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  • Articles  (2,257)
  • Oxford University Press  (2,257)
  • 2010-2014  (1,699)
  • 1980-1984  (267)
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  • Electrical Engineering, Measurement and Control Technology  (1,244)
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  • Articles  (2,257)
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  • 1
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    Microscopy in this issue (2013)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2013-06-12
    Print ISSN: 0022-0744
    Electronic ISSN: 1477-9986
    Topics: Electrical Engineering, Measurement and Control Technology , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
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  • 2
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    Yeast and fungal cell-wall polysaccharides can self-assemble in vitro into an ultrastructure resembling in vivo yeast cell walls (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-12
    Description: Polysaccharides account for more than 90% of the content of fungal cell walls, but the mechanism underlying the formation of the architecture of the cell walls, which consist of microfibrils embedded in an amorphous wall matrix, remains unknown. We used electron microscopy to investigate ten different fungal cell-wall polysaccharides to determine whether they could self-assemble into the fibrillar or amorphous component of fungal cell walls in a test tube without enzymes. The ultrastructures formed by precipitating β-1,3-glucan and β-1,6-glucan are different depending on the existence of branching in the molecule. Linear β-1,3-glucan and linear β-1,6-glucan precipitate into a fibrillar ultrastructure. Branched β-1,6-glucan, mannan and glycogen precipitates are amorphous. Branched β-1,3-glucan forms a fibrillar plus amorphous ultrastructure. Self-assembly among combinations of different linear and branched cell-wall polysaccharides results in an ultrastructure that resembles that of a yeast cell wall, which suggests that self-assembly of polysaccharides may participate in the development of the three-dimensional architecture of the yeast cell wall.
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  • 3
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    Endocytic mechanism of transferrin-conjugated nanoparticles and the effects of their size and ligand number on the efficiency of drug delivery (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-12
    Description: When considering drug delivery, the amount of drug that can be carried at a particular time and how the drug is incorporated efficiently into cells are important parameters. Transferrin (Tf)-conjugated nanocarriers have been used for the targeted delivery of drugs to cancer cells due to the availability of receptor-mediated clathrin-dependent endocytosis. In general, however, endocytosis seems to differ according to the size and shape of carriers. Large substances are generally internalized into cells by phagocytosis. We studied the internalization mechanism of Tf-conjugated nanoparticles (diameter, 522 nm). Tf-conjugated polystyrene particles were incorporated into cells by receptor-mediated endocytosis with large clathrin-coated vesicles even though their diameter was 〉500 nm and despite that fact that clathrin-coated vesicles have a diameter of 100 nm. This finding suggests that signals for internalization generated by stimulated Tf receptors (TfRs) activate clathrin-mediated endocytosis preferentially. Whether these larger particles could deliver drugs more efficiently than smaller particles was then examined. The toxicity of larger Tf-conjugated biodegradable nanoparticles (poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)) encapsulating doxorubicin (diameter, 216 ± 38 nm) was appreciably dependent on the number of Tf molecules conjugated on a particle and the number of TfRs expressed on the cell membrane. Larger Tf-conjugated particles delivered drugs to cancer cells expressing many TfRs more selectively than their smaller counterparts (diameter, 56 ± 9 nm) if they were decorated with an appropriate number of Tf molecules.
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  • 4
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    Imaging and diffraction of protein crystallization using TEM (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-12
    Description: Structural biology relies on good-quality protein crystals in order for structure determination. Many factors affect the growth process of a protein crystal including the way it nucleates and the types of damage and contamination during its growth. Although the nucleation process and quality of a crystal is vital to structure determination, they are both under-studied areas of research. Our research begins to explore ways of measuring the quality of protein crystals, using TEM, thus overcoming the problems associated with viewing wet specimens in a vacuum. Our current understanding of nucleation is that it is a two-step mechanism involving the formation of nuclei from dense liquid clusters; however; it is still unclear whether nuclei first start as amorphous aggregates or as crystalline lattices. Potentially, electron diffraction may be capable of uncovering this process. Using TEM imaging and diffraction of lysozyme as a model protein crystal, we report the internal two-dimensional strain and the density of crystallites in a protein crystal, at a resolution never seen before. The TEM diffraction shows unique features of crystal mosaicity that can be directly correlated to TEM images.
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  • 5
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    Micro-CT observations of the 3D distribution of calcium oxalate crystals in cotyledons during maturation and germination in Lotus miyakojimae seeds (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-12
    Description: The cotyledon of legume seeds is a storage organ that provides nutrients for seed germination and seedling growth. The spatial and temporal control of the degradation processes within cotyledons has not been elucidated. Calcium oxalate (CaOx) crystals, a common calcium deposit in plants, have often been reported to be present in legume seeds. In this study, micro-computed tomography (micro-CT) was employed at the SPring-8 facility to examine the three-dimensional distribution of crystals inside cotyledons during seed maturation and germination of Lotus miyakojimae (previously Lotus japonicus accession Miyakojima MG-20). Using this technique, we could detect the outline of the embryo, void spaces in seeds and the cotyledon venation pattern. We found several sites that strongly inhibited X-ray transmission within the cotyledons. Light and polarizing microscopy confirmed that these areas corresponded to CaOx crystals. Three-dimensional observations of dry seeds indicated that the CaOx crystals in the L. miyakojimae cotyledons were distributed along lateral veins; however, their distribution was limited to the abaxial side of the procambium. The CaOx crystals appeared at stage II (seed-filling stage) of seed development, and their number increased in dry seeds. The number of crystals in cotyledons was high during germination, suggesting that CaOx crystals are not degraded for their calcium supply. Evidence for the conservation of CaOx crystals in cotyledons during the L. miyakojimae germination process was also supported by the biochemical measurement of oxalic acid levels.
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  • 6
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    Optimal accelerating voltage for HRTEM imaging of zeolite (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-12
    Description: The electron irradiation damage of MFI-type zeolite was estimated under various accelerating voltages of 100, 200 and 300 kV from successively captured high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) images. To determine the optimal accelerating voltage for HRTEM imaging of electron-sensitive MFI zeolite, the critical dose was estimated from the disappearance of a specific fast Fourier transform spot calculated from experimental images. Based only on the electron dose, a higher voltage was more advantageous. However, taking into account the minimum dose for imaging with a CCD camera, the optimal accelerating voltage for imaging MFI zeolite was 200 kV. The minimum dose for image detection with a CCD camera was surmised from the output/input signal ratio dependence on the accelerating voltage and the contrast range in simulated HRTEM images.
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  • 7
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    Electron holography of magnetic field generated by a magnetic recording head (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-12
    Description: The magnetic field generated by a magnetic recording head is evaluated using electron holography. A magnetic recording head, which is connected to an electric current source, is set on the specimen holder of a transmission electron microscope. Reconstructed phase images of the region around the magnetic pole show the change in the magnetic field distribution corresponding to the electric current applied to the coil of the head. A simulation of the magnetic field, which is conducted using the finite element method, reveals good agreement with the experimental observations.
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  • 8
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    A new grating X-ray spectrometer for 2-4 keV enabling a separate observation of In-L{beta} and Sn-L{alpha} emissions of indium tin oxide (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-06-12
    Description: A new multilayer-coated varied line-spaced grating, JS4000, was fabricated and tested for extending the upper limit of a grating X-ray spectrometer for electron microscopy. This grating was designed for 2–3.8 keV at a grazing incidence angle of 1.35°. It was revealed that this new multilayer structure enables us to take soft-X-ray emission spectra continuously from 1.5 to 4.3 keV at the same optical setting. The full-width at half maximum of Te-L α1,2 (3.8 keV) emission peak was 27 eV. This spectrometer was applied to indium tin oxide particles and clearly resolved Sn-L α (3444 eV) and In-L β1 (3487 eV) peaks, which could not be resolved by a widely used energy-dispersive X-ray spectrometer.
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  • 9
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    Microscopy in this issue (2013)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2013-04-02
    Print ISSN: 0022-0744
    Electronic ISSN: 1477-9986
    Topics: Electrical Engineering, Measurement and Control Technology , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
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  • 10
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    Microscopy Hacks: development of various techniques to assist quantitative nanoanalysis and advanced electron microscopy (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-02
    Description: For development of advanced materials, characterization using a scanning transmission electron microscope (STEM) including analysis via X-ray energy-dispersive spectrometry and electron energy-loss spectrometry is essential. Recent advances in aberration-corrected instruments have offered large-scale data acquisition at a high resolution for limited acquisition times both in imaging and in analysis. Further advanced procedures are required to analyze such large-scale datasets more efficiently including quantification. In addition, more simplified tuning procedures are crucial to the best possible resolution in the latest aberration-corrected instruments. In this review article, several approaches to perform advanced electron microscopy, which the author has been developing with his colleague, are described as ‘Microscopy Hacks’. These are (i) quantification and elemental/chemical-imaging procedures, (ii) advanced statistical approaches to handle large-scale datasets and (iii) instrument characterization and tuning procedures including the latest development of an ad hoc autotuning procedure for aberration-corrected STEM imaging.
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  • 11
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    A new type of molybdenum oxide crystal encapsulated inside a single-walled carbon nanotube (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-02
    Description: The crystal structure of a new type of molybdenum oxide crystal encapsulated in a single-walled carbon nanotube (CNT) was examined via diffraction and spectroscopic techniques using both X-rays and electron beams. This new type of molybdenum oxide crystal has a chemical bonding state of MoO 3 , as confirmed by X-ray absorption spectroscopy, and the MoO 3 units exhibit axial symmetry, as clarified by electron diffraction from bundled and individual CNTs encapsulating the crystal. To obtain three-dimensional information on the structure, a cross-sectional sample was prepared using a conventional dimple and ion-mill method. High-resolution transmission electron microscopy images exhibit ring-like shapes that originated from the arrangement of the MoO 3 units inside the CNTs, as observed along the tube axis. The units are spaced 0.36 nm from each other in a ring arrangement and the distance between each ring is 0.391 nm.
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  • 12
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    Transmission electron microtomography in soft materials (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-02
    Description: This review summarizes the recent advances in three-dimensional (3D) imaging techniques and their application to polymer nanostructures, for example, microphase-separated structures of block copolymers. We place particular emphasis on the method of transmission electron microtomography (electron tomography for short; hereafter abbreviated as ET). As a result of recent developments in ET, truly quantitative 3D images of polymer nanostructures can now be obtained with subnanometer resolution. The introduction of scanning optics in ET has made it possible to obtain large amounts of 3D data from micrometer-thick polymer specimens by using conventional electron microscopes at a relatively low accelerating voltage, 200 kV. Thus, ET covers structures over a wide range of thicknesses, from a few nanometers to several hundred nanometers, which corresponds to quite an important spatial range for hierarchical polymer nanostructures. ET provides clear 3D images and a wide range of new structural information that cannot be obtained using other methods. Information traditionally derived from conventional microscopy or scattering methods can be directly acquired from 3D volume data. ET is a versatile technique that is not restricted to only polymer applications; it can also be used as a powerful characterization tool in energy applications such as fuel cells.
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  • 13
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    Performances of an 80-200 kV microscope employing a cold-FEG and an aberration-corrected objective lens (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-02
    Description: The performances of a newly developed 80–200 kV cold field emission gun (CFEG) transmission electron microscope (TEM) integrating a spherical aberration corrector for a TEM image-forming lens have been evaluated. To begin, we show that the stability of both emission and probe currents makes use of this new CFEG much friendlier. The energy spread of electrons emitted from the CFEG has been measured as a function of emission current and shows a very last 0.26 eV energy resolution at 200 kV and even 0.23 eV at 80 kV. The combination of the CFEG and the CEOS™ aberration corrector, associated with enhanced mechanical and electrical stabilities of this new microscope, allows reaching an information transfer below 75 pm at 200 and 80 pm at 80 kV. This unseen resolution at 200 kV has allowed us to study the structure of CoPt nanoparticles by observing direct images of their atomic arrangement along the high indexes zone axis. We have evidenced the presence of defects in these nanostructures that are not parallel to the electron beam. The precise stoichiometry of two iron oxides, FeO and Fe 2 O 3 , has been determined from an analysis of iron valence state that was obtained from a direct analysis of EELS fine structures spectrum of the two oxides.
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  • 14
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    Multi-reference-based multiple alignment statistics enables accurate protein-particle pickup from noisy images (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-02
    Description: Data mining from noisy data/images is one of the most important themes in modern science and technology. Statistical image processing is a promising technique for analysing such data. Automation of particle pickup from noisy electron micrographs is essential, especially when improvement of the resolution of single particle analysis requires a huge number of particle images. For such a purpose, reference-based matching using primary three-dimensional (3D) model projections is mainly adopted. In the matching, however, the highest peaks of the correlation may not accurately indicate particles when the image is very noisy. In contrast, the density and the heights of the peaks should reflect the probability distribution of the particles. To statistically determine the particle positions from the peak distributions, we have developed a density-based peak search followed by a peak selection based on average peak height, using multi-reference alignment (MRA). Its extension, using multi-reference multiple alignment (MRMA), was found to enable particle pickup at higher accuracy even from extremely noisy images with a signal-to-noise ratio of 0.001. We refer to these new methods as stochastic pickup with MRA (MRA-StoPICK) or with MRMA (MRMA-StoPICK). MRMA-StoPICK has a higher pickup accuracy and furthermore, is almost independent of parameter settings. They were successfully applied to cryo-electron micrographs of Rice dwarf virus. Because current computational resources and parallel data processing environments allow somewhat CPU-intensive MRA-StoPICK and MRMA-StoPICK to be performed in a short period, these methods are expected to allow high-resolution analysis of the 3D structure of particles.
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  • 15
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    Immunohistochemistry and ultrastructural characteristics of nerve endings in the oral mucosa of rat (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-02
    Description: The sensory nerve endings of the rat tongue, cheek and palate were studied using immunohistochemical staining and transmission electron microscopy analysis. The specimens were fixed in modified Karnovsky solution and embedded in Spurr resin. Substance P, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP)- and protein gene product 9.5 (PGP b9.5)-containing nerve fibers in the rat tongue, cheek and palate were examined by electronic microscopical analysis and immunohistochemical localization. These fibers run very close to the basal lamina of the epithelium and extend into the filliform and fungiform papillae. Numerous plexiform fibers immunoreactive for substance P, CGRP and PGP 9.5 were found in the connective tissue of mucosa. Electron microscopic observations showed clearly immunostained nerve fibers, which are located very close to the basal lamina of epithelial cells. Some electron-dense granules may be observed in the axoplasms of both substance P and CGRP immunoreactive fibers. Several lamellar corpuscles into the subepithelial connective tissue papillae, Merkel corpuscles and numerous thin unmyelinated and myelinated axons were observed. The terminal axons revealed numerous mitochondria, neurofilaments, microtubules and clear vesicles in the base of axoplasmic protrusions. The lamellar cells showed caveolae and interlamelar spaces filled by amorphous substance. Between the lamellar cells and axoplasmic membrane, and in the adjacent lamellae region, desmosome-type junctions were observed. The quantitative and morphometric analysis showed nerve endings with an average area of 4.83 ± 3.4 μm 2 and 19.4 internal mitochondria in this site and the organized corpuscles with an average area of 79.24 ± 27.24 μm 2 and 24.23 internal mitochondria in this place. All the structures observed are involved in the transmission of pain and mechanoreceptors stimulus of these oral mucosae.
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  • 16
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    A new F-actin structure in fungi: actin ring formation around the cell nucleus of Cryptococcus neoformans (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-02
    Description: The F-actin cytoskeleton of Cryptococcus neoformans is known to comprise actin cables, cortical patches and cytokinetic ring. Here, we describe a new F-actin structure in fungi, a perinuclear F-actin collar ring around the cell nucleus, by fluorescent microscopic imaging of rhodamine phalloidin-stained F-actin. Perinuclear F-actin rings form in Cryptococcus neoformans treated with the microtubule inhibitor Nocodazole or with the drug solvent dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) or grown in yeast extract peptone dextrose (YEPD) medium, but they are absent in cells treated with Latrunculin A. Perinuclear F-actin rings may function as ‘funicular cabin’ for the cell nucleus, and actin cables as intracellular ‘funicular’ suspending nucleus in the central position in the cell and moving nucleus along the polarity axis along actin cables.
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  • 17
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    Serial block-face scanning electron microscopy combined with double-axis electron beam tomography provides new insight into cellular relationships (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-02
    Description: To evaluate the advantages of combination of two advanced electron microscopic technologies such as serial block-face scanning electron microscopy and double-axis electron beam tomography, we analyzed the three-dimensional morphology of cellular relationships between dendritic and plasma cells in the synovial membrane from patients with rheumatoid arthritis, using the combined approach.
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  • 18
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    Ultrathin specimen preparation by a low-energy Ar-ion milling method (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-02
    Description: The low-energy Ar-ion milling method was used to prepare ultrathin specimens for transmission electron microscope observation. The samples were thinned initially by a usual focused ion beam technique or typical Ar-ion milling with a high energy of 2–10 keV and were thinned additionally by an Ar-ion beam with an energy less than 1 keV, typically 500–900 eV. This low-energy ion beam was scanned over the specimen, and secondary electrons induced by the ion beam could be detected to form secondary electron images with a resolution of a few micrometre. Because a desired area can be selected and thinned by the low-energy ion beam, redeposition or cross contamination from irradiation of a metal grid that supports the sample can be prevented. It was shown that the low-energy Ar-ion beam thins a surface amorphous damage layer preferentially and effectively rather than a crystal specimen. Images from ultrathin specimens of two different materials revealed a detailed structure.
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  • 19
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    Subscription Page (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-02
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  • 20
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    Cover Page (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-04-02
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  • 21
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    Characteristics of Successful Environmental Courts and Tribunals (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-07
    Description: Over the course of the past few decades, there has been an exponential growth in environmental courts and tribunals (ECTs). At present, over 350 of these specialized fora for resolving environmental disputes exist, spanning across every region throughout the world. Some of the ECTs have been more successful but others have been less successful. This article identifies 12 characteristics that experience suggests are required for an environmental court or tribunal to operate successfully in practice, drawing upon examples from multiple jurisdictions. In identifying best practices, both substantive and procedural, from existing ECTs, this article will assist two groups: first, stakeholders who are in the process of planning or creating environmental courts or tribunals in their jurisdictions and, secondly, stakeholders and countries that are looking to improve the functioning and performance of their own ECTs.
    Print ISSN: 0952-8873
    Electronic ISSN: 1464-374X
    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Law
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  • 22
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    This is Not a Thing: Land, Sustainability and Legal Education (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-07
    Description: Legal education plays an important but under-acknowledged role in anthropogenic environmental change because it shapes and qualifies people to become lawyers, judges and policy makers. Their work can prohibit and legitimate particular environmental practices. The conceptual framework of law, its taxonomy, as taught to students of law, often perpetuates an unsustainable relationship to the environment where it separates questions of entitlement to land and natural resources from questions of responsibility for them. The implication of perpetuating this separation in law curricula is that generations of legal practitioners will remain unlikely to develop a coherent system of environmental law that aligns rights with responsibilities. Environmental education scholar David Orr argues that ‘all education is environmental education’. But legal education often excludes environmental considerations even where these are materially relevant. Given the role of legal education in shaping future law, this article contends that rethinking its categories opens the possibility to create sustainable land use practice laws and policy.
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  • 23
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    The Limits of Interdisciplinarity and the Practice of Environmental Law Scholarship (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-07
    Description: This article utilises the concept of interdisciplinarity as a background against which to reflect on the nature of environmental law scholarship. The article argues that, while interdisciplinary scholarship has some tangible benefits in terms of expanding the perimeters of a discipline, the effects of interdisciplinary work are often exaggerated. In fact, interdisciplinary scholarship may have the unintended consequence of entrenching academic disciplines even further. In light of this, it is argued that environmental law scholarship is best perceived and defined as a deliberative practice which takes place within, and speaks to, a specific community of scholars—an interpretive community. In order to secure a vibrant discipline, the article argues that the community ought to maintain a flexible, open-ended and broadly defined approach to environmental law scholarship.
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  • 24
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    Corporate Crops: Biotechnology, Agriculture and the Struggle for Control. By GABRIELA PECHLANER (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-07
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  • 25
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    Significant International Environmental Law Cases: 2012-14 (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-07
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    Above and Below the Surface: The Status of Sub-National Authorities in EU Climate Change Regulation (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-07
    Description: European Union (EU) legal studies generally picture the Member States’ local and regional authorities as implementers of national and supranational norms rather than independent regulators. Yet, sub-national authorities (SNAs) have become active regulators in the context of climate change mitigation and adaptation, a role not foreseen by EU primary law, which this article understands to constitute the surface of EU law. This article examines regulatory activity of SNAs from the perspective of EU law. It illustrates that sub-national, national, supranational and international actors are engaged in a process of mutual learning and experimentation and that, below its surface, EU law recognises that SNAs are not mere implementers of norms but also independent regulators.
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    Bund Naturschutz in Bayern Revisited: The Required Standard of Protection under the EU's Habitats Directive Prior to a Site's Adoption as a Site of Community Importance (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-07
    Description: This article presents a fresh analysis of the implications of the 2006 judgment of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU) in Case C-244/05 Bund Naturschutz in Bayern , which clarified the standard of legal protection afforded to sites eligible for adoption as Sites of Community Importance (SCIs) under the EU’s Habitats Directive. The article argues that, as a result of this line of case law, it will be unlawful ( at least in certain cases, and perhaps in all) to apply the Article 6(4) Habitats Directive derogation in respect of eligible sites which have not yet been adopted by the European Commission as SCIs. The Commission appears to have been aware of this potential implication, and acted swiftly to minimise the potentially disruptive impact of the judgment on plans and projects within the EU. The article also considers the relevance of the CJEU’s Sweetman judgment ( C-258/11 ) to the Bund Naturschutz in Bayern line of jurisprudence.
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    Emissions Trading Schemes - Markets, States and Law. By SANJA BOGOJEVIC (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-07
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    Nuisance and Environmental Protection - A Study of Nuisance Injunctions in Practice. By BEN PONTIN (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-07
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    Reconceptualising the Role of the New Zealand Environment Court (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-07
    Description: What does the specialised nature of an environment court entitle it to do? The recent decision of the New Zealand Supreme Court in Environmental Defence Society Incorporated v Marlborough District Council (‘the King Salmon case’)[2014] NZSC 38 helps to answer this question. For the past 20 years, the New Zealand Environment Court has decided applications within a framework of the broadly defined statutory purpose of sustainable resource management. The King Salmon case narrows this wide discretion. This article analyses the implications of the decision, suggesting that it helps to delineate between functions of specialist environment courts that may be considered appropriate (adjudicative and legislative fact finding) and decision-making that strays too far into the policy-sphere.
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    Enforcement at the EPA: High Stakes and Hard Choices. By JOEL A. MINTZ (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-07
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    Protecting Wild Animals from Unnecessary Suffering (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-07
    Description: This article compares the protection from unnecessary suffering afforded to wild animals with that afforded to domesticated animals and animals under human control. It considers various forms of species-specific biodiversity- and conservation-based protection for wild animals, under legislation such as the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and the Conservation of Habitats and Species Regulations 2010, as well as the general protection from intentionally inflicted unnecessary suffering afforded to wild mammals under the Wild Mammals (Protection) Act 1996. The article then compares the standard of protection afforded to wild animals with that afforded to non-wild animals under section 4 of the Animal Welfare Act 2006, which criminalises unnecessary suffering unreasonably caused to non-wild animals.
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    Restoration of singularities in reconstructed phase of crystal image in electron holography (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-29
    Description: Off-axis electron holography can be used to measure the inner potential of a specimen from its reconstructed phase image and is thus a powerful technique for materials scientists. However, abrupt reversals of contrast from white to black may sometimes occur in a digitally reconstructed phase image, which results in inaccurate information. Such phase distortion is mainly due to the digital reconstruction process and weak electron wave amplitude in some areas of the specimen. Therefore, digital image processing can be applied to the reconstruction and restoration of phase images. In this paper, fringe reconnection processing is applied to phase image restoration of a crystal structure image. The disconnection and wrong connection of interference fringes in the hologram that directly cause a 2 phase jump imperfection are correctly reconnected. Experimental results show that the phase distortion is significantly reduced after the processing. The quality of the reconstructed phase image was improved by the removal of imperfections in the final phase.
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    Topics: Electrical Engineering, Measurement and Control Technology , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
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    Response of thymus lymphocytes to streptozotocin-induced diabetes and exogenous vitamin C administration in rats (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-29
    Description: Diabetes causes oxidative stress, which in turn generates excessive free radicals resulting in cellular damage. Vitamin C is an antioxidant that protects tissues and organs from oxidative stress. The thymus is one of the most important lymphoid organs, which regulates T-lymphocyte proliferation and maturation. The aim of this study is to investigate the protective effects of vitamin C on the thymus of streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. The mitotic activity and cell integrity of thymic lymphocytes were explored. Wistar Albino rats were divided into three groups: control (Group 1), STZ-diabetes (Group 2) and vitamin C-treated STZ-diabetics (Group 3). Rats received a single intraperitoneal injection of 45 mg/kg STZ to induce diabetes. Vitamin C (20 mg/kg) was administered intragastrically. Semithin and ultrathin sections were examined under a light or an electron microscope, respectively. Considerable numbers of mitotic lymphocytes were observed in the thymus of control rats. In the diabetic rats, however, numbers of mitotic lymphocytes decreased to ~57% of controls, and cell division abnormalities were observed. Additionally, diabetic rats showed degeneration in the structure of the thymus including trabecular thickening, accumulation of lipid vacuoles, heterochromatic nuclei and loss of mitochondrial cristae. Degradation of medullar and cortical integrity was also detected. In the vitamin C-treated STZ-diabetic group, the structure of the thymus and mitotic activity of the lymphocytes were similar to the control group. These results suggest that vitamin C protects the thymus against injury caused by diabetes and restores thymocyte mitotic activity.
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    Subscription Page (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-29
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    Stability of {111}Pd/{0002}ZnO polar interface formed by internal oxidation of Pd-Zn alloys (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-29
    Description: We investigated the stability of Pd/ZnO polar interfaces formed by internal oxidation of Pd–Zn alloys by using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy, electron energy-loss spectroscopy and convergent-beam electron diffraction. At 1273 K, a $$(111{)}_{\mathrm{Pd}}/(000\overline{2}{)}_{\mathrm{ZnO}}$$ polar interface defaceted and transformed into a curved interface, while another (111) Pd /(0002) ZnO polar interface retained its flatness. The $$(111{)}_{\mathrm{Pd}}/(000\overline{2}{)}_{\mathrm{ZnO}}$$ polar interface lost some stability over non-polar interfaces at 1273 K, while the (111) Pd /(0002) ZnO polar interface remained stable.
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    Interaction of electrons with light metal hydrides in the transmission electron microscope (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-29
    Description: Transmission electron microscope (TEM) observation of light metal hydrides is complicated by the instability of these materials under electron irradiation. In this study, the electron kinetic energy dependences of the interactions of incident electrons with lithium, sodium and magnesium hydrides, as well as the constituting element effect on the interactions, were theoretically discussed, and electron irradiation damage to these hydrides was examined using in situ TEM. The results indicate that high incident electron kinetic energy helps alleviate the irradiation damage resulting from inelastic or elastic scattering of the incident electrons in the TEM. Therefore, observations and characterizations of these materials would benefit from increased, instead decreased, TEM operating voltage.
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    The presence of perforated synapses in the striatum after dopamine depletion, is this a sign of maladaptive brain plasticity? (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-29
    Description: Synaptic plasticity is the process by which long-lasting changes take place at synaptic connections. The phenomenon itself is complex and can involve many levels of organization. Some authors separate forms into adaptations that have positive or negative consequences for the individual. It has been hypothesized that an increase in the number of synapses may represent a structural basis for the enduring expression of synaptic plasticity during some events that involve memory and learning; also, it has been suggested that perforated synapses increase in number after some diseases and experimental situations. The aim of this study was to analyze whether dopamine depletion induces changes in the synaptology of the corpus striatum of rats after the unilateral injection of 6-OHDA. The findings suggest that after the lesion, both contralateral and ipsilateral striata exhibit an increased length of the synaptic ending in ipsilateral (since third day) and contralateral striatum (since Day 20), loss of axospinous synapses in ipsilateral striatum and a significant increment in the number of perforated synapses, suggesting brain plasticity that might be deleterious for the spines, because this type of synaptic contacts are presumably excitatory, and in the absence of the modulatory effects of dopamine, the neuron could die through excitotoxic mechanisms. Thus, we can conclude that the presence of perforated synapses after striatal dopamine depletion might be a form of maladaptive synaptic plasticity.
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    Quantitative measurement of intracellular protein dynamics using photobleaching or photoactivation of fluorescent proteins (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-29
    Description: Unlike in vitro protein dynamics, intracellular protein dynamics are intricately regulated by protein–protein interactions or interactions between proteins and other cellular components, including nucleic acids, the plasma membrane and the cytoskeleton. Alteration of these dynamics plays a crucial role in physiological phenomena such as gene expression and cell division. Live-cell imaging via microscopy with the inherent properties of fluorescent proteins, i.e. photobleaching and photoconversion, or fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, provides insight into the movement of proteins and their interactions with cellular components. This article reviews techniques based on photo-induced changes in the physicochemical properties of fluorescent proteins to measure protein dynamics inside living cells, and it also discusses the strengths and weaknesses of these techniques.
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    Cover Page (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-29
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    Atomic force microscope-assisted scanning tunneling spectroscopy under ambient conditions (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-29
    Description: We have developed a method of atomic force microscopy (AFM)-assisted scanning tunneling spectroscopy (STS) under ambient conditions. An AFM function is used for rapid access to a selected position prior to performing STS. The AFM feedback is further used to suppress vertical thermal drift of the tip–sample distance during spectroscopy, enabling flexible and stable spectroscopy measurements at room temperature.
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    In situ transmission electron microscopy observation of dislocation motion in 9Cr steel at elevated temperatures: influence of shear stress on dislocation behavior (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-29
    Description: To elucidate high-temperature plastic deformation (creep) mechanism in materials, it is essential to observe dislocation motion under tensile loading. There are many reports on in situ transmission electron microscopy (TEM) observations in the literature; however, the relationship between the dislocation motion and shear stress in 9Cr steel is still not clear. In this study, in order to evaluate this relationship quantitatively, in situ TEM observations were carried out in conjunction with finite element method (FEM) analysis. A tensile test sample was strained at an elevated temperature (903 K) inside a transmission electron microscope, and the stress distribution in the strained sample was analyzed by FEM. The dislocation behavior was clearly found to depend on the shear stress. At a shear stress of 66 MPa, both the dislocation velocity and mobile dislocation density were low. However, a high shear stress level of 95 MPa caused a noticeable increase in the dislocation velocity and mobile dislocation density. Furthermore, in this article, we discuss the dependence of the dislocation behavior on stress. The results presented here also indicate that the relationship between the microstructure and the strength of materials can be revealed by the methods used in this work.
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    Dual-axis 360{degrees} rotation specimen holder for analysis of three-dimensional magnetic structures (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-29
    Description: A dual-axis 360° rotation specimen holder was developed for use in reconstructing the three-dimensional (3D) distribution of a magnetic field using a combination of electron holography and tomography. Pillar-shaped specimens are used to obtain accurate reconstruction without a missing angle. The holder's rotation rod can be turned 〉360°; the pillar is set ±45° to the azimuth for both x - and y -axis rotation. Two rotation series of holograms in individual axes are recorded for vector field tomography. The two vector components of the magnetic field are reconstructed directly from the two series of holograms, and the remaining component is calculated using Maxwell's equation, div B = 0. As a result, all 3D magnetic fields are reconstructed.
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    Development of an electrochemical cell for in situ transmission electron microscopy observation (2014)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2014-11-29
    Description: A new type of electrochemical cell was developed for in situ transmission electron microscopy observation that enables the electrode materials to be conveniently changed. The electrochemical cell was used to observe the electrochemical growth or dissolution of copper islands on a gold film with simultaneous cyclic voltammetry measurements. The copper islands could be explained by three-dimensional growing model.
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    Collection of papers on hydrogen and fuel cells for low carbon energy (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-02-17
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    Topics: Energy, Environment Protection, Nuclear Power Engineering , Mechanical Engineering, Materials Science, Production Engineering, Mining and Metallurgy, Traffic Engineering, Precision Mechanics
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    Characterization of Ni-Cu-based catalysts for multi-fuel steam reformer (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-02-17
    Description: Low-temperature methane and methanol steam-reforming catalysts Ni/Al 2 O 3 , Cu/Al 2 O 3 and Ni–Cu/Al 2 O 3 with various loadings of Ni and Cu were prepared using a wet impregnation method. The samples were characterized using scanning electron microscope, surface area (BET) test, X-ray diffraction (XRD), infrared test, CO chemisorption test and temperature-programmed reduction tests. XRD testing showed that NiO and CuO were present. Ni–Cu-alloyed catalyst shows a significant change in the catalyst characteristics compared with those of individual metals. The results presented in this paper show the main changes in the catalyst properties using ex situ testing.
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    Synthesis of new Mn/Ti containing perovskites and examination of their potential for use as solid oxide fuel cell electrodes (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-02-17
    Description: In this paper we report the synthesis of a series of new Mn/Ti containing perovskites, La 1– x Mn x Mn 1– x Ti x O 3– , for investigation of their potential for use as solid oxide fuel cell electrodes, particularly anodes. Single-phase samples could be achieved for x ≤ 0.4. Above this level, La 2 Ti 2 O 7 impurities were found. Conductivity measurements showed electronic conductivity up to a maximum of 12 S cm –1 at 850°C in air. While the samples were shown to be stable in both air and 5% H 2 /N 2 , the conductivities in the latter were significantly lower (0.4 S cm –1 ), which would be an issue for potential anode applications.
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    Characterization and performance of novel modified silica gel/molecular sieve composite (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-11-09
    Description: In this paper, using lithium chloride and calcium chloride as modifying agents, the modified silica gel and molecular sieve composite based on ceramic fiber was prepared by treating ceramic fiber paper with sequential impregnation of the suspension of waterglass and molecular sieve and the aqueous solution of salt. The composition of the modified composite was characterized by using Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Thermogravimetry (TG) and temperature programmed desorption (TPD) were used to evaluate the desorption performance of the composite. FTIR spectra indicated that impregnation salt has no effect on the composition of molecular sieve. TG and TPD analysis indicated that desorption activated energy of modified composite was lower than that of molecular sieve. The result of the dynamic and static adsorption experiment showed that the adsorption performance of molecular sieve enhanced greatly through the modification.
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    Enhanced Heat Transfer and Energy Conservation: A review of the selected papers from ISHTEC2012 (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-11-09
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    Optimization of a two-step process for biodiesel production from Jatropha curcas crude oil (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-11-09
    Description: In the present work, the process of synthesis of methyl esters from Jatropha curcas crude oil as an alternative vegetable oil, using a two-step catalyzed process is shown. In the first step, sulfuric acid was used as a catalyst for the esterification reaction of free fatty acid (FFA) and methanol in order to reduce the FFA content to ~0.2%. In the second step, the product from the first step was further reacted with methanol using potassium metoxide as a catalyst. The two-step processes have been developed and optimized by application of the factorial design and response surface methodology. The optimum conditions for biodiesel production were obtained when using methanol to FFA contents of Jatropha crude oil molar ratio (MR) of 20:1, 5 wt% of sulfuric acid, at 60°C with a reaction time of 60 min in the first step, followed by using an MR of methanol to product from the first step of 6:1, 0.95 wt% of KOCH 3 , at 45°C with a reaction time of 60 min in the second step. The percentage of methyl ester in the obtained product was more than 98%. The model has been found to describe the experimental range studied adequately and allows us to scale-up the process. In addition, the fuel properties of the produced biodiesel were in the acceptable ranges according to EN14214 European biodiesel standards.
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    Composites 'salt inside porous matrix' for adsorption heat transformation: a current state-of-the-art and new trends (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-11-09
    Description: Adsorption heat transformation (AHT) is one of the challenging technical approaches for supporting the world community initiatives to alleviate or reverse the gravity of the problems arising from CO 2 emissions and global warming. The key tool for enhancement of the AHT efficiency and power is a harmonization of adsorbent properties with working conditions of the AHT cycles. It can be realized by means of target-oriented designing the adsorbent specified for a particular AHT cycle. Two-component composites ‘salt in porous matrix’ (CSPMs) offer new opportunities for nano-tailoring their sorption properties by varying the salt chemical nature and content, porous structure of the host matrix and synthesis conditions. CSPMs have been recognized as promising solid sorbents for various AHT cycles, namely adsorption chilling, desiccant cooling, heat storage and regeneration of heat and moisture in ventilation systems. In this review, we survey a current state-of-the-art and new trends in developing efficient CSPMs for various AHT cycles.
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    Modeling of micro/meso-scale reactive transport phenomena in catalyst layers of proton exchange membrane fuel cells (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-11-09
    Description: In this article, we outline and review the methods that are currently used to simulate the micro/meso-scale flow and reactive transport processes in the porous catalyst layers (CLs) of a fuel cell. The approaches beyond the atomic scale (molecular dynamics) and below the conventional continuum scale (Navier–Stokes solvers) use coarse-grained pseudo-particles which can either move on a fixed lattice or continuously in space. The focus is mainly put on the development of the off-lattice pseudo-particle models, such as coarse-grained molecular dynamics (CG-MD), dissipative particle dynamics (DPD) and smoothed particle hydrodynamics (SPH) methods. As an example, a CG-MD method is performed as a microscopic structure reconstruction technique to reflect the self-organized phenomena during the formation steps of a CL. In addition, we also highlight the combined nano-scale elementary kinetic processes and the issues on the coupling of DPD and SPH to finite element (FE) modeling techniques. This article also highlights the critical aspects and addresses the future trends and challenges for these models.
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    Preparation, hydrothermal stability and thermal adsorption storage properties of binderless zeolite beads (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-11-09
    Description: Novel binderless zeolite beads of types A and X have been synthesized and characterized by scanning electron microscopy, mercury intrusion, nitrogen adsorption, thermogravimetry, water adsorption isotherm measurements, cyclic hydrothermal treatments and storage tests. The binderless molecular sieves show an improved adsorption capacity, sufficient hydrothermal stability, higher specific energies and the potential for a better performance density of the storage. Both open and closed storage tests have shown comparable adsorption capacities and specific energies for the binderless molecular sieves. A significantly higher discharging temperature, however, could be realized with the open storage system.
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    Impact of climate change on ventilation load and energy use of air conditioning systems in buildings of Hong Kong (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-11-09
    Description: Climate change may seriously affect the energy consumption of buildings by influencing their air conditioning loads, especially the ventilation loads which vary directly with the local weather conditions. Research on how the ventilation load responds to climate change is of great significance, especially in coastline subtropical regions like Hong Kong. This paper investigated the impacts of climate change on buildings' ventilation load and building energy use in Hong Kong with the hourly meteorological data from 1950 to 2007. Results have been well validated by the simulation of a typical local hotel building during this period. The results show that climate warming increases both sensible and latent parts of the cooling ventilation load. The latent part, which occupies ~80% of the total ventilation load, increases at a higher rate, about twice of that of the sensible one. Furthermore, it is found that the urban heat island (UHI) effect causes a much higher growth rate of the ventilation load at night, which is about three times compared with that in the daytime. The latent part of the cooling ventilation load at night, which is found to be the most sensitive component to the climate change, plays a most significant role in the energy consumption increase. The possible measures were thus suggested to avoid negative changes of the ventilation load. Besides, reducing the UHI effect by better urban planning also significantly benefits the local buildings with a long air-conditioning operation time.
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    Problems involved in the shell-side performance of a longitudinal-flow shell-and-tube heat exchanger with decrease in L/D and its solutions (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-11-09
    Description: This paper presents a numerical simulation of the fluid flow and heat transfer in the shell-side of a large-scale shell-and-tube heat exchanger with longitudinal flow through porous-medium and distributed-resistance model. Such characteristics as flow field distribution, shell-side pressure drop, heat transfer performance and overall performance factor of the shell-side were studied with change in L / D and Re . It was shown that when L / D decreased from 6.0 to 1.5 with the same Re , the fluid flow maldistribution became intense, pressure drop increased sharply, and that the overall performance factor decreased sharply. Particularly, when L / D ≤ 2.0, the problems became more and more serious. Through a detailed analysis of the pressure field distribution, it was discovered that 〉80% of the total pressure drop occurred in the region of the inlet and the outlet, where the fluid flow mainly cross the tube bundle. In order to solve the problems, the use of a novel structure of multi-parallel-channel inlet and outlet (MPC) in the shell-side was proposed. A comprehensive investigation showed that MPC is very effective not only in optimizing the fluid flow distribution of the shell-side and enhancing the global heat transfer performance of a heat exchanger, but also in decreasing shell-side pressure drop.
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    Review of thermal processing of biomass and waste in molten salts for production of renewable fuels and chemicals (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-11-09
    Description: Renewable energy has gained great attention and interest in recent years due to growing energy consumption and greater environmental concerns. Biomass is regarded as a promising candidate for replacing fossil-derived products, through either thermal, biological, or physical processes. This review focuses on thermal processing of biomass in molten salts for production of renewable fuels and chemicals, concepts based on dispersion of biomass or waste particles in a molten salt bath. Inorganic salts have very high heat capacities and good thermal stability at high temperatures. Some molten salts have catalytic properties, and in thermal processing of biomass, the product yields and compound compositions of products can be adjusted by varying compositions and amount of molten salts. In addition, molten salts will retain noxious contaminants, and it is thus possible to use difficult convertible- and/or contaminated biomass as feedstock.
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    Biochemical processing of reed canarygrass into fuel ethanol (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-11-09
    Description: Reed canarygrass is a temperate perennial grass of interest as a bioenergy crop. The canarygrass was evaluated for conversion to bioethanol using liquid hot water and dilute ammonia pretreatments prior to fermentation. The resulting hydrolysates were evaluated for production of ethanol, xylose and soluble xylans. Dilute ammonia gave higher yield efficiencies than liquid hot water. The optimal condition for dilute ammonia (4% w/v) pretreatment was 170°C for 20 min. Hydrolysates were converted to ethanol using Saccharomyces in the presence of a blend of commercial cellulases and additional carbohydrases. The final ethanol conversion efficiency was 84% based upon total hexosans, with 72% of the xylan converted to soluble xylan oligomers.
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    JEM in this issue, 61:5 (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-10-12
    Print ISSN: 0022-0744
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    Topics: Electrical Engineering, Measurement and Control Technology , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
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    Cover Page (2012)
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    Publication Date: 2012-10-12
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    The role of collagen arrangement change during tendon healing demonstrated by scanning electron microscopy (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-10-12
    Description: The dry weight of tendon tissue is accounted for mainly by collagen fibers. Accordingly, the tendon-healing process primarily involves repair of collagen fibers. During the remodeling phase of tendon healing, newly proliferating collagen fibers are transformed into a mature repaired tendon. Despite the importance of this phenomenon, the details of fibrous rebuilding have not been reported previously. The aim of this study was to visualize the ultrastructural changes and to obtain a clear understanding of the reorganization of the collagen fibers in the tendon repair site, using rat Achilles tendons. We used scanning electron microscopy (SEM) with cell maceration as the main method of analysis. Pretreatment with cell maceration removed the cellular components successfully. This allowed precise visualization of each collagen fiber and the three-dimensional network of the fibers. This study was the first to apply the cell-maceration/SEM method to observe tendon tissue. Seven days after surgery, new collagen fibers grew extensively in the repair site in a random arrangement. Fourteen days after surgery, the collagen fibers began to form an axial arrangement. Near the tendon stump, this change progressed from the outer layer to the core region. On the other hand, in the middle of the repair site, it progressed from the core to the outer layer. Change in the axial arrangement of collagen fibers contributes to the connection between the repair site and the tendon stump and to the separation of the repair site from the paratenon.
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    Subscription Page (2012)
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    Publication Date: 2012-10-12
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    Mapping of minority carrier lifetime distributions in multicrystalline silicon using transient electron-beam-induced current (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-10-12
    Description: We have used transient electron-beam-induced current (EBIC) to map minority carrier lifetime distributions in multicrystalline Silicon (mc-Si). In this technique, the electron beam from a scanning transmission electron microscope was on–off modulated while the sample was scanned. The resulting transient EBIC was analyzed to form a lifetime map. An analytical function was introduced as part of the analysis in determining this map. We have verified this approach using numerical simulations and have reproduced a lifetime map for an mc-Si wafer.
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    Direct observation of the initial process of Ostwald ripening using spherical aberration-corrected transmission electron microscopy (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-04-16
    Description: We study in situ behavior of platinum single atoms on amorphous carbon (a-carbon) using a spherical aberration-corrected transmission electron microscope (AC-TEM). Diffusion of single atoms, bi-atoms, clusters (〈1 nm) and nanoparticles (〈3 nm) was recorded in the same image with a time resolution of 1 s, and such diffusion matches the expected mechanism of Ostwald ripening, which was seen on these samples. In situ AC-TEM shows promise for dynamical observation of single atom diffusion, which is important for understanding nanosized catalysts and ceramic sintering processes. We apply in situ AC-TEM to image platinum (Pt) nanoparticles on a-carbon, which is a model catalyst system for the real Pt electrode catalysts using alloys and core–shell structures supported on carbon/oxide composite materials in the proton exchange membrane fuel cell.
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    Ultrastructural interaction between spermatozoon and human oviductal cells in vitro (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-04-16
    Description: The oviduct is an important organ for successful mammalian reproduction. In this work, human oviducts were inseminated and their explants analyzed using scanning electron microscopy in order to study, at a finer ultrastructual level, the interaction between spermatozoon and oviduct in vitro . Results show unequivocally a spermatozoon tightly attached through the acrosomal region of its head to several cilia of the human tubal epithelial cells. This finding proves that spermatozoa do indeed adhere to the endosalpinx, a fact of utmost relevance for the physiology of the reproductive process, since it supports the idea of a spermatozoa reservoir being formed in the oviduct, which is also briefly discussed.
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    Efficient and accurate analysis of mitochondrial morphology in a whole cell with a high-voltage electron microscopy (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-04-16
    Description: Mitochondria in all eukaryotes are essential organelles responsible for adenosine triphosphate synthesis, calcium homeostasis and steroidogenesis. Because the structure and distribution of mitochondria are highly diverse depending on their function and cellular conditions, it is important to develop a rapid and accurate method to assess their morphology. In this study, we visualize whole mitochondria in cultured cells using high-voltage electron microscopy (HVEM). Compared with conventional transmission electron microscopic approaches, the present method does not require thin sectioning and thus requires less time for image acquisition and processing. Furthermore, compared with fluorescence-based light microscopic approaches, our method provides more accurate size information. Thus, we propose that HVEM is a useful tool for rapid and accurate analysis of mitochondrial morphology and distribution in a cell.
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    A useful method for observing intracellular structures of free and cultured cells by scanning electron microscopy (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-04-16
    Description: Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) using osmium-maceration methods has been used for analyzing the three-dimensional structure of cell organelles in tissue samples, but it has been quite difficult to observe free and cultured cells with this technique. The present study was performed to develop a method that can be applied to free and cultured cells for SEM studies of intracellular structures after osmium maceration. The method was also applied to light microscopy (LM) and to transmission electron microscopy (TEM). HeLa cells and human leukocytes were fixed with a mixture of 0.5% paraformaldehyde and 0.5% glutaraldehyde followed by an additional fixation with 1% osmium tetroxide. These cells were embedded in low-melting-point agarose. A temperature-responsive dish was also used for collection of cultured cells before embedding. For LM and TEM, the cell-embedded agarose was further embedded in epoxy resin, and semi- and ultrathin sections were examined conventionally. For SEM, the agarose was freeze-fractured in 50% dimethyl sulfoxide, processed for osmium maceration and observed in a high-resolution SEM. Low-melting-point agarose was useful as an embedding medium for SEM, because it was well preserved during prolonged osmication for SEM. Thus, the fine structure of cell organelles was clearly analyzed by SEM after osmium-maceration treatment. These SEM images could also be compared with those of LM and TEM of the agarose-embedded tissues.
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    Subscription Page (2012)
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    Publication Date: 2012-04-16
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    Magnetization distribution of magnetic vortex of amorphous FeSiB investigated by electron holography and computer simulation (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-04-16
    Description: The three-dimensional spin structure of the magnetic vortex of FeSiB, an amorphous soft magnetic material, was investigated by holography observation and computer simulation. Magnetization distribution in the neighborhood of the vortex center was estimated from the phase distribution obtained by holography observation. To confirm this magnetization distribution, sample-tilting experiments were performed: when the sample was tilted with respect to the electron beam direction, the phase-image center was found to shift along the tilting axis. Finite-element computer simulation was carried out to estimate the amount of shifts of the phase-image center in the sample tilting from the experimental magnetization distributions in the no sample-tilting conditions. We found that the simulated shifts of the phase-image center were in good agreement with those in the sample-tilting experiment, thus confirming the magnetization distribution near the vortex center obtained by holography observation.
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    JEM in this issue, 61:2 (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-04-16
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    Cover Page (2012)
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    Publication Date: 2012-04-16
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    Space charge characteristics of an insulating thin film negatively charged by a low-energy electron beam (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-04-16
    Description: In this study, based on a comprehensive numerical simulation of self-consistent charging, we investigate the formation, evolution and influencing factors of space charge distributions for a grounded insulating thin film of SiO 2 negatively charged by a keV non-penetrating focused electron beam. The simulated space charge presents first positive distributions and then negative ones along both the radial and depth directions because of the difference between electron and hole transports. The variations in distribution occur within a range of the minimum potential acting as a potential barrier for carrier transport. The negative space charge is distributed more widely and deeply, though its peak value in density is usually lower than that of the positive one. Electrons trapped outside the minimum potential range dominate the strength of negative charging. With the increase in potential barrier and the occurrence of leakage current, the space charge eventually reaches equilibrium and exhibits an approximately one-dimensional axial distribution outside the minimum potential range. Distribution features of the space charge density in the equilibrium state correlate with the film and beam parameters via transients of the leakage current. These results and analyses provide new insights into the negative charging effects involved in various electron-beam-based surface microscopic methods, analyses and fabrication techniques.
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    Structure and formation of the twisted plywood pattern of collagen fibrils in rat lamellar bone (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-04-16
    Description: This study was designed to elucidate details of the structure and formation process of the alternate lamellar pattern known to exist in lamellar bone. For this purpose, we examined basic internal lamellae in femurs of young rats by transmission and scanning electron microscopy, the latter employing two different macerations with NaOH at concentrations of 10 and 24%. Observations after the maceration with 10% NaOH showed that the regular and periodic rotation of collagen fibrils caused an alternation between two types of lamellae: one consisting of transversely and nearly transversely cut fibrils, and the other consisting of longitudinally and nearly longitudinally cut fibrils. This finding confirms the consistency of the twisted plywood model. The maceration method with 24% NaOH removed bone components other than cells, thus allowing for three-dimensional observations of osteoblast morphology. Osteoblasts extended finger-like processes paralleling the inner bone surface, and grouped in such a way that, within a group, the processes arranged in a similar direction. Transmission electron microscopy showed that newly deposited fibrils were arranged alongside these processes. For the formation of the alternating pattern, our findings suggest that: (1) osteoblasts control the collagen fibril arrangement through their finger-like process position; (2) osteoblasts behave similarly within a group; (3) osteoblasts move their processes synchronously and periodically to promote alternating different fibril orientation; and (4) this dynamic sequential deposition of fibrils results in the alternate lamellar (or twisted plywood) pattern.
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    Three-dimensional reconstructions of electrostatic potential distributions with 1.5-nm resolution using off-axis electron holography (2012)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2012-04-16
    Description: Three-dimensional (3D) reconstruction experiments were carried out by observing high-resolution 3D electrostatic potential distributions of Pt nanoparticles using off-axis electron holographic tomography. These Pt nanoparticles were mounted on the surfaces of amorphous silicon pillars. In order to realize high-resolution observation, we developed a mechanically stable 3D specimen holder with small specimen drifts and vibrations. From the 3D electrostatic potential distribution data of Pt nanoparticles (2.0 nm in diameter), we obtained the resolution of 1.5 nm.
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    Effect of solution temperature and absorber pressure in R134a-DMAC system using horizontal tubular absorbers (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-09
    Description: Investigations are carried out to study the heat and mass transfer characteristics of a falling film horizontal absorber by employing a two-dimensional numerical technique. The potential refrigerant, R134a (1,1,1,2-tetrafluroethane), is absorbed by the falling film of the R134a–DMAC (dimethylacetamide) solution. The variations of performance parameters along the tube surface are presented for different solution inlet temperatures and absorber pressures. The mass flux at the interface is observed to be higher at higher solution temperature and absorber pressure. The variation of the interface to bulk fluid and bulk fluid to wall heat transfer coefficient, overall heat transfer coefficient and mass transfer coefficient are studied for different solution temperatures and absorber pressures.
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    Solar absorber tube analysis: thermal simulation using CFD (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-09
    Description: Solar–thermal power plants are being deployed world-wide. These plants have traditionally used steel absorber pipes. Two types of fluids have been used in such ventures, synthetic aromatic fluid or water. Fluid flow in parabolic trough systems leads to instability in the tube due to the concentrated solar flux on only one-half of the absorber tube, resulting in temperature asymmetricity. The resulting stresses cause deflection and bending of the tube. This paper deals with direct steam systems and proposes incorporation of internal helical fins within the tube to reduce temperature variation. The fins provide an orderly distribution of flow from the ‘hot’ to the ‘cold’ side of the tube. A CFD simulation was carried out for three fin pitches, and an aluminium pipe without fins. The effect on heat transfer improvement and temperature asymmetry is presently reported. It is shown that the thermal gradient between the upper and lower temperature for the pipe without a helical fin (20 K) is considerably higher compared with the pipes with 100, 200 and 400 mm pitch helical fins, i.e. 10.8, 13, 14.9 K, respectively. Also, the thermal gradient for the aluminium pipe was also much lower when compared with the steel pipe.
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    A review of state-of-the-art aerogel applications in buildings (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-09
    Description: Aerogels are a special type of solid material with nanometre-scale pores 〈1/3000th the width of a human hair. Porosity is in excess of 90%, in some cases as high as 99.9%, and densities can be as low as 3 kg/m 3 . Aerogels are essentially ‘puffed-up sand’ and are often termed ‘frozen smoke’. Their thermal conductivity (0.014 W/m K at room temperature) is the lowest of any solids, and they also have good transparency. The acoustic properties of aerogels make them effective insulators against noise, and aerogels have the lowest refractive index, and dielectric constant of all solid materials. The unusual properties of aerogels open the way to a new range of opportunities for their application in buildings. This paper provides information on their unique features and reviews the potential applications for aerogels in buildings as well as latest developments in the field.
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    Energy co-operatives in the UK (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-09
    Description: The UK is implementing different types of policies to encourage the use of renewable energy for electricity generation. Currently, the UK is falling behind other European countries in this respect. Hence, co-operatives play an important role in helping the UK to move forward. Co-operatives are of interest to the Government in respect of economic development in the community. Co-operatives keep both the business, or entity, and the wealth it creates locally, which also supports the local economy. Survival rates are higher for co-operatives, which will make them a more sustainable choice for businesses and have a positive impact upon employment opportunities. Co-operatives can be adapted to suit all types of situations, especially during difficult times such as the world economic downturn. This article explores the role energy co-operatives can play within the context of electricity generation in the UK. A review of the degree of exploitation of two leading and currently deployed renewable energy technologies is presented for key member states within the EU. This is followed by a discussion on the growth of the co-operatives and their role in meeting the aims of achieving a low-carbon economy.
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    Investigations of emission characteristics and thermal efficiency in a spark-ignition engine fuelled with natural gas-hydrogen blends (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-09
    Description: This paper presents the experimental results of a single cylinder Enfield engine using an electronically controlled fuel injection system which was developed to carry out exhaustive tests using neat compressed natural gas (CNG), and mixtures of hydrogen in CNG (HCNG) as 5, 10, 15 and 20% by energy. Experiments were performed at 2000, 2400 and 2800 rpm with wide open throttle and varying the equivalence ratio. Hydrogen, which has a fast burning rate, when added to CNG, enhances its flame propagation rate. The emissions of HC, CO, decreased with increasing percentage of hydrogen but NO x was found to increase. The results indicated a marked improvement in the brake thermal efficiency with the increase in percentage of hydrogen added. The improved thermal efficiency was clearly observed to be more in lean regions when compared with rich regions.
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    Experimental investigation on green roofs over buildings (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-09
    Description: Green roof is a passive cooling technique that stops incoming solar radiation from reaching the building structure below. Many studies have been conducted over the past 10 years to consider the potential building energy benefits of green roofs and have shown that they can offer benefits in energy reduction for winter heating as well as summer cooling. Green roofs have many benefits over conventional roofs: they reduce storm water run-off, the heat island effect in cities and energy requirements for cooling; all of this while sequestering some CO 2 from the atmosphere. But because of their expense, the building industry has yet to fully embrace their large-scale implementation. Over the summer', two test structures, one with a green roof and the other with an RCC roof, were built and tested at the Ujjain Engineering College, Ujjain, RGPV University, to determine their cooling potential. Results indicate that the test cell with the green roof consistently performs better than those with the conventional cement RCC roof.
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    Performance of solid desiccant-based evaporative cooling system under the climatic zones of India (2013)
    Oxford University Press
    Details
    Publication Date: 2013-02-09
    Description: For better use of evaporative cooling techniques in humid climate, a desiccant cooling system (DCS) can be an alternative option in place of a conventional cooling system. This paper presents a theoretical comparative study of the performance of a DCS for four different climatic conditions of India (i.e. hot and dry, warm and humid, moderate and composite climates). From the analysis, it was found that the performance of a DCS is suitable in warm and humid climate. The thermodynamic equations of intermediate states of the desiccant cooling cycle are also presented. Effects of some parameters such as outdoor specific humidity, R / P ratio (regeneration air flow/process air flow) and power required to regenerate the desiccant wheel have been studied. The theoretical minimum R / P ratio has been computed for the maximum coefficient of performance (COP) of a DCS and its value was found to be 0.55 in Mumbai (warm and humid climate) for the 80% effectiveness of ECW. This paper also presents the relationship between COP and regeneration power with the different values of R / P ratios.
    Print ISSN: 1748-1317
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    Sorption, permeation and selective transport of moisture/VOCs through a CA membrane for total heat recovery (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-09
    Description: This article studies in detail the permeation properties of highly permeable and highly selective polymer membrane for water vapor/volatile organic compound (VOC). A dense cellulose acetate (CA) membrane is prepared by the dry method. The sorption and permeation properties of water vapor and VOCs (acetic acid, formaldehyde, acetaldehyde, toluene and ethane) are experimentally investigated. Besides, the mass transfer coefficient of self-membrane can be separated from the total mass transfer coefficient. Using sorption and permeation data of gases, diffusion coefficient is calculated based on a solution–diffusion mechanism. The selectivity for water vapor/VOC is discussed and analyzed. The permeability selectivities of water vapor/VOC are all over 100. The result shows that the novel CA sense membrane is suitable for air dehumidification and total heat recovery.
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    Yaw analysis of a micro-scale horizontal-axis wind turbine operating in turbulent wind conditions (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-09
    Description: Building-mounted micro-wind turbines are capable of contributing a significant proportion of a building's energy needs. However, the introduction of this technology in built-up areas has been limited due to a number of issues, such as lower wind speeds, high turbulence and noise. This study presents an investigation into the effect of turbulence, which is more prominent in the built environment, on the operation of a micro-scale horizontal-axis wind turbine. For this purpose, an innovative method of sensing the yaw position of the wind turbine is required, which is discussed along with detailed methodology and the results obtained. The wind turbine used in the experiment uses a swing rudder system, and the effectiveness of this in turbulent conditions was also investigated. This study concluded that the wind turbine missed ~20% of the total power available in the wind and that the swing rudder system was suited to high wind speeds, while the fixed rudder suited to low wind speeds.
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    Off-design analysis of ORC and CO2 power production cycles for low-temperature surplus heat recovery (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-09
    Description: Electricity production with an organic Rankine cycle and a transcritical Rankine cycle is investigated in this paper with R-123 and CO 2 as working fluids, respectively. The analysis focuses on the off-design behavior with different control strategies to show some of the occurring difficulties. It was found that both cycles need an advanced control strategy to avoid non-feasible operation (R-123) or significant losses in work output (CO 2 ). A challenge for the advanced control is the required large change in expander speed, which can lead to compatibility problems with the grid.
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    Fluorescence imaging of synapse formation and remodeling (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: Brain function is based on proper connectivity between neuronal cells. In the developing brain, neurons extend axons and form synaptic connections with appropriate postsynaptic neurons. Molecular mechanisms underlying establishment of proper synaptic connections are one of the most important topics in the field of developmental neurobiology. Dynamics of synaptic structure and local recruitment of synaptic molecules can be studied by live-cell imaging of neurons expressing fluorescent probes of synaptic molecules. In this review, examples of live-cell fluorescence imaging are presented and their contributions to our understanding about the molecular mechanisms of synapse formation and remodeling are discussed. Imaging of synaptic proteins in living neurons revealed rapid formation of individual synapses within hours and extensive remodeling of synaptic connections. Different types of neurons express unique protrusions from dendrites and axons, which play important roles in synapse formation and maturation. Rapid formation of synaptic structure is associated with continual assembly and disassembly of synaptic scaffolding proteins, which are essential building blocks of the presynaptic active zone and the postsynaptic density (PSD). Quantitative analyses of PSD scaffolding proteins further confirmed their essential roles in maintenance of the synaptic structure. These examples clearly indicate that fluorescence-based live-cell imaging is an indispensable technique in the research on synapse development and its impact will further increase in combination with development of new light microscopic techniques in the future.
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    Topics: Electrical Engineering, Measurement and Control Technology , Natural Sciences in General , Physics
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    High-speed atomic force microscopy (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: High-speed atomic force microscopy (HS-AFM) has been developed as a nano-dynamics visualization technique. This microscopy permits direct observation of structure dynamics and dynamic processes of biological molecules in physiological solutions, at a subsecond to sub-100 ms temporal resolution and an ~2 nm lateral and a 0.1 nm vertical resolution. Importantly, tip–sample interactions do not disturb the biomolecules' functions. Various functioning proteins including myosin V walking on an actin filament and bacteriorhodopsin responding to light have been successfully visualized with HS-AFM. In the quest for understanding the functional mechanisms of proteins, inferences no longer have to be made from static snapshots of molecular structures and dynamic behavior of optical markers attached to proteins. High-resolution molecular movies obtained from HS-AFM observations reveal the details of molecules' dynamic behavior in action, without the need for intricate analyses and interpretations. In this review, I first describe the fundamentals behind the achieved high imaging rate and low invasiveness to samples, and then highlight recent imaging studies. Finally, future studies are briefly described.
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    Confessions of an icosahedral virus crystallographer (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: This is a personal history of my structural studies of icosahedral viruses that evolved from crystallographic studies, to hybrid methods with electron cryo-microscopy and image reconstruction (cryoEM) and then developed further by incorporating a variety of physical methods to augment the high resolution crystallographic studies. It is not meant to be comprehensive, even for my own work, but hopefully provides some perspective on the growth of our understanding of these remarkable biologic assemblies. The goal is to provide a historical perspective for those new to the field and to emphasize the limitations of any one method, even those that provide atomic resolution information about viruses.
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    Enabling direct nanoscale observations of biological reactions with dynamic TEM (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: Biological processes occur on a wide range of spatial and temporal scales: from femtoseconds to hours and from angstroms to meters. Many new biological insights can be expected from a better understanding of the processes that occur on these very fast and very small scales. In this regard, new instruments that use fast X-ray or electron pulses are expected to reveal novel mechanistic details for macromolecular protein dynamics. To ensure that any observed conformational change is physiologically relevant and not constrained by 3D crystal packing, it would be preferable for experiments to utilize small protein samples such as single particles or 2D crystals that mimic the target protein's native environment. These samples are not typically amenable to X-ray analysis, but transmission electron microscopy has imaged such sample geometries for over 40 years using both direct imaging and diffraction modes. While conventional transmission electron microscopes (TEM) have visualized biological samples with atomic resolution in an arrested or frozen state, the recent development of the dynamic TEM (DTEM) extends electron microscopy into a dynamic regime using pump-probe imaging. A new second-generation DTEM, which is currently being constructed, has the potential to observe live biological processes with unprecedented spatiotemporal resolution by using pulsed electron packets to probe the sample on micro- and nanosecond timescales. This article reviews the experimental parameters necessary for coupling DTEM with in situ liquid microscopy to enable direct imaging of protein conformational dynamics in a fully hydrated environment and visualize reactions propagating in real time.
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    Transmission electron microscope as an ultimate tool for nanomaterial property studies (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: In this review, a non-standard application of high-resolution transmission electron microscope (HRTEM), namely the creation of so-called NanoLaboratory for the nanomaterial property studies within its pole piece, is presented. The most modern research trends with respect to nanotube, graphene and nanowire, as well as electrical, mechanical and electromechanical properties are demonstrated. In addition, the unique possibilities of modeling real technological processes inside HRTEM, for example, the performance of Li-ion batteries, are illustrated. The contribution particularly highlights the recent research endeavors of our Tsukuba group in line with all the above-mentioned directions of in situ TEM.
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    3D imaging and quantitative analysis of small solubilized membrane proteins and their complexes by transmission electron microscopy (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: Inherently unstable, detergent-solubilized membrane protein complexes can often not be crystallized. For complexes that have a mass of 〉300 kDa, cryo-electron microscopy (EM) allows their three-dimensional (3D) structure to be assessed to a resolution that makes secondary structure elements visible in the best case. However, many interesting complexes exist whose mass is below 300 kDa and thus need alternative approaches. Two methods are reviewed: (i) Mass measurement in a scanning transmission electron microscope, which has provided important information on the stoichiometry of membrane protein complexes. This technique is applicable to particulate, filamentous and sheet-like structures. (ii) 3D-EM of negatively stained samples, which determines the molecular envelope of small membrane protein complexes. Staining and dehydration artifacts may corrupt the quality of the 3D map. Staining conditions thus need to be optimized. 3D maps of plant aquaporin SoPIP2;1 tetramers solubilized in different detergents illustrate that the flattening artifact can be partially prevented and that the detergent itself contributes significantly. Another example discussed is the complex of G protein-coupled receptor rhodopsin with its cognate G protein transducin.
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    Fluorescence imaging in the last two decades (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: In commemoration of the 20th anniversary of the molecular cloning of the gene for the green fluorescent protein from the jellyfish Aequorea victoria , I would like to reflect on the development of new fluorescence imaging technology in the last two decades. As this technology has become increasingly diversified, it has become more and more of a challenge to come up with a comprehensive and exhaustive review of it. Here I will focus on optogenetics and large-scale, three-dimensional reconstruction. Those two technological innovations have been achieved in the neuroscience community owing to the combined efforts of molecular biologists and light microscopists. In addition, modern fluorescence imaging has indeed improved our understanding of the spatiotemporal regulation of fundamental biological functions at cellular level. As an example, I will introduce some findings we made regarding the movement of biomolecules across the nuclear membrane. The above-mentioned imaging approaches are possible today but were impossible two decades ago.
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    Microscopy in this issue (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
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    Preface on the occasion of the inauguration issue of Microscopy (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
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    Monochromated STEM with a 30 meV-wide, atom-sized electron probe (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: The origins and the recent accomplishments of aberration correction in scanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) are reviewed. It is remembered that the successful correction of imaging aberrations of round lenses owes much to the successful correction of spectrum aberrations achieved in electron energy loss spectrometers 2–3 decades earlier. Two noteworthy examples of the types of STEM investigation that aberration correction has made possible are shown: imaging of single-atom impurities in graphene and analyzing atomic bonding of single atoms by electron energy loss spectroscopy (EELS). Looking towards the future, a new all-magnetic monochromator is described. The monochromator uses several of the principles pioneered in round lens aberration correction, and it employs stabilization schemes that make it immune to variations in the high voltage of the microscope and in the monochromator main prism current. Tests of the monochromator carried out at 60 keV have demonstrated energy resolution as good as 12 meV and monochromated probe size of ~1.2 Å. These results were obtained in separate experiments, but they indicate that the instrument can perform imaging and EELS with an atom-sized probe 〈30 meV wide in energy, and that an improvement in energy resolution to 10 meV and beyond should be possible in the future.
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    Development of Cs and Cc correctors for transmission electron microscopy (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: Novel spherical aberration (Cs) and chromatic aberration (Cc) correctors, which correct aberrations using a new principle, were developed. The asymmetric Cs correctors were designed for use in the probe- and image-forming systems at 300 kV to diminish undesired parasitic aberrations. The correctors composed of non-equivalent multipoles connecting with a demagnifying transfer doublet in the system. The axial aberrations were corrected well up to the fifth order except 6-fold astigmatism ( A 6 ) experimentally. Next, we developed superior Cs correctors for probe- and image-forming systems of low voltage microscope that uses triple dodecapoles to correct 6-fold astigmatism ( A 6 ). An important feature of this system is the rotation of the 3-fold astigmatism azimuth at the second dodecapole. The optimum rotation of the three hexapole fields for the compensation of A 6 was derived from theoretical calculations. The experimental results confirmed the compensation of A 6 and the third-order Cs. Finally, a unique Cc corrector, which utilized the concave lens effect formed by a long quadrupole field, was designed. The performance of the Cc corrector was investigated using a 30-kV transmission electron microscope. The results confirmed that Cc correction was achieved.
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    Problems in obtaining perfect images by single-particle electron cryomicroscopy of biological structures in amorphous ice (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: Theoretical considerations together with simulations of single-particle electron cryomicroscopy images of biological assemblies in ice demonstrate that atomic structures should be obtainable from images of a few thousand asymmetric units, provided the molecular weight of the whole assembly being studied is greater than the minimum needed for accurate position and orientation determination. However, with present methods of specimen preparation and current microscope and detector technologies, many more particles are needed, and the alignment of smaller assemblies is difficult or impossible. Only larger structures, with enough signal to allow good orientation determination and with enough images to allow averaging of many hundreds of thousands or even millions of asymmetric units, have successfully produced high-resolution maps. In this review, we compare the contrast of experimental electron cryomicroscopy images of two smaller molecular assemblies, namely apoferritin and beta-galactosidase, with that expected from perfect simulated images calculated from their known X-ray structures. We show that the contrast and signal-to-noise ratio of experimental images still require significant improvement before it will be possible to realize the full potential of single-particle electron cryomicroscopy. In particular, although reasonably good orientations can be obtained for beta-galactosidase, we have been unable to obtain reliable orientation determination from experimental images of apoferritin. Simulations suggest that at least 2-fold improvement of the contrast in experimental images at ~10 Å resolution is needed and should be possible.
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    Cover Page (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
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    Subscription Page (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
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    A review of fine structures of nanoporous materials as evidenced by microscopic methods (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: This paper reviews diverse capabilities offered by modern electron microscopy techniques in studying fine structures of nanoporous crystals such as zeolites, silica mesoporous crystals, metal organic frameworks and yolk-shell materials. For the case of silica mesoporous crystals, new approaches that have been developed recently to determine the three-dimensionally periodic average structure, e.g., through self-consistent analysis of electron microscope images or through consideration of accidental extinctions, are presented. Various structural deviations in nanoporous materials from their average structures including intergrowth, surface termination, incommensurate modulation, quasicrystal and defects are demonstrated. Ibidem observations of the scanning electron microscope and atomic force microscope give information about the zeolite-crystal-growth mechanism, and an energy for unstitching a building-unit from a crystal surface is directly observed by an anatomic force microscope. It is argued how these observations lead to a deeper understanding of the materials.
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    Development of an environmental high-voltage electron microscope for reaction science (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: Environmental transmission electron microscopy and ultra-high resolution electron microscopic observation using aberration correctors have recently emerged as topics of great interest. The former method is an extension of the so-called in situ electron microscopy that has been performed since the 1970s. Current research in this area has been focusing on dynamic observation with atomic resolution under gaseous atmospheres and in liquids. Since 2007, Nagoya University has been developing a new 1-MV high voltage (scanning) transmission electron microscope that can be used to observe nanomaterials under conditions that include the presence of gases, liquids and illuminating lights, and it can be also used to perform mechanical operations to nanometre-sized areas as well as electron tomography and elemental analysis by electron energy loss spectroscopy. The new instrument has been used to image and analyse various types of samples including biological ones.
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    Spin-polarized scanning electron microscopy (2013)
    Oxford University Press
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    Publication Date: 2013-02-19
    Description: Spin-polarized scanning electron microscopy (spin-SEM) is a magnetic domain observation method. In spin-SEM, polarization of secondary electrons emitted from a sample in a scanning electron microscope is detected by a spin detector and used as a signal for forming an image. The characteristics of spin-SEM are detection of all three magnetization vector components, which leads to the detection of the magnetization vector direction, high spatial resolution of around 3 nm and applicability to samples with rough or even 3D surfaces. Spin-SEM combined with other imaging methods using an electron probe beam such as scanning Auger electron microscopy for imaging element distribution and electron backscattering diffraction microscopy for imaging crystal direction distribution provides additional information that is important to study the magnetism. Spin-SEM with these excellent characteristics has a broad range of applications from basic research to applied research and developments in various industries.
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