ALBERT

Description: The continental shelf off the northeastern coast of the United States was the first of our offshore coastal areas to be charted in detail by the Coast and Geodetic Survey, starting on Georges Bank in 1930. The techniques responsible for this increased accuracy in offshore waters were first described by Rudé (1938) and have been constantly improved. From these soundings Veatch and Smith (1939) compiled their set of contour charts aided by a grant from the Penrose Bequest of the Geological Society of America. These soundings reopened the submarine canyon problem first commented upon by Dana (1863), which had gradually lapsed into obscurity from insuffcient data. The reader is, of course, well aware of the major controversy, with all its far reaching implications, which has been precipitated since the 1930 surveys of Georges Bank were brought to the attention of geologists by Shepard (1933). As more of the new surveys were completed, data from the field sheets were kindly furnished by the U. S. Coast and Geodetic Survey to the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution for use in dredging and coring operations. This field work, first reported in 1936, was continued from time to time until 1941 as new soundings became available. Rock dredging and coring has been carried out in every major canyon on the slope from Corsair Canyon at the tip of Georges Bank to Norfolk Canyon off the entrance to the Chesapeake (Fig. I). Numerous cores have also been taken from the areas in between; and while the whole slope from Georges to the Chesapeake has not been covered, it is believed that no significant areas have been missed. In fact, cores from the slope taken during the summers of 1940 and 1941 have yielded results that are corroborative rather than new. In 1938 on a cruise from Hudson Gorge to Norfolk Canyon, cores were taken on the slope in areas which Veatch had considered to be the most important (personal communication). In the following report the tows and cores will be described by areas from Georges Bank southwards, as the same region was revisited in successive years. The various samples, however, will be referred to by number followed by the year in which they were taken. The material is in storage in the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and in the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard University. The late Joseph A. Cushman was kind enough to identify the Foraminifera which have been obtained in tows from the canyon walls and in cores, except for those described in Appendix A which is contributed by Fred B Phleger, Jr. Most of the type material is in storage in the Museum of Comparative Zoology, although at the present writing some is in the Cushman Laboratory in Sharon, Massachusetts. I am indebted to Lloyd W. Stephenson for identifying a molluscan fauna from one of the canyons, and to W. C. Mansfield who has reported on another formation. Numerous discussions with Percy E. Raymond have, as usual, proved most helpful, and thanks are also due to Eugenia C. Lambert for performing the mechanical analyses and to Constance French for other laboratory assistance. Phleger (1939, 1942, 1946) has previously published on the Foraminifera from the slope and deep water cores. This material is, at present, at Scripps Institution of Oceanography.

Description: Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution February, 2006

Description: In this thesis, I present high-resolution stable-isotope and planktonic-fauna records from Bering Sea sediment cores, spanning the time period from 50,000 years ago to the present. During Marine Isotope Stage 3 (MIS3) at 30-20 ky BP (kiloyears before present) in a core from 1467m water depth near Umnak Plateau, there were episodic occurrences of diagenetic carbonate minerals with very low δ13C (-22:4h), high δ18O (6.5h), and high [Mg]/[Ca], which seem associated with sulfate reduction of organic matter and possibly anaerobic oxidation of methane. The episodes lasted less than 1000 years and were spaced about 1000 years apart. During MIS3 at 55-20 ky BP in a core from 2209m water depth on Bowers Ridge, N. pachyderma (s.) and Uvigerina δ18O and δ13C show no coherent variability on millennial time scales. Bering Sea sediments are dysoxic or laminated during the deglaciation. A high sedimentation rate core (200 cm/ky) from 1132m on the Bering Slope is laminated during the Bolling warm phase, Allerod warm phase, and early Holocene, where the ages of lithological transitions agree with the ages of those climate events in Greenland (GISP2) to well within the uncertainty of the age models. The subsurface distribution of radiocarbon was estimated from a compilation of published and unpublished North Pacific benthic-planktonic 14C measurements (475-2700 m water depth). There was no consistent change in 14C profiles between the present and the Last Glacial Maximum, Bolling-Allerod, or the Younger Dryas cold phase. N. pachyderma (s.) δ18O in the Bering Slope core decreases rapidly (in less than 220 y) by 0.7-0.8% at the onset of the Bolling and the end of the Younger Dryas. These isotopic shifts are accompanied by transient decreases in the relative abundance of N. pachyderma (s.), suggesting that the isotopic events are transient warmings and sustained freshenings.

Description: The work in this thesis was supported by the National Science Foundation award OPP-9912122 to Lloyd Keigwin, the Oak Foundation of Boston, Massachusetts, the Stanley Watson Fellowship, the Paul Fye Fellowship, and the Academic Programs Office at WHOI.

Description: Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution February 2006

Description: This thesis develops methods for estimating wideband shallow-water acoustic communication channels. The very shallow water wideband channel has three distinct features: large dimension caused by extensive delay spread; limited number of degrees of freedom (DOF) due to resolvable paths and inter-path correlations; and rapid fluctuations induced by scattering from the moving sea surface. Traditional LS estimation techniques often fail to reconcile the rapid fluctuations with the large dimensionality. Subspace based approaches with DOF reduction are confronted with unstable subspace structure subject to significant changes over a short period of time. Based on state-space channel modeling, the first part of this thesis develops algorithms that jointly estimate the channel as well as its dynamics. Algorithms based on the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF) and the Expectation Maximization (EM) approach respectively are developed. Analysis shows conceptual parallels, including an identical second-order innovation form shared by the EKF modification and the suboptimal EM, and the shared issue of parameter identifiability due to channel structure, reflected as parameter unobservability in EKF and insufficient excitation in EM. Modifications of both algorithms, including a two-model based EKF and a subspace EM algorithm which selectively track dominant taps and reduce prediction error, are proposed to overcome the identifiability issue. The second part of the thesis develops algorithms that explicitly find the sparse estimate of the delay-Doppler spread function. The study contributes to a better understanding of the channel physical constraints on algorithm design and potential performance improvement. It may also be generalized to other applications where dimensionality and variability collide.

Description: Financial support for this thesis research was provided by the Office of Naval Research and the WHOI Academic Program Office.

Description: Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution October, 1977.

Description: Sediment traps designed to yield quantitative data of particulate fluxes have been deployed and successfully recovered on four moorings in the deep sea. The traps were designed after extensive calibration of different shapes of containers. Further intercalibration of trap design was made in field experiments over a range of current velocities. Experiments with Niskin bottles showed that concentrations of suspended particulate matter obtained with standard filtration methods were low and had to be increased by an average factor of 1.5 to correct for particles settling below the sampling spigot. The trap arrays were designed to sample the particulate fluxes both immediately above and within the nepheloid layer. The data derived from the traps have been used to estimate vertical fluxes of particles including, for the first time, an attempt to distinguish between the flux of material settling from the upper water column (the "primary flux") and material which has been resuspended from some region of the sea floor (resuspension flux). From these data and measurements of the net nepheloid standing crop of particles one can also estimate a residence time for particles resuspended in the nepheloid layer. This residence time appears to be on the order of days to weeks in the bottom 15 m of the water column and weeks to months in the bottom 100 m. Between 80% and 90% of the particles collected in the six traps where particle size was measured were less than 63 μm. The mean size of particles collected in the nepheloid layer was about 20 μm, and above the nepheloid layer the mean was 11 μm. Less than 3% of the organic carbon produced in the photic zone at the trap sites was collected as primary flux 500 m above the sea floor. The primary flux measured at two sites was enough to supply 75% on the upper Rise and 160% on the mid Rise of the organic carbon needed for respiration and for burial in the accumulating sediments. From an intercomparison of the composition of particles falling rapidly (collected in traps), falling slowly or not at all (collected in water bottles), and resting on the sea floor (from a core top), it was determined that elements associated with biogenic matter, such as Ca, Sr, Cu, and I, were carried preferentially by the particles falling rapidly. Once the particles reached the bottom, the concentration of those elements was decreased through decomposition, respiration, or dissolution. Dissolution appears rapid in the vicinity of the sea floor, because despite an abundance of radiolarians, diatoms, and juvenile foraminifera collected in all traps, these forms were rare in core samples. The dynamic nature of thenepheloid layer makes it possible for particles to be resuspended many times before they are finally buried. This enables sediment to be carried long distances from its origin. The recycling of particles near the sea floor may increase dissolution of silicious and carbonate matter.

Description: Financial aid was provided in the form of a research assistantship from the Office of Naval Research through MIT and WHOI.

Description: Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution September, 1975

Description: Erosion processes involving fine-grained marine sediments were studied by using an in situ flume to erode undisturbed bottom sediments on the sea floor in Buzzards Bay, a shallow marine embayment off the Massachusetts coast. Tte muddy sea floor in that area is characterized by a deposit-feeding infauna that reworks the sediments. Observations made with the in situ flume suggest that erosion resistance of compacted bottom sediments is up to twice as great as the erosion resistance of biogenically reworked sediments. Estimates of erosional bed shear stress from the in situ flume experiments are similar to estimates made during this study of bed shear stress developed in near-bottom tidal currents. It is inferred that erosion by the in situ flume produces reasonable estimates of bed shear stress necessary to erode undisturbed bottom sediments on the sea floor. Buzzards Bay muds were redeposited in a laboratory flume and eroded after various periods of reworking by the deposit-feeding organisms contained in them. Other Buzzards Bay mud samples were treated to remove organic matter, and the erosion resistance of flat beds of these sediments was also investigated in a laboratory flume. The surface of a biogenically reworked bed after two months was covered with mounds, burrows, trails, and aggregates composed of sediments and organic material. This bed was similar in appearance to many of the beds eroded by the in situ flume. The two month bed eroded at an erosional shear stress similar to the erosional shear stress necessary to erode the in situ Buzzards Bay muds (0.8 dynes/cm2 ) . Beds biogenically reworked for shorter periods had high values of erosional shear stress, up to twice that of the two month bed. The bed shear stress necessary to erode flat beds of Buzzards Bay sediments increased as the concentration of organic matter in the sediments increased. Deposit-feeders were absent in these beds, and the mode of deposition was kept uniform, so the increase of erosion resistance with increase in organic content is considered a reliable indication of sediment behavior, and not an artifact of experimental conditions. During the in situ experiments, lee drifts were created behind resistant roughness elements on the sea floor. A brief study of lee drift formation in the laboratory suggests that the formation of lee drifts from fine-grained sediments can be predicted to take place when the body Reynolds number of the resistant roughness elements is below a critical value.

Description: The Office of Naval Research supported this research and provided salary support through grants to the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

Description: Submitted to the Department of Mechanical Engineering in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Applied Ocean Sciences at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution February 2007

Description: This thesis introduces an algorithm for inverting for the geoacoustic properties of the seafloor in shallow water. The input data required by the algorithm are estimates of the amplitudes of the normal modes excited by a low-frequency pure-tone sound source, and estimates of the water column sound speed profiles at the source and receiver positions. The algorithm makes use of perturbation results, and computes the small correction to an estimated background profile that is necessary to reproduce the measured mode amplitudes. Range-dependent waveguide properties can be inverted for so long as they vary slowly enough in range that the adiabatic approximation is valid. The thesis also presents an estimator which can be used to obtain the input data for the inversion algorithm from pressure measurements made on a vertical line array (VLA). The estimator is an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF), which treats the mode amplitudes and eigenvalues as state variables. Numerous synthetic and real-data examples of both the inversion algorithm and the EKF estimator are provided. The inversion algorithm is similar to eigenvalue perturbation methods, and the thesis also presents a combination mode amplitude/eigenvalue inversion algorithm, which combines the advantages of the two techniques.

Description: The funding that made this research possible came from the Office of Naval Research, and the WHOI Academic Programs Office.

Description: Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for Master of Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution September 2005

Description: This thesis develops and utilizes a method for analyzing data from the North Pacific Acoustic Laboratory's (NPAL) Basin Acoustic Seamount Scattering Experiment (BASSEX). BASSEX was designed to provide data to support the development of analytical techniques and methods which improve the understanding of sound propagation around underwater seamounts. The depth-dependent sound velocity profile of typical ocean waveguides force sound to travel in convergence zones about a minimum sound speed depth. This ducted nature of the ocean makes modeling the acoustic field around seamounts particularly challenging, compared to an isovelocity medium. The conical shape of seamounts also adds to the complexity of the scatter field. It is important to the U.S. Navy to understand how sound is diffracted around this type of topographic feature. Underwater seamounts can be used to conceal submarines by absorbing and scattering the sound they emit. BASSEX measurements have characterized the size and shape of the forward scatter field around the Kermit-Roosevelt Seamount in the Pacific Ocean. Kermit- Roosevelt is a large, conical seamount which shoals close to the minimum sound speed depth, making it ideal for study. Acoustic sources, including M-sequence and linear frequency-modulated sources, were stationed around the seamount at megameter ranges. A hydrophone array was towed around the seamount to locations which allowed measurement of the perturbation zone. Results from the method developed in this thesis show that the size and shape of the perturbation zone measured coincides with theoretical and experimental results derived in previous work.

Description: Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution August 1982

Description: In an effort to understand the more general mechanisms and rates of pre-depositional reactions that transform organic matter, the types and relevant time scales of reactions that transform carotenoid pigments in the oceanic water column were studied. Suspended particulate matter collected from surface waters of Buzzards Bay, Massachusetts and the Peru upwelling system has a carotenoid distribution reflecting the phytoplanktonic source of the material. The carotenoid distribution of sediment trap samples collected in these same areas was dominated by transformation products. Fucoxanthin, the primary carotenoid of marine diatoms, typically constituted 77-100% of the total fucopigments in suspended particulate material. In sediment trap samples this pigment constituted only 4-85% of the total. The remaining 15-96% of the pigments consisted of the fucoxanthin transformations products: free alcohols (2-94%), dehydrates (0-6%), and opened epoxides (0-19%). Preliminary results suggest that carotenoid esters are hydrolyzed to free alcohols at a rate determined by the turnover of primary productivity. The dehydrated and epoxide opened intermediates of fucoxanthin represent products of transformation reactions that operate over much longer time scales (0.1-10 yrs). Dehydration and epoxide opening are not significant water column transformations, but are important in surface sediments.

Description: This research was supported by the Ocean Sciences Section, National Science Foundation grants OCE 79-25352 and OCE 81-18436, the Office of Naval Research Contract N00014-74-Co-262NR 083-004, the Woods Hole Coastal Research Center project 25 000067 04, and a Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution Student Fellowship.

Description: Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution May 1980

Description: This study of particulate matter in the water column and the underlying surface sediments verifies the occurrence of local, present-day resuspension in the deep sea. The location of the major portion of this work was the South Iceland Rise, a region influenced by the flow of Norwegian Sea Overflow Water. Measured current velocities exceeded 20 cm/sec in the axis of the bottom current for the duration of the deployments, approximately two weeks. Particulate matter was sampled with Niskin bottles, to obtain the standing crop of suspended matter and with sediment traps, to obtain the material in flux through the water column. Box cores were taken to obtain surface sediment samples for comparison with the trap samples. Suspended particulate matter (SPM) and light-scattering studies demonstrate that in the Iceland Rise area the correlation of the L-DGO nephelometer to concentration of SPM differs between clear water and the nepheloid layer. Correlations of light scattering to SPM concentration also differ regionally, but for predicting concentration from light scattering, regression lines at two locations are indistinguishable. Particle size distributions have lower variance in the nepheloid layer than those in clear water which have roughly equal volumes of material in logarithmically increasing size grades from 1-20 μm. Apparent density differences between SPM in clear water and the nepheloid layer are not distinguishable in the Iceland Rise study; apparent densities increase in the nepheloid layer in the western North Atlantic. An apparent density of 1.1 g/cm3 adequately separates clear water from nepheloid layer samples in this region. Compositional variations seen between clear water and the nepheloid layer include a decrease in small coccoliths and an increase in clays and mineral matter. These compositional variations are more dramatic in the western North Atlantic region, due to dissolution of carbonate at the seafloor, later resuspended into the nepheloid layer. Sedimentological evidence of resuspension and redistribution of material are: 1) presence of sediment drifts throughout the Iceland Basin; 2) occurrence of coarse, glacial age sediments beneath the axis of the bottom current; and 3) differences in mineralogy, carbonate and organic carbon contents between surface sediments beneath the bottom current and those in a channel. A comparison of the vertical flux of material measured by sediment traps at 500 meters above bottom (mab) with the accumulation rate in cores, shows that the present-day surface input is an order of magnitude smaller than the accumulation rate. This observation suggests transport of material into some sections of the region by bottom currents or by turbidity currents. The horizontal flux of particulate matter into and out of the region by the bottom current is 100 kg/sec. This material may contribute to the formation of Gardar sediment drift downstream. The trends in % CaC03 and % organic carbon through the water column and in the surface sediments suggest that dissolution of carbonate and decomposition and consumption of organic carbon occurs primarily at the seafloor. These data also suggest preferential preservation at channel stations and/or preferential erosion beneath the bottom current. A comparison of sediment-trap samples with box-core surface samples further supports present-day resuspension. Benthic foraminifera, iron-oxidicoated planktonic foraminifera and the glacial, subpolar planktonic foraminifera (Neogloboquadrina pachyderma (sinistral)) in traps at 10,100 and a few specimens at 500 mab, provide conclusive evidence for local resuspension. The coarse fraction (〉125 μm) of the sediment trap material collected at 10 mab comprises 21-34% of the samples Calculations indicate that this material is locally derived (few kilometers) resuspended material.

Description: This work was financially supported by the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, ONR through contracts N00014-79-C-00-7l NR 083-004, N00014-74-C0262 NR 083-004, and N00014-75-C-029l and ERDA through contracts 13-7923 and 13-2559.

Description: Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology and the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution September 2007

Description: This thesis covers a comprehensive analysis of long-range, deep-ocean, low-frequency, sound propagation experimental results obtained from the North Pacific Ocean. The statistics of acoustic fields after propagation through internal-wave-induced sound-speed fluctuations are explored experimentally and theoretically. The thesis starts with the investigation of the North Pacific Acoustic Laboratory 98-99 data by exploring the space-time scales of ocean sound speed variability and the contributions from different frequency bands. The validity of the Garret & Munk internal-wave model is checked in the upper ocean of the eastern North Pacific. All these results impose hard bounds on the strength and characteristic scales of sound speed fluctuations one might expect in this region of the North Pacific for both internal-wave band fluctuations and mesoscale band fluctuations. The thesis then presents a detailed analysis of the low frequency, broadband sound arrivals obtained in the North Pacific Ocean. The observed acoustic variability is compared with acoustic predictions based on the weak fluctuation theory of Rytov, and direct parabolic equation Monte Carlo simulations. The comparisons show that a resonance condition exists between the local acoustic ray and the internal wave field such that only the internal-waves whose crests are parallel to the local ray path will contribute to acoustic scattering: This effect leads to an important filtering of the acoustic spectra relative to the internal-wave spectra. We believe that this is the first observational evidence for the acoustic ray and internal wave resonance. Finally, the thesis examined the evolution with distance, of the acoustic arrival pattern of the off-axis sound source transmissions in the Long-range Ocean Acoustic Propagation EXperiment. The observations of mean intensity time-fronts are compared to the deterministic ray, parabolic equation (with/without internal waves) and (one-way coupled) normal mode calculations. It is found the diffraction effect is dominant in the shorter-range transmission. In the longer range, the (internal wave) scattering effect smears the energy in both the spatial and temporal scales and thus has a dominant role in the finale region.

Description: The funding that made this research possible came from the Office of Naval Research, and the WHOI Academic Programs Office.