identified using five-set ascending forced choice threshold analysis in odor-free water and fluid skim milk. Model systems were prepared using rehydrated milk retentate (RMR). The aroma of each model was evaluated by descriptive sensory analysis and by difference-from-control testing using a trained panel. The aroma of reconstituted fresh SMP and liquid skim milk were used as controls. Models containing a mixture of twelve of the thirteen chemicals had the most similar odor characteristics to rehydrated SMP aroma (9.0/10) indicating that these compounds constitute the character impact odorants of rehydrated fresh SMP.

Notes: The sensory characteristic “beany” is a limiting factor in introducing soy products to many consumers in western cultures. This research described sensory properties of beany flavor and described sensory odor characteristics of 19 chemicals that have been associated with beany aroma and flavor in previous literature. Seven concentrations varying from 1 to 100,000 ppm of each chemical (if soluble in propylene glycol) were examined by a five member trained descriptive panel. The panel described beany as having multiple attributes. Musty/earthy, musty/dusty, sour aromatics, and characterizing attributes such as green/pea pod, nutty, or brown collectively imparted beany aroma and flavor of most beans. Starchy flavor and powdery texture also were intrinsically associated with beany in bean product samples. Some chemicals tested were not beany at any level tested. Three alcohols, two ketones, one aldehyde, and one pyrazine exhibited beany characteristics (green/peapod or brown) only at low concentrations, generally 1-10 ppm.

Notes: This paper deals with the analysis of drivers for self-defined craveability assessed in an Internet-based, conjoint analysis task. The stimuli comprised 36 descriptions of restaurant hamburgers, including product features, benefits, restaurant names, and emotional reactions that might ensue after eating the hamburger. Elements were combined into concepts by experimental design, and the resulting concepts evaluated by 145 respondents, on the attribute of craveability. Models relating the presence/absence of concept elements to ratings revealed that statements about the hamburger itself were the most powerful, but that no single element was highest across all the respondents. Segmentation of the 145 individuals by the pattern of their individual utilities revealed four key segments. These are Elaborates who may be sensory-oriented and respond strongly to product descriptions; Classics who like the notion of a grilled hamburger; Imaginers who respond to restaurant name and advertising copy; and Emotionals who respond to statements about food to descriptions how the eater feels after consumption.

Notes: Judges were required to rate the total intensity of NaCl solutions and the sweetness of orange flavored beverages using a variety of unstructured category and line scales. Discrimination errors were noted for each type of scale. No strong differences were observed in discrimination between category and line scales although a 20-point category scale incurred fewer discrimination errors than 9-point category and line scales. Allowing judges to retaste stimuli and review and modify their scores reduced discrimination errors.

Notes: The objectives of this study were to compare oral and nonoral sensory evaluation for discrimination of texture of acid skim milk gels and to establish whether nonoral attributes could be correlated to the oral perception of texture. Trained panelists (n = 13) identified 11 nonoral (visual and in-hand) and 4 oral attributes during a preliminary profiling session that could be used to discriminate textures (P 〈 0.001) in a range of acid gels prepared with different solid contents and heat treatment of the milks. Both methods of sensory appraisal were found to discriminate between gels. Correlation analysis showed high interrelationship between individual oral and nonoral attributes (P 〈 0.01). Principal component analysis revealed that all 4 oral attributes could be combined into one single attribute (PC1), with equal relative importance of the individual attributes in explaining the variance in the oral sensory data set. Canonical correlation analysis revealed good correlation between the oral and nonoral set of attributes (R2 〉 87.5%).

Notes: We compare the sensory profiles of six dark chocolates done by two types of juries: some trained juries and an untrained jury. Six laboratories, each one made up of 10 to 15 judges, are regarded as trained juries since the assessors were well trained before the evaluation of the products. The second type of jury is composed of only one panel of 29 untrained assessors and this jury is named the untrained jury. Fourteen attributes were evaluated and analyses of variance have been carried out by attribute to compare the sensory profiles of the six chocolates done by the trained juries and by the untrained jury. These analyses of variance show that the two types of juries give similar sensory profiles and that the few differences are mainly due to different ways of using the scale.

Notes: Consumers unfamiliar with passion-fruit juice were presented with 24 computer generated package images on which six packaging factors (background color, picture, information, brand, language and shape) had been manipulated and asked to give scores for six expected sensory attributes (sweetness, pureness, sharpness, refreshing, freshness, naturalness) and liking. Significant effects were obtained for each attribute, with background color and information being the most important. Consumers varying in Need For Cognition (NFC) were affected differently by the investigated features of the package. High NFC individuals used less of the packaging factors than low NFC subjects did.

Notes: The aim of the study was to determine how those texture attributes that elderly people find difficult to eat are related to their preferences for different modifications of carrot textures. This study was conducted with same methods in Finland and in the United Kingdom (UK). Trained sensory panels in both countries described sensory profiles of a range of carrot samples with same glossary of texture terms. The texture of carrot samples was manipulated using different preparation and cooking methods. Based on the Principal Component Analysis (PCA), boiled and puréed samples were perceived as soft, wet, pulpy and smooth, whereas raw samples were dry, brittle, rough, crispy and crunchy. Two age groups were used for the consumer tests: a young adult group aged 23 to 40 years, mean 32 (Finland) and 33 (UK) and an elderly group aged over 60 years, mean 75 (Finland) and 76 (UK). Both the elderly and young adult respondents considered samples as difficult to eat if they needed a long chewing time, were crunchy, hard, brittle, dry, rough or sharp, such as raw slices and coarsely grated samples. On the other hand, slimy, wet, smooth, soft and pulpy samples, such as boiled carrots and purée, were considered as easy-to-eat. The young adults liked more difficult textures such as rough, crispy, crunchy and hard than did the elderly respondents, but the easiest textures were not liked by either age group. Subjects with dental deficiencies liked easier textures more than those fully dentate.

Notes: Aroma evaluation of 14 commercial red wines of the Uruguayan market (5 Tannat, 5 Cabernet Sauvignon and 4 Merlot) was done by descriptive analysis. Generalized Procrustes Analysis applied to the data allowed differentiating among the three groups of samples and obtaining sensory attributes that were responsible for these observed differences. The samples of Tannat were differentiated from Cabernet and Merlot samples and their aroma profile was characterized by secondary and tertiary descriptors of: berry (blackcurrant), dried fruit (prune), resinous (oak), spicy (liquorice) and microbiological (yeasty).

Notes: If a chi-squared analysis were to be performed to determine whether preferences were significant in a paired preference test, the appropriate expected frequencies in the analysis would represent those that would occur should the consumers have no preference. One way of determining these ‘no preference’frequencies, for a particular test situation, would be to note the preference responses obtained when the stimuli were putatively identical. Over 2000 consumers were given paired preference tests in which the stimuli were putatively identical. Response conditions and consumer groups were varied and the proportions of preference and no preference responses were noted. In a preliminary experiment, further research was seen to be justified when for putatively identical stimuli, judges did not exclusively express lack of preference; many expressed a preference for one or other of the stimuli. Further experiments were conducted using a written response condition and putatively identical potato chips (potato crisps) as stimuli. Using a single ‘no preference’option, variation in the placement of this option at either first, second or third place on the response sheet had no significant effect on the response frequencies. The proportion of ‘no preference’responses was approximately 30% in all cases. A previously reported 40-20-40 distribution was not always confirmed. The experiment was repeated with Korean consumers; these had fewer ‘no preference’responses. Deriving preferences from hedonic scales, rather than having judges respond to preference options, increased the proportion of ‘no preference’responses, with American judges still having more than Korean judges. Yet there are logical objections to extracting preference data from hedonic scales. Increasing the number of ‘no preference’options to two or three, had the effect of increasing the number of ‘no preference’responses up to as much as approximately 60%. Extending the results to Koreans, using two ‘no preference’options, it was seen that only the judges in an anonymous response condition had significantly fewer ‘no preference’responses than Americans. The use of these response frequencies as expected frequencies in chi squared analyses was illustrated, after adjustments for counterbalancing.

Notes: The influence of thickening agent (0 and 7g/L), mechanical treatment (low and high) and flavoring agent concentration (2.2 to 63.2 μL/kg) on texture, taste and aroma of low fat stirred yogurts was investigated through sensory profiling by a panel of ten subjects trained on 13 attributes. Two assessment conditions were used: either in the presence or in the absence of olfactory perception (nostrils closed with nose clips). Sensory differences were greater for texture than for the other perception modalities. Olfactory perception enhanced yogurt astringency. If both thickener addition and mechanical treatment influenced texture attributes and rheology, the second factor had the strongest effect. Texture attributes were highly correlated with rheological parameters. Increasing flavoring agent concentration tended to decrease thickness and the addition of thickening agent depressed green apple notes and sweet taste, suggesting texture/flavor interactions.

Notes: The objective of study was to assess the influence of the knowledge of color and brand name on consumer response to tomato purees. From focus group interviews it was found that taste and odor of fresh tomato were the most important drivers of consumer choice. To quantify that information a questionnaire was developed and it was submitted to fifty consumers of tomato puree. The questionnaires answers confirmed those coming from the focus group, although same discrepancies were found with those derived from the consumer test. Results showed that color and brand name seemed to be more important than taste and odor of fresh tomato, in fact those attributes, when consumers were tasting samples, affected not only hedonic judgments but sensory perception as well. Finally physico-chemical parameters derived from instrumental measurements have been compared to sensory data by means of PCA in order to validate the consumers’assessment of sensory attributes of tomato puree.

Notes: Spices and condiments have been considered virtually indispensable in the culinary art. The quality of spices varies depending on the region of cultivation, climatic conditions and storage history. In the present study, coriander from 8 regions of India, labeled as R1 to R8, were examined for sensory quality by conducting threshold test, time-intensity study and flavor profiling. Principal component analysis (PCA) was carried out to group the samples. Threshold values ranged from 0.010 to 0.035% with R7 showing lower values for threshold (0.010%) followed by R8 (0.020%). Higher intensity of aroma of R7 and R8 was further confirmed by more of lingering aroma as shown by time intensity study. Flavor profiling by quantitative descriptive analysis showed that the coriander samples from different regions did not differ significantly (P± 0.05) in almost all attributes except for spicy aroma. Mapping of samples using PCA technique showed that the samples occupied different quadrants based on the intensity of attributes. Sample R7 and R8 were found to be grouped close together, and R5 and Reformed another group.

Notes: The influence of bite size on sensory mouthfeel and afterfeel sensations was explored in two studies in which single bites of vanilla custard desserts were varied from itollmL (study 1) and in which series of five bites of two different custard desserts were presented consecutively (study 2). In single bites, sensations of perceived creaminess were enhanced with size whereas sensations of astringency and temperature were suppressed. Bite size also affected perceived thickness, but the direction of the effects varied with custard desserts. With multiple bites, creaminess sensations continued to increase, whereas other sensations were unaffected. Switching to a second series of bites of another vanilla custard dessert showed larger sensory effects, especially on astringency sensations but also to a lesser extent on sensations of thickness and fatty afterfeel. Single and multiple bite results are discussed in terms of possible peripheral mechanisms. Switching results are discussed in terms of possible central sensory contrast mechanisms.

Notes: Mesquite (Prosopis sp.) is a fast-growing tree that produces abundant amounts of pods. Although these pods were once part of the diet of Southwest Native Americans, little is known today regarding the acceptability of mesquite flour. We standardized a recipe using mesquite flour with a commercially available ready-to-eat cereal product and tested the acceptance of the product with Native American participants (n=84). Participants were asked to complete a food acceptability survey and a food action rating survey to determine taste sensory perception and expected frequency of consumption. Although participants were significantly more likely (P= 0.008) to prefer the cereal without mesquite than with the mesquite added, participants reported favorable acceptability with the cereal, both with and without mesquite flour added. The results of the FACT food frequency survey were positive for both the product with mesquite added and without, with no significant difference (P= 0.07) between the two. These data support the potential for mesquite to be reincorporated as an acceptable ingredient in modern diets of Native Americans.

Notes: Oral sensory evaluation of caramel texture was conducted using six texture terms and results were compared to instrumental testing of texture. Trained panelists (n = 11) evaluated 6 caramel formulations by descriptive analysis. Mean texture values indicated that a slight increase in sweetened condensed skim milk and vegetable fat content (1% w/w at a 2:1 ratio) significantly decreased stickiness (P≤ 0.05). Decreasing corn syrup dextrose equivalent (DE) decreased stickiness and increased hardness (P≤ 0.05). Pearson correlation coefficients revealed that stickiness to teeth while chewing, toothpacking, and tooth adhesiveness were highly correlated with one another (P≤ 0.05). Sensory hardness, cohesiveness, and number of chews were correlated with the rheological properties of storage modulus and viscosity, while stickiness was correlated with probe tack force (P≤ 0.05). Such correlations show that fundamental rheological and tack force measurements can be used to help determine molecular mechanisms for sensory texture and stickiness.

Notes: We show that adding replications in replicated difference tests results in larger power and smaller variance when the number of assessors is fixed. On the other hand, when the number of total assessments is fixed, the power usually decreases and the variability increases whenever replications are considered instead of different assessors. The appropriate numbers of assessor needed to gain the same power and variability, respectively, when replications are used will be given. It is shown that the number of assessors might indeed be reduced, but this has to be paid for by an increasing total number of assessments. We show that two key models, namely the mixture binomial and a corrected version of the Beta-binomial model, are quite similar with respect to the properties of interest. We provide tables from which, according to her/his requirements, the investigator might find an appropriate setting with respect to the number of assessors and replications.

Notes: The definition of “flavor” is a term that appears to vary from one area to the next. A survey was conducted on 140 individuals in various areas of specialization (agriculture, food science, sensory evaluation, and the chemical senses) to see what sensations are thought to be involved in “flavor,” as well as whether there were any differences in definitions across groups. The results demonstrate that while a fairly stable definition of the term does exist, there is some difference in what different groups of expertise mean when they refer to “flavor.”

Notes: This paper presents the author's approach to synthesizing useful direction from product testing when the stimuli are not systematically varied. The approach presented here comprises a research design and data analysis strategy, rather than a conventional product optimization with subsequent validation. The design steps comprise stimulus selection, attribute selection, and product evaluation. The data analysis comprises univariate modeling to show how sensory attributes drive overall liking, reduction of the matrix to factor scores for multivariate modeling, and then the creation of an integrated product model. The outcome is a set of factor scores that can be translated to sensory attributes and in turn to target products.

Notes: A number of commonly consumed fruits and vegetables (e.g., kiwifruit, pineapple and taro) cause oral irritation, and there is anecdotal evidence that this influences the acceptability of such products. In each of these foods, oral irritation is produced by free crystalline calcium oxalate (raphides). The psychophysics of the mechanical oral irritation caused by raphides was studied in two experiments using a model system based on kiwifruit. In the first experiment, the location of irritant sensations and perceived intensity of the irritation caused by suspensions of raphides were determined using a ten-member trained sensory panel. Stinging and numbing were found to increase significantly with increasing concentrations of raphides. Stinging occurred principally on the tongue as well as in the throat and numbing principally on the tongue. The number of oral areas irritated was shown to increase with raphide concentration and to decrease over a 60-min period. In the second experiment, sugars (fructose, sucrose, glucose and inositol), acids (citric, malic and quinic) and an enzyme (actinidin) were added to the model to examine interactions between these chemical stimuli and the mechanical action of the raphides. Addition of acids to the model was shown to enhance irritation in addition to increasing sourness and suppressing sweetness. The addition of actinidin had no significant effects on irritation or tastes. It is suggested that acidity may aggravate irritation at low raphide concentration, but beyond a critical level of mechanical irritation the presence of acids has little additional effect. These results provide the first detailed data of the psychophysics of mechanical oral irritation in food, and have important implications for producing foods with lower levels of irritation and increased acceptability.

Notes: A standardized descriptive language for skim milk powder and dried dairy ingredients was developed. The lexicon was initially identified from a large sample set of dried dairy ingredients (138). A highly trained descriptive panel (n = 14) refined terms and identified references. Dried dairy ingredients (36) were then evaluated using the developed language. Twenty-one descriptors were identified for dried dairy ingredients. Seventeen flavors and tastes were identified in skim milk powders (27) with nine flavors/tastes observed in all skim milk powders. Dried dairy ingredients were differentiated using the language (P〈0.05). There were flavors common to all dried dairy ingredients while other flavors were specific to particular products.

Notes: Sensory properties and consumer perception of 2 ‘home-made’and 4 commercial dairy ice creams were examined. Conventional profiling by a trained panel found that most samples differed significantly in all attributes, but distinction of ‘home-made’from commercial products was limited to few attributes. Principal component analysis separated the ‘home-made’products from the commercial ones mainly on the basis of differences in appearance, aroma, creamy flavors and textural attributes. A consumer group (n=105) recorded preconception of ‘home-made’ice cream acceptance, then received the product samples, in unlabeled condition, for assessment of degree of liking (DOL) and for identification as ‘home-made’or commercial. Internal preference mapping of the DOL ratings showed that consumers were more closely grouped around samples which had higher intensities of certain attributes. Higher ‘denseness’, ‘vanilla’aroma and ‘buttery’flavor, were associated with more liking for commercial products. The ‘home-made’high fat sample, although liked, tended to be grouped with commercial products. More marked textural attributes of ‘ice crystals’and ‘breakage’aided identification of the low-fat ‘home-made’formulation, which was less liked overall. Overall, differences between the ‘home-made’and commercial samples were small but consumer perception of the term ‘home-made’was viewed favorably for dairy ice cream.

Notes: An established disparity between hedonic scales and just-about-right (JAR) measures, important for product development procedures, was examined for sweetness in lemonade by consumer groups divided on the basis of health concern level and consumption patterns related to sweet foods, regular and diet drinks and ‘healthy eating’. The disparity was demonstrated by all subgroups in that the JAR scale identified a lower sucrose concentration as nearest ‘just right’compared to that identified as ‘most liked’by the hedonic scale. Regression analysis predicted lower optimum sweetness for the JAR than the hedonic scale. For subjects who completed both tests the disparity was significantly different from zero. Trends of differences in response on both scales and for the disparity according to health concern and consumption patterns were demonstrated graphically. Few of these effects were statistically significant, but the differences in disparity level could justify market segmentation of drink products with different sucrose levels.

Notes: This paper presents results on consumer attitudes towards healthy soup, using conjoint analysis, executed on the Internet. The results show moderate interest in new ideas for the total panel, but reveal three concept-response segments. The first segment responds to nutrition and functional ingredients. The second segment responds to packaging and convenience. The third segment responds to taste and ingredients. Statistical analysis confirms the idea that they represent different ‘mind-sets’. The segmentation based on psychographic variables is a useful tool to identify the features of the next generation “healthy soups” and to design custom products on the basis of consumer requirements.

Notes: A statistical study was performed on the scores awarded by a taste panel over a full Roncal cheese manufacturing season. The panel evaluations were part of a quality control program carried out on that cheese under the auspices of the Appellation of Origin for Roncal cheese by panelists previously trained and qualified as proficient. Analysis of variance and factor analysis were performed to examine variability for the different attributes and the influence of such factors as cheesemaking plant and the manufacturing season and also to monitor panel reliability. The results indicated that the attributes associated with the descriptor “characteristic” had the highest variability; these attributes were characteristic odor, characteristic aroma, characteristic texture, characteristic flavor, and characteristic aftertaste. Cheesemaking plant was the factor that had the greatest effect on variability. Factor analysis and exploratory box plot data analysis were used to detect discrepancies between individual assessors and the rest of the panelists.

Notes: Different Spanish unifloral honeys (eucalyptus, sunflower, rosemary, thyme, lavender, citrus, anise, quercus, and lemon blossom) and one multifloral honey were studied by Free-Choice Profiling (FCP) analysis. Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA) applied to the FCP data allowed discrimination between samples and provided information on the attributes responsible for the differences observed. The honeys had significantly different sensory characteristics. Textural attributes were the predominant factor in discriminating between samples, and appearance (color included) was also correlated with GPA dimensions to a lesser extent.