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  • 2020-2022  (32,258)
  • 1965-1969  (20,307)
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  • Computer Science  (82,422)
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  • 1
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    Theory of computing systems 2 (1968), S. 17-25 
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  • 2
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    Theory of computing systems 2 (1968), S. 83-90 
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  • 3
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    Theory of computing systems 2 (1968), S. 1-6 
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    Notes: Abstract A general set of conditions is given under which a property is undecidable for a family of languages. Examples are given of the application of this result to wellknown families of languages.
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  • 4
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    Theory of computing systems 2 (1968), S. 7-15 
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  • 5
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    Theory of computing systems 2 (1968), S. 27-50 
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  • 6
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    Theory of computing systems 2 (1968), S. 57-81 
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    Notes: Abstract Many of the important concepts and results of conventional finite automata theory are developed for a generalization in which finite algebras take the place of finite automata. The standard closure theorems are proved for the class of sets “recognizable” by finite algebras, and a generalization of Kleene's regularity theory is presented. The theorems of the generalized theory are then applied to obtain a positive solution to a decision problem of second-order logic.
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  • 7
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    Theory of computing systems 2 (1968), S. 91-92 
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  • 8
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    Theory of computing systems 2 (1968), S. 97-125 
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  • 9
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    Theory of computing systems 3 (1969), S. 76-85 
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  • 10
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    Theory of computing systems 3 (1969), S. 102-109 
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  • 11
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 1-49 
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  • 12
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 51-53 
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  • 13
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 55-57 
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  • 14
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 67-78 
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  • 15
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 89-111 
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  • 16
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 59-66 
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    Notes: Abstract # G (S) denotes the complexity of a finite semigroup as introduced by Krohn and Rhodes. IfI is a maximal ideal or maximal left ideal of a semigroupS, then# G (I) ⩽ # G (S) ⩽ # G (I) + 1. Thus, ifV is an ideal ofS with# G (S) = n ⩾ k = # G (V), then there is a chain of ideals ofS $$V = V_k \subset V_{k + 1} \subset ... \subset V_n \subseteq S$$ with# G (V j ) =j, i.e., complexity is continuous with respect to ideals. Given a representation ofS as a subsemigroup ofF R (Q), all mappings on the setQ(e.g., as the semigroup of a finite state sequential machine with statesQ) a rank ideal consists of all elements ofS whose range contains no more thank elements for some fixed integerk. The above result also applies to rank ideals. Existing results on complexity are reviewed in the language of finite-state sequential machines.
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  • 17
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 79-88 
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    Notes: Abstract The direct method of Liapunov characterizes stability properties of sets in dynamical systems in terms of the existence of corresponding real-valued “Liapunov functions”. The traditional limitation of Liapunov functions to real values has blocked the extension of this approach to more general systems. In this paper, a stability concept analogous to classical uniform stability is defined as a relationship between a quasiorder and a uniformity on the same set, and it is shown that stability in this sense occurs if and only if there exists a Liapunov function taking values in a certain partially ordered uniform space associated with the given uniformity and called its retracted scale. A few general properties of scales and retracted scales are discussed, and the continuity of the Liapunov functions is briefly considered.
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  • 18
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 113-127 
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  • 19
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 129-133 
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  • 20
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 135-142 
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    Notes: Abstract In this paper is indicated the possible utility of isotonic spaces as a background language for discussing systems. In isotonic spaces the basic duality between “neighborhood” and “convergent” first achieves a proper background permitting applications beyond the scope of topological spaces. A generalization of continuity of mappings based on ancestral relations is presented and this definition is applied to establish a necessary and sufficient condition that mappings preserve connectedness. Fortunately for systems theory, it is not necessary to have infinite sets or infinitary operators to apply definitions of neighborhood, convergents, continuity and connectedness.
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  • 21
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 157-163 
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  • 22
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 165-174 
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  • 23
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 143-155 
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    Notes: Abstract The aim of this paper is to investigate some problems related to perturbed integral equations. It is well known that many physical systems are governed by such equations, a fact which justifies the increasing interest in their study. The results established can be considered as particular cases of the following scheme. Let us consider the equation(e) x = Ax + fx, whereA is a linear operator andf is in general a nonlinear operator. We suppose that the equationx = Ax + f has a unique solutionx belonging to a determinate function spaceD wheneverf belongs to a spaceB. Moreover, it is assumed that the mappingf →x is continuous fromB toD. Then, equation (e) has a unique solution inD iffx is an operator fromD toB satisfying a Lipschitz condition with a small enough constant. A similar statement holds iffx is a completely continuous operator fromD toB. Various results are derived by special choices of the operatorsA andf and of the spacesB andD. Generally, we assume thatB = D and thatA is an integral operator of Volterra type or of convolution type.
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  • 24
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 183-195 
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  • 25
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    Theory of computing systems 1 (1967), S. 175-182 
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  • 26
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    Theory of computing systems 3 (1969), S. 1-16 
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  • 27
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    Theory of computing systems 3 (1969), S. 17-50 
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  • 28
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    Theory of computing systems 3 (1969), S. 67-75 
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  • 29
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    Theory of computing systems 3 (1969), S. 86-94 
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    Theory of computing systems 3 (1969), S. 125-129 
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    Notes: Abstract This paper establishes two bounds for the rate of growth of memory in automata which recognize the set of primes.
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  • 31
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    Theory of computing systems 3 (1969), S. 119-124 
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    Notes: Abstract LetG andG 0 be context-free grammars. Necessary and sufficient conditions onG 0 are obtained for the decidability ofL(G 0) $$ \subseteq $$ L((G) It is also shown that it is undecidable for whichG 0,L(G) $$ \subseteq $$ is decidable. Furthermore, given thatL(G) $$ \subseteq $$ is decidable for a fixedG 0, there is no effective procedure to determine the algorithm which decidesL(G) $$ \subseteq $$ IfL(G 0) is a regular set,L(G) = L(G 0) is decidable if and only ifL(G 0) is bounded. However, there exist non-regular, unboundedL(G 0) for whichL(G) = L(G 0) is decidable.
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  • 32
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    Theory of computing systems 3 (1969), S. 289-299 
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  • 33
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    Theory of computing systems 3 (1969), S. 313-319 
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  • 34
    ISSN: 1432-0770
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    Topics: Biology , Computer Science , Physics
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Am Subcoxalgelenk befinden sich außer den schon bekannten Borstenfeldern Proprioreceptoren in Form von vier Borstenreihen an der Coxa. -Die Bewegung des Femur-Tibia-Gelenkes wird von einem Chordotonalorgan gemessen, das an der Basis des Femur liegt. Vom Receptor zieht eine cuticulare Sehne (Receptorsehne) zum FemurTibia-Gelenk. Die wichtigsten Nervenverästelungen im Femur und eine anormale Lage des Chordotonalorganes werden beschrieben. -Das Chordotonalorgan ist Glied eines Regelkreises zur Stabilisierung des Femur-Tibia-Gelenkes. Dieser Regelkreis adaptiert, mindestens bei höherer Belastung, langsam, aber vollständig. —Wirkt bei einem senkrecht vom Körper abstehenden Bein eine Kraft in Richtung der Querachse auf das Tier ein, ist in der normalen Körperhaltung die Auslenkung des Tibia-Tarsus-Gelenkes für kurze Zeit proportional zur einwirkenden Kraft. Die Regelkreise der beiden Körperseiten beeinflussen sich nicht gegenseitig. —Die von der Streckmuskulatur erzeugte Kraft ist um so größer, je stärker der Receptor vor Beginn des Reizes gedehnt war. — Wird die Receptorsehne nach außen gezogen, streckt das Tier das Femur-Tibia-Gelenk. Wird die Receptorsehne nach innen geschoben, beugt es das Femur-Tibia-Gelenk. Dabei ist ebenfalls vollständige Adaptation zu beobachten. — Die Streckung der Tibia (in Winkelgraden) ist proportional dem Logarithmus der Bewegung der Receptorsehne nach außen. Die Reaktion ist um so stärker, je mehr der Receptor vor Beginn des Reizes gedehnt war. —Die Beugung der Tibia (in Winkelgraden) ist proportional dem Logarithmus der Bewegung der Receptorsehne nach innen. Auch diese Reaktion ist um so stärker, je mehr der Receptor vor Beginn des Reizes gedehnt war. —Wird eine senkrechte Lauffläche von der Seite beleuchtet, stellen sich die Tiere teils in eine Resultierende zwischen Licht-und Schwerkraftrichtung ein, teils wenden sie sich vom Licht ab. — Der Mittelwert der Winkel zwischen Tierlängsachse und Schwerelot (α1) ist bei den dem Licht zugekehrten Tierstellungen von der Lichtintensität und dem Winkel zwischen Lichtrichtung und Schwerelot abhängig. Er ist unabhängig von Körpergewicht und Hangneigung. Die Streuung wird bei erhöhtem Körpergewicht kleiner. Abschaben der Sinnesborsten an den Subcoxalgelenken verkleinert den Mittelwert der Winkel α1. Werden die Sehnen der femoralen Chordotonalorgane der nach oben zeigenden Körperseite durchtrennt, wird der Mittelwert der Winkel α1 kleiner. Bei derartig operierten Tieren wird der Mittelwert der Winkel α1 nach Erhöhung des Körpergewichtes größer. Werden die Sehnen der femoralen Chordotonalorgane der nach unten zeigenden Körperseite durchtrennt, wird der Mittelwert der Winkel α1 größer als bei intakten Tieren. Bei derartig operierten Tieren wird der Mittelwert der Winkel α1 nach Erhöhung des Körpergewichtes wieder kleiner. — Werden die Sehnen der femoralen Chordotonalorgane einer Körperseite durchtrennt, weichen die Tiere auf einer senkrechten Fläche zur operierten Körperseite hin von der Senkrechten ab (intakte Tiere laufen unter denselben Bedingungen etwa senkrecht nach oben oder unten). Der Winkel zwischen Körperlängsachse und Schwerelot ist bei den operierten Tieren um so kleiner, je größer das Körpergewicht und je größer die Hangneigung ist. — Die Genauigkeit, mit der ein einmal eingeschlagener Kurs nach Drehung der Lauffläche wieder aufgenommen wird, ist um so größer, je steiler die Lauffläche steht. — Bei der Orientierung im Schwerefeld liegt die Labilit ätsstellung für die Stabilitätsstellungen 0° und 180° ungefähr gegenüber der jeweiligen Stabilitätsstellung. — Es wird festgestellt, das Tier verhalte sich in allen Experimenten so, wie wenn bei ihm die von der negativen Geotaxis ausgelöste Drehtendenz als Quotient aus der Belastung in Richtung der Querachse und dem Betrag der Belastung in Richtung der Längsachse gebildet würde. Ein Minimalmodell für die Bildung der Drehtendenz wird aufgestellt. Theoretisch denkbare Möglichkeiten zur Verschiebung der Stabilitäts-und Labilitätsstellung werden diskutiert.
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    Biological cybernetics 2 (1965), S. 315-316 
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    Biological cybernetics 2 (1965), S. 148-152 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Die Funktion der Lernmatrix (LM) erlaubt den Entwurf adaptiver Netzwerke höherer Komplexität. Es wurde an anderer Stelle schon beschrieben, wie eine LM (binär oder nichtbinär) mit einem Generator für Eigenschaftssätze und einem Ringzähler zusammengeschaltet werden kann, um eine selbsttätige Klassifikation der angebotenen Eigenschaftssätze zu bewirken. Im vorliegenden Aufsatz wird erklärt, wie zwei LM so zusammengeschaltet werden können, dacß sich ein „Autonomer Lernmatrix-Dipol” (ALD) ergibt, und wie dieser zu organisieren ist, daß er sich einer gegebenen Außenwelt nach Maßgabe einer vorgegebenen Werteskala anpaßt. Zu diesem Zweck erweist sich außer den bisher beschriebenen beiden Zugangen zur LM (nämlich „e” und “b”) ein dritter sehr zweckmäßig, nämlich “h”. Dieser „h”-Eingang beeinflußt die Lerngeschwindigkeit der LM. Unter Verwendung solcher ALD's kann man adaptive Strukturen noch höherer Komplexität aufbauen, beispielsweise solche mit adaptivem innerem Modell.
    Notes: Summary The performance of the Learning Matrix (LM) is suitable for the design of adaptive networks of higher complexity. It has been published, how to connect a LM with a generator of patterns (binary or nonbinary) and a ring-counter to result in an automatic classification of the presented patterns. This paper describes, how to connect two LM's to form an “Autonomous Learning Matrix Dipole” (ALD) and how to organize it, so that it adapts itself to an environment according to a given evaluation scale. For this purpose, a third type of input (beside “e” and “b”), namely “h” seems to be useful. This h-input controls the rate of adaptation of the LM. Using such ALD's, one may design adaptive structures of even higher complexity, for example with an adaptive internal model. The principle of “Learning Matrices” has been explained in detail (see e.g. IEEE Transactions on Electronic Computers, Vol. EC-12, No. 6, December, 1963, pp. 846–862). Using such “learning matrices” (LM), one may build up adaptive networks with rather interesting functions. Perhaps they are interesting for the physiologist and psychologist as well as for the engineer. Let us first recall the most essential details of the LM's.
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    Biological cybernetics 2 (1965), S. 195-196 
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    Biological cybernetics 2 (1965), S. 236-244 
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    Notes: Summary Information Theory is applied to chemical reactions involving selection processes. It turns out that the information entropy S I is closely related to the corresponding entropy function S T as used in chemical thermodynamics. The change of the molecular information entropy for 1 mol of uniformly synthesized substance is given in „moldit” where Δ S I=Δ ST/R. With n decision in the course of synthesis of a single molecule and z possibilities for each decision there is Δ S I =n lg z. (E.g. The number of possibilities z is 2 if one special optical isomer has to be selected out of the two existing kinds with any decision.) The entropy change is calculated for various selective processes as, for instance, the replication of polymers with a certain lenght in the case of uniform subunits or with a certain composition on sequence; in the case of different subunits. The replication processes require additional selection work that can be derived from the calculated entropy changes.
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    Biological cybernetics 2 (1965), S. 249-257 
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    Notes: Summary The sensitivity distribution of visual elements in the front region of the compound eye of Musca is investigated by means of intracellular micropipette recording. This distribution approximates a Gauss-function of 7.7 degree half-value in the horizontal plane. Using a “bleaching effect” of the Musca compound eye as an indicator, the angular distances between the optical axes of adjacent ommatidia are measured and found to vary between 2.3 and 3.9 degrees. Thus the visual fields of adjacent ommatidia strongly overlap. Based on these findings a calculation reveals that less than 12% of the mean efficient light flux is received from the anatomically determined visual field of the ommatidium. Similar percentages for Calliphora (less than 20%) and Limulus (less than 19%) result from evaluation of data collected by other investigators. — Light entering the visual element from different directions (more than 5° apart) is demonstrated to be 1.2 to 1.4 times more effective than light received from the same direction. — Consequences of the overlap of visual fields of adjacent ommatidia for perception of motions and patterns by the compound eye are discussed.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1966), S. 8-13 
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    Notes: Summary A random network of threshold switching elements is experimentally observed. Various patterns of connexions are examined in an explorative but rather comprehensive review of the behaviour of a small network. Some predictions of previous theories are investigated. In particular the probabilistic approach is found effective within its limits of validity, confirming previous results by Smith et al. No general relationship is found between structure and operation except for the strong dependence of the activity of the whole network on small variations of the characteristics of the single active element and the pattern of connexions. A small amount of random refractoriness of the elements is shown to have a strong stabilizing effect on the behaviour of the network.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1966), S. 24-27 
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    Notes: Summary Repetitive stimulation of human peripheral nerves in situ produces an amplitude oscillation of the evoked action potentials. The purpose of this experiment was to describe the dynamics of the response as a function of the characteristics of the electrical stimuli. Two attempts to define precisely the origin of the response have proved ineffective.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1966), S. 67-82 
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    Notes: Zusammenfassung 1. Bestimmte Input-Output Beziehungen wurden untersucht durch intraneurale Registrierungen von isolierten visceralen Ganglien von Aplysia californica. Alle Zellen wiesen eine verlängerte Folge von einem einzigen Typ von EPSPs auf, und lösten infolgedessen aufeinanderfolgende Spikes aus. EPSPs traten entweder (i) spontan auf, oder wurden (ii) ausgelöst durch Erregung eines Konnektifs mittels elektrischer Impulse eines Erregers, der durch einen Geigerzähler betrieben wurde. Die präspike Epoche wurde untersucht, und die Vorgänge, welche den postsynaptischen Spike auslösen, wurden probabilistisch identifiziert. Versuche mit durch digitalen Rechner simulierte Neuronen reproduzierten und erweiterten die Ergebnisse von Tierexperimenten. 2. Die Spike-Wahrscheinlichkeit spiegelt das Verhalten von EPSPs wieder, welche innerhalb eines begrenzten Zeitraumes (als Integrationsperiode bezeichnet) vorkommen und erfaßt daher nur eine begrenzte Anzahl dieser Potentiale (als beeinflussende EPSPs bezeichnet). Die Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß ein gegebenes EPSP einen Spike auslöst, ist im allgemeinen eine abnehmende Funktion des mittleren zeitlichen Abstands (eine zunehmende Funktion der Durchschnittsrate) einer bestimmten Anzahl von kurz zuvor erfolgten EPSPs. Bei gegebener mittlerer Zeitspanne (Durchschnittsrate) wird sie im allgemeinen größer bei Mustern, in denen sukzessive Intervalle immer kürzer werden. Darüber hinaus wird die Spike-Wahrscheinlichkeit beeinflußt durch kurz zuvor erfolgte postsynaptische Spikes; die Wirksamkeit irgendeiner EPSP-Konfiguration kann durch geeignete Anordnung in bezug auf die vorangegangenen Spikes verbessert werden. Es wird daraus gefolgert, daß eine postsynaptische Zelle die Entscheidung, einen Spike zu erzeugen, unter dem Einfluß einer großen Zahl von EPSPs durch laufende Auswertung der genauen Zeitfolge kurz zuvor erfolgter Input-Ereignisse fällt. Deshalb hängt die Bildung der postsynaptischen Spike-Kette von verschiedenen statistischen Besonderheiten der präsynaptischen Entladungen ab. Die Begrenzung dieser Begriffsbestimmung und ihre Anwendbarkeit auf verschiedene, z.T. komplexere Fälle wird diskutiert. 3. Die Arbeitsweise einer synaptischen Verbindung dieses Typs wird gemessen und diskutiert unter besonderer Berücksichtigung der folgenden drei Wahrscheinlichkeitswerte und deren Beziehungen untereinander: (i) die generative Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß eine bestimmte Input-Zeitfolge von präsynaptischen Spikes (oder EPSPs) erfolgt; (ii) die prospektive Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß ein Output-postsynaptischer Spike durch die vorhergehende Input-Zeitfolge ausgelöst wird; (iii) die retrospektive Wahrscheinlichkeit, daß eine bestimmte Input-Zeitfolge erfolgt ist, wenn ein Output-Spike ausgelöst wurde. Jeder dieser Wahrscheinlichkeitswerte (s. Appendix) kann direkt aus den Versuchsergebnissen abgeschätzt werden (a) und hat eine bestimmte physiologische Bedeutung in bezug auf die Eigenschaften der präsynaptischen Neurone, der synaptischen Verbindung, und/oder der postsynaptischen Neurone (b). Die in den prospektiven und retrospektiven Schemata bestehenden Unbestimmtheiten werden gemessen (s. Appendix). Die gefundenen Werte zeigten in welchem Ausmaß die Unbestimmtheit bezüglich Input (Output) reduziert werden kann durch das Bekanntsein von Output (Input) und wie sie verringert werden kann indem die betreffenden Wahrscheinlichkeiten als Funktion der Zeitfolge ausgedrückt werden.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1966), S. 100-108 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary Little is known about the behavior of dynamic systems with many intricately interacting parts, and about the factors which tend to affect their behavior in general, rather than detailed, ways. This paper describes a study of such systems built up out of unit elements which compute recursive logical functions. Each element has two binary inputs and a binary internal state which is also the element's output state. (Output of elements can be branched.) Recursion is introduced by letting the element's state at the next instant of system time (t+1) be a function of the present states of the two inputs as well as its internal state at the present system time (t). Hence, there are 256 different functions that can be computed, and a particular element's behavior is defined by the one function it computes. 100 identical elements connected at random constitute one system. 256 types of systems, corresponding to all the 256 logical functions, are studied by computer simulation, using five different sets of connections, starting the systems at ten randomly chosen initial system states. After being set at the initial state each system produces its behavior without further interference. We studied particularly the effects on these behaviors of those factors that might determine (i) how long a system would take to arrive at its terminal cycle and (ii) the size (periodicity) of the cycle shown terminally. Among the facts elicited, the following seem especially notable: 1. Such systems tend to end in a complex cycle of behavior. The very short cycle is by no means the common ending. 2. The style of behavior, apart from details, is often strikingly independent of the pattern of connection. 3. One of the factors markedly affecting the length of time before the terminal cycle can be detected by an observer is the extent to which the elements act as informational transmitters. 4. A factor strongly affecting the tendency to terminate in a very short cycle is the number of conditions in which the elements' states will remain unchanged at the next instant of time. 5. The use of elements whose transitions are highly dependent on the element's preceding states encourages short initial periods before the system reaches long terminal cycles. The significance of these facts for various applications in biological computers is discussed.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Man weiß heute noch wenig über das Verhalten dynamischer Systeme, die aus vielen gegenseitig aufeinander einwirkenden Komponenten bestehen, und über die Faktoren, die ihr Verhalten im ganzen und nicht so sehr in Einzelheiten bestimmen. Diese Arbeit beschreibt eine Untersuchung solcher Systeme, die aus Einzelelementen aufgebaut sind, welche rekursive logische Funktionen berechnen. Jedes Element hat zwei binäre Eingänge und einen binären internen Zustand, der gleichzeitig den Ausgangszustand des Elements darstellt. Der Ausgang des Elements kann vervielfacht werden. Rekursion wird eingeführt, indem man den Zustand eines Elements im unmittelbar folgenden Moment der Systemzeit (t+1) abhängig macht sowohl von den beiden momentanen Eingangszuständen als auch von seinem momentanen internen Zustand zur Systemzeit (t). Daraus folgt, daß 256 verschiedene Funktionen berechnet werden können; ein Element wird dadurch bestimmt, daß es genau eine dieser Funktionen berechnet. 100 identische Elemente, von denen jedes dieselbe Funkion berechnet, stellen ein System dar. 256 verschiedenet Systemtypen, die mit den 256 logischen Funktionen übereinstimmen, werden mit Hilfe einer digitalen Rechenmaschine studiert, indem man 5 verschiedene Verbindungsarten benützt und das System in 10 beliebig gewählten Anfangszuständen beginnen läßt. Nachdem der Angangszustand einmal hergestellt ist, zeigt das System, ohne weiteren Eingriff von außen, das ihm eigene Verhalten. Wir haben uns besonders damit beschäftigt, die Einwirkung der Faktoren auf das Verhalten der Systeme zu studieren, die bestimmend sein könnten für (i) die Zeit, die ein System braucht, um seinen terminalen Cyclus zu erreichen, und (ii) die Länge der Periodizität des terminalen Cyclus. Unter den Ergebnissen der Untersuchung fallen die folgenden besonders auf: 1. Diese Systeme zeigen eine Tendenz, in einem komplizierten Verhaltungscyclus zu terminieren. Der sehr kurze terminale Cyclus ist keineswegs die Regel. 2. Der Verhaltenstyp — von Einzelheiten abgesehen — ist oft überraschend unabhängig von den Verbindungen. 3. Ein entscheidender Faktor für die Länge der Zeit, bevor ein Terminalcyclus festgestellt werden kann, ist das Ausmaß, in dem die Elemente informationsverarbeitend wirken. 4. Ein Faktor, der die Tendenz zu einem sehr kurzen Terminalcyclus maßgeblich beeinflußt, ist die Anzahl der Bedingungen, unter denen die Zustände der Elemente bei aufeinanderfolgenden Zeitintervallen unverändert bleiben. 5. Elemente, deren Übergänge von ihrem vorhergehenden Zustand abhängig sind, begünstigen kurze Einschwingperioden vor langen Terminalcyclen. Die Bedeutung dieser Ergebnisse in ihrer Anwendung auf biologische informationsverarbeitende Systeme wird besprochen.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1966), S. 175-185 
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    Notes: Summary In isolated receptors the impulse frequency following “step” stretches had a highly significant correlation with both muscle length and tension; any deviations from linearity were in opposite directions, impulse frequency rising more quickly than linearly with length and more slowly than linearly with tension. The impulse frequency decayed according to a power function of time from application of a step increase in length. A transfer function was derived and used to predict responses to sinusoidal and constant velocity stretches. The experimental data generally agreed with predictions. The deviations that were found could be accounted for by considering quantitatively any non-linearity between frequency and length, the adaptation of the impulse frequency to constant currents, the all-or-none nature of the action potential, and the viscous forces present during dynamic stretch. The approximately linear relationship between impulse frequency and muscle length and muscle tension is discussed. Muscle tension appears to be the more direct causal agent of impulse generation. Possible physical bases for the transfer function are also considered.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1966), S. 196-202 
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    Notes: Zusammenfassung Mittels Mikroelektroden wurde von den Ganglienzellen der Netzhaut decerebrierter bzw. pretigeminaler Katzen die Erregung registriert, die man bei zeitlich konstantem oder sinusförmig moduliertem Licht im stationären Zustand erhält. Eine Analyse der Spikeintervall-Verteilung zeigt, daß die Verteilungsfunktion invariant gegenüber den Reizbedingungen ist, wenn man sie über dem Zeitmaßstab der registrierten Zelle aufträgt. Die Analyse des Korrelationskoeffizienten zwischen den Erregungen verschiedener Einheiten der Netzhaut, die mit ein und derselben Mikroelektrode registriert wurden, führt zu dem Ergebnis, daß zwischen diesen Einheiten weder im Dunkeln noch unter Lichteinwirkung eine statistische Abhängigkeit besteht.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1967), S. 214-226 
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    Notes: Summary Comparison of the human pupillary responses to monocular and simultaneous binocular stimuli indicates that the signals evoked in both eyes by binocular stimulation first inhibit each other and then combine by addition. In this paper several possible inhibitory mechanisms are considered and a functional model is proposed which involves a shunting type non-recurrent lateral inhibition. Although the site of inhibitory interaction is not specified by the model, certain assumptions are made regarding the succession of neural events along the pupillomotor pathway. The postulated succession of transmitting stages is: nonlinear transformation, first order lowpass filter with time constant characteristic for the pupillary response, lateral inhibition, addition and second order lowpass filter with the same time constant as before. Besides predicting the experimental data this functional model resolves certain contradictions in the conclusions of different autors regarding the succession of nonlinear transformation and signal combination in the human pupillary system.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1967), S. 267-272 
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    Notes: Summary A simple function-model of the human ear is used to transfer the sound of the German spoken numbers into channel-time patterns, which are coded and fed into an electronic computer ER 56. For each number a time-normalized characteristic pattern is formed and stored in the computer. For recognition a simple matching program in the computer is used, to compare the time normalized average pattern of all 10 numbers with the individual time normalized pattern to be recognized. Using this method, 95% of more than 1000 numbers — spoken without special care — could be recognized correctly.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1967), S. 37-40 
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    Notes: Zusammenfassung Die Netzhaut decerebrierter Katzen wurde mit sinusförmig moduliertem Licht gereizt und die in den Ganglienzellen ausgelöste Erregung extracellulär registriert. Amplitude und momentane Frequenz der Aktionspotentiale ändern sich sinusförmig und besitzen zueinander eine Phasenverschiebung von 180°. Die Phasenverschiebung ist unabhängig von der Frequenz des Reizlichtes, die im Bereich von 0,1–10 Hz geändert wurde. Anhand von Kontrollmessungen wurde gezeigt, daß die Amplitudenänderung der gemessenen Aktionspotentiale auf Änderungen des Membranpotentials beruht.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1967), S. 40-43 
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    Notes: Summary The temperature dependence of the negative component P III of the rabbit's electroretinogram has been studied in former experiments. A mathematical model of this component is expressed by the transfer function of a second order system. By means of electronic computations of the parameters a good fit to the experimental curves has been attained. The influence of different temperature (10–30° C) is reflected in the model by changes of 2 constants only. The 10 values of these changes are rather high (〉2). Possibilities and limitations of the model are discussed.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1967), S. 26-36 
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    Notes: Summary A statistical model is presented exhibiting properties of time sequences of certain spontaneously occurring and mutually interdependent behavioural movements of a fish. The statistical description is derived from the theory of renewal processes. It is demonstrated that the probability of a movement to occur is a function only of the temporal distance to the movement that occurred immediately before. Models are developed which can be easily simulated by computer or built up in hardware technique.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1967), S. 44-48 
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    Notes: Summary On the basis of a recent physical theory of many-body problems developped in our Institute, a model of the brain is formulated, and it is shown how some of its typical features, such as learning and memory processes, find therein a natural and simple explanation. In the Appendix a short surview of the necessary mathematical formalism is finally given.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1968), S. 69-80 
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    Notes: Summary A new probabilistic learning machine for pattern recognition is described. The machine operates on the basis of random criteria obtained from special pseudorandom generators. The input, particularly versatile due to the use of an image dissector, allows a random scan for which normal television storage pick-up tubes are not suitable. The computation data section, completely automatic, uses two ferrite core memories with a capacity of 64,000 bits. Consequently it is possible to obtain very quick recognizing cycles for a maximum of 16 classes of 256 learning examples each. Preliminary experiments are reported, some of which, like the recognition of meteorological events by the analysis of absolute baric topography maps, could already be suitable for practical application of the machine.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1968), S. 81-94 
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    Notes: Summary 1. The action potentials of single optic nerve fibers were recorded using tungsten microelectrodes in cats anaesthetized with Pentobarbital. The receptive fields of on or off-center neurons were maped and analyzed by means of patterns of different temporal and spatial characteristics projected onto a screen 55 cm from the ey 2. In the first series of experiments the on or off-activation elicited by two small light spots (P A , p b ) locally projected onto the receptive field center were examined. “Rectangular” light stimuli of 0.5–1 sec duration repeated every 1.5–2 sec were applied. The responses to each spot alone and both spots together (synchronous light stimuli) were quantitatively anlyzed. The relation between the neuronal response to single spot stimulation (A or B) and the double spot stimulation (A B) can be described to a first approximation by a simple linear algebraic equation [Eq. (1)-(4)]. The experimental results, however, can also be described by a model with multiplicative forward inhibition. 3. The neuronal summation (A B) was compared with the algebraic sum (A+ B) for stimuli with sinusoidal amplitude modulation in time; different frequencies were applied. The distance of the two light spots was in this series of experiments either 0.1 degree or 0.8 degree; the spot diameter was 0.12 degree. The neuronal summation was greater for sinusoidal light above 5 cycles per sec in comparison with the summation of two light spots modulated with lower frequencies. The neuronal summation was also greater if the spot distance was 0.8 degree in comparison with the spot distance of 0.1 degree. These experiments indicate, that one type of lateral inhibition is attenuated much more strongly than the excitatory process at frequencies above 4–5 cycles per sec. 4. A few experiments of the “constant response type” (Easter) were done. In these experiments sinusoidal light stimuli were also used. Both spots were projected onto the receptive field in such a manner that one spot alone gave approximately the same neuronal activation as the other spot alone. The relation between the average luminance of the sinusoidal light for single and double spot stimulation necessary to produce the same neuronal response can be expressed for these experiments in a simple Eq. (7). 5. The quantitative data obtained in the different series of experiments can be described together by means of simple models having multiplicative or subtractive foreward inhibition. 6. The neurophysiological data proved that if one examines the spatial properties of the retinal network, the temporal parameters of the stimulus have also to be considered. Some psychophysical experiments in human observers are mentioned in which such an interrelation between spatial and temporal characteristics of the visual system was found.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1968), S. 113-130 
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    Notes: Summary 1. Hypotheses concerning the transport of acethylcholine (Ach) and of changes in the coefficient of release during and after repetitive stimulation are presented. These hypotheses are based on the conception that an action potential releases a certain amount of immediately available Ach from a reservoir at the motor nerve ending. 2. Corresponding to these hypotheses an electrical analog model was conceived. The differential equations deduced from the model were programmed on an analog computer. 3. The changes in Ach-release during and after repetitive stimulation, known from biological experiments either with Curare- or with Magnesium-blocked preparations, could be reproduced qualitatively when changing only one parameter of the model. 4. For the purposes of quantitative simulation, data from various biological experiments, partly from other authors, partly from our own laboratory, were used. In most of the experiments the curves derived from the model are found to be within the standard deviation of the biological data. 5. It is concluded that a system of lesser complexity does not equally well lead to a simulation of the biological data. 6. The analog relationships between the model and the biological processes are discussed. By use of the model it may be possible to simulate the release of transmitter at other synapses too.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1968), S. 146-156 
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    Notes: Summary The lateral geniculate body performs a spatial remapping operation. This remapping may help to preserve the apparent distance of objects under symmetrical eye movements, thereby stabilizing the appearance of visual space. In addition, a related, and perhaps more basic function of the geniculate remapping may be to increase the efficiency of the neural matrix which encodes depth information. For distant fixation, the majority of cells in this cortical matrix would be responsive to crossed disparities, but for near fixation, many of these same cells might be converted into “uncrossed disparity detectors”. Two types of models for the geniculate are presented, together with supporting evidence: (1) a quantitative psychophysical model describing its steady-state properties, and (2) a qualitative neurophysiological model describing the function of the geniculate laminae.
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    Biological cybernetics 5 (1968), S. 103-109 
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    Notes: Zusammenfassung Die in diesem Artikel beschriebenen mathematischen Modelle geben eine allgemeine exakte Behandlung des Verhaltens einfacher Netze, die in den Abschnitten 3.1.1–3.1.8. des Teiles I eingeführt wurden. Gerichtete Graphen werden studiert, deren Kanten hemmend wirken und deren Punkte durch eine ständige „Hintergrundwirkung” angeregt sind, wobei die Stimulation einen linearen Anstieg des Erregungswertes hervorruft. Die Graphen enthalten keine Schlingen und kein Paar übereinstimmend gerichteter paralleler Kanten. Eine weitere Beschränkung der Struktur der Graphen wird nicht gefordert. Im Gegenteil, es ist eine wesentliche Annahme, daß der Reiz auf jeden Punkt in genau derselben Weise wirkt. — Das im Abschnitt 3 konzipierte Modell beschreibt, wie ein Graph von einem gegebenen Anfangszustand aus funktioniert. Die Zeitpunkte T′ 0(=0), T′ 1, T′ 2,..., die den Beginn einer oder mehreren Hemmungsphasen bezeichnen, heißen Sprungmomente. Sind die Erregungswerte im Sprungmoment T′ k bekannt, so definieren wir das folgende Sprungmoment T′ k +1, ferner bestimmen wir durch die Formeln (3.1) und (3.2) die Erregungswerte, die den Punkten zwischen den Zeitpunkten T′ k und T′ k +1 zugeordnet werden. — Im Abschnitt 4 wird ein anderes mathematisches Modell eingeführt. Die virtuellen Sprungmomente T 0(=0), T 1 T 2,... werden in der Formel (4.1) definiert, die Matrix (4.2) enthält alle die zu diesen Zeitpunkten möglichen Werte. Die Formeln (4.6)–(4.10) beschreiben, wie die Mengen der Punkte, die die verschiedenen Werte haben, von T m zu T m+1 sich verändern. Feststellung 8 behauptet, daß das im Abschnitt 4 enthaltene Modell die wesentlichen Aspekte des Vorganges ausdrückt, der durch das im Abschnitt 3 ausgearbeitete Modell formuliert worden ist.
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    Biological cybernetics 5 (1969), S. 171-173 
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    Notes: Summary Evoked potentials were recorded from the hypothalamus of acutely-prepared estrous guinea-pigs responding to electrical stimulation of the vaginal cervix. The latency ranged from 38 to 60 msec. The peak of the first positive wave appeared 50 to 90 msec after the stimulation, usually followed by a negative wave in 120 msec. These responses were obtained from the mid-hypothalamus. The cervical stimulation subsequently induced the release of hypophysial luteotropin (LTH) as indicated by the occurrence of pseudopregnancy. According to the results, the mechanism triggering hypothalamic potential changes was discussed in connection with the LTH secretion.
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    Biological cybernetics 5 (1969), S. 208-208 
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    Biological cybernetics 5 (1969), S. 195-208 
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    Notes: Abstract Pathologische Stotterer und normale Versuchspersonen erhielten verzögerte auditive Rückmeldung (VAR), während sie Sätze vervollständigten. Wir fanden: 1. Die Vpn. nahmen nur eine der Bedeutungen der zweideutigen Fragmente wahr, obgleich die Zweideutigkeit ihre Sprache beeinflußte (s. unten). 2. Normale Vpn. brauchten länger für die Vervollständigung von zweideutigen Sätzen als von eindeutigen mit ähnlicher semantischer und syntaktischer Komplexität. 3. Dieses Mehr an Zeit wurde hauptsächlich zur Findung der Satzvervollständigung benötigt und nicht für die Aussprache des vollendeten Satzes. Dies ist ein Hinweis, daß Zweideutigkeit mit dem Verständnis von Sätzen interferiert. 4. Ein Ermüdungseffekt für eindeutige Sätze wurde gefunden: Am Ende des Experiments wurde mehr Zeit zur Vervollständigung eindeutiger Sätze verwendet als am Anfang. Für zweideutige Sätze wurde kein Ermüdungseffekt festgestellt. 5. VAR verursachte mehr Stottern beim Lesen der zweideutigen als beim Lesen des eindeutigen Fragments. 6. Es trat mehr Stottern beim Vervollständigen der zweideutigen Fragmente auf als beim Lesen des Fragments, das die Zweideutigkeit enthielt. Dagegen wurde beim Vervollständigen der eindeutigen Teile nicht mehr gestottert als beim Lesen. 7. Die Versuche wurden ohne VAR mit pathologischen Stotterern als Vpn. wiederholt. Die Ergebnisse zeigten, daß alle wichtigen Resultate, die oben zusammengefaßt sind, auch für pathologisches Stottern gelten. 8. Traditionelle Modelle über die Beziehung zwischen Konflikt und Stottern können diese Ergebnisse nicht ohne erhebliche Veränderungen erklären. Unsere Ergebnisse unterstützen eher das folgende Modell: Die wahrgenommene Bedeutung eines zweideutigen Fragments wird in ein motorisches Programm für Vervollständigung des Satzes integriert. Ein ähnliches Programm für die andere Bedeutung wird partiell und gleichzeitig aktiviert. Die Wechselwirkung zwischen den beiden Programmen reduziert die Kontrolle über die Sprache und erhöht die Stotterwahrscheinlichkeit bei pathologischen Stotterern und bei normalen Vpn. unter VAR. Es wurde gezeigt, daß die Komponenten dieses Modells ähnlich sind wie die Annahmen, die zur Erklärung des Einflusses der Synonymität auf die Sprachproduktion benötigt werden. 9. Ein Modell für die Erklärung abwegiger oder irrelevanter Vervollständigungen basiert auf dem Prinzip der Disinhibition (von Holst). 10. Als mögliche Erklärung für die nicht-grammatikalischen Vervollständigungen der zweideutigen Sätze wurde die Verschmelzung beider Aspekte der schwach wechselwirkenden motorischen Programme diskutiert.
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    Biological cybernetics 5 (1969), S. 221-240 
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    Notes: Abstract A systems theory describing signal transmission in neuronal layer structures is presented. Such structures having the quality of linearity and homogenity can easily be treated by using a multiple Fourier transformation method with respect to the space coordinates and to the time. The characteristic laws of this transformation are discussed. In analogy to linear networks the transfer function, the impulse response function and the step response function are defined which characterizes the layer system. Appropriate test functions are derived. Typical structures of standing and moving patterns are finally discussed. Biological application and simulation of the theory by a system using coherent optics will be presented later.
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    Biological cybernetics 6 (1969), S. 7-13 
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    Notes: Summary The present article gives a short description of the essential development of process models, which is followed by a fundamental classification of various process models for reproduction of industrial processes. The concept of the learning model is defined by means of two examples of learning model of which some applications are shown. The model, whose adjustment is applied by an exponential ageing of sampled data, leads to best results.
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    Biological cybernetics 6 (1969), S. 57-64 
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    Notes: Abstract Masking in motor systems was defined as the omission of one act in a sequence due to an earlier or later act in the sequence. A study of phoneme omission in natural speech showed that: 1. Masked phonemes were usually preceded or followed by an identical phoneme (referred to as the masking phoneme). 2. Backward masking, where the masked phoneme preceded the masking phoneme was as frequent as forward masking. 3. The phonemes immediately adjacent to the masked and masking phonemes were usually similar in distinctive features, but rarely identical. 4. The masking phoneme usually occurred in a stressed syllable and the masked phoneme in an unstressed one, suggesting that motor intensity may be a factor in masking. 5. The components for an adequate model of motor masking were shown to be similar to those in models of other types of errors in speech.
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    Notes: Summary Physical measurements of the energy content of effective optomotor stimuli for the fly Musca support the notion that single light quanta trapped by the photopigment of the retinal receptors generate adequate sensory messages. The results of an electrophysiological experiment on single retinula cells in the fly's eye are presented to strengthen confidence in certain assumptions it was necessary to adopt with regard to receptor optical and spectral properties in order to calibrate the complex movement stimuli. This experiment also emphasizes the small amplitude of electrical signals generated in the receptors by dim but behaviourally effective pattern illumination levels.
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    Biological cybernetics 6 (1969), S. 124-130 
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    Notes: Summary Transmission of nerve signals in the crayfish brain was studied by means of the transfer function derived from input-output analysis with random stimulation. The transfer function was measured in the form of frequency-response-function and represented by Bode plot. Two classes of the frequency-response-functions were discriminated, corresponding to two types of response patterns evoked by the constant frequency stimuli. The first type had the characteristics of a band pass filter similar to an underdamped resonant circuit. The second one had the characteristics of a phase lag circuit, occasionally, with additional small positive or negative peak at almost the same frequency as the resonance of the first type. A few possibilities for the resonance and the phase lag mechanisms were discussed.
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    Biological cybernetics 6 (1969), S. 146-148 
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    Notes: Summary As an extention of the law of activity (Sato, 1968), the law of interactivity was established by which new physiological meanings are added to such well known basic concepts as facilitation and occlusion in the central nervous system, and super- and subnormal phases in the recovery function of physiological systems.
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    Biological cybernetics 6 (1969), S. 162-162 
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    Biological cybernetics 2 (1965), S. 145-148 
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    Notes: Summary The subject of this study has been the way in which fast writing movements are guided. It is concluded that: 1. For fast handwriting the principle of position feedback does not hold; 2. There is physiological evidence for resolving the writing movements into two more or less perpendicular directions; 3. The shape of a word is determined by the timing of the muscle contractions and not by the magnitude of the forces used; 4. A general change of size is coupled to a proportional change in the magnitude of the forces.
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    Biological cybernetics 2 (1965), S. 160-168 
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    Notes: Summary The Hodgkin-Huxley theory of ion fluxes across membranes during excitation is extended to explain the graduated depolarisation (receptor potential) of sensory cell membranes. Electric circuit equivalents of living membranes are developed. Driving forces and velocity coefficients are represented by means of electric parameters. From this model active and passive ionic fluxes can be calculated quantitatively on the basis of transport equations derived from irreversible thermodynamics. Thus the circuit equivalent may be used as an analog computer. Electric receptor models allow a reproduction of all potential curves which have been derived in electrophysiological experiments on PD-receptors. The results obtained by the use of this model agree with the results obtained in biological experiments under various conditions of stimuli. The significance of solution compartments for intra-and extracellular ions in relation to the time functions of various conditions are discussed in detail. This models are of heuristic value in experimental research. In combination with neuron networks they can be used for the analysis of information theoretical problems.
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    Biological cybernetics 2 (1965), S. 284-287 
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    Notes: Summary Some records, obtained from the surface of the optic tectum of the frog with moving visual stimuli are presented as evidence of a global oscillation of the tectal activity whose time course is specific for different patterns of stimulation.
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    Biological cybernetics 2 (1965), S. 287-315 
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    Notes: Summary Coincidence filters consist of one or more threshold elements (e.g. neurons or monostable multivibrators, extended by multiple input gates). They permit the propagation of an impulse train applied to the input only if its repetition rate does not exceed an upper and a lower boundary value. The difference between the upper and the lower boundary value may be defined as the functional bandwidth of the coincidence filter. The functional bandwidth is one of the most interesting characteristic figures of a coincidence filter. By means of this definition, the coincidence filter may be described as a device selecting quickly those impulse trains the repetition rates of which lie within the functional bandwidth The functional bandwidth depends on the parameters of the impulse trains and of the coincidence filter. This gives rise to the question, which minimal bandwidth could be realized by coincidence filters. On the initiation by Tischner the properties of coincidence filters operated by rectangular impulses have been investigated by Schie f and by Kosel. Rectangular impulses have the advantage, that moderate variations of the amplitudes do not disturb the coincidence. In this case however very small impulse durations are required for the realization of small bandwidth. In the present paper the operation of coincidence filters by non rectangular impulses has been considered. Having the shape of an excitatory post-synaptic potential of motoneurons, the impulses are completely determined by the rising phase and the falling phase. These impulses have been termed short impulses in contrast to the rectangular impulses, which are long, compared to the duration of their rising and falling phases. The width of the short impulses decreases with increasing measuring level. Close to the amplitude the width becomes very small, which theoretically provides a very small functional bandwidth. The practical realization of very small functional bandwidth is heavily limited by the big variations which will be caused by minute alterations of the amplitudes as introduced by noise. The variation of the functional bandwidth caused by 1% alteration of the amplitude has been termed the error factor. In the present paper some relationships between the following four quantities have been worked out: realizable functional bandwidth, tolerable variation of functional bandwidth, error factor, and given variation of the amplitudes and thresholds (noise). The short impulses have been piecewise approximated by analytical functions (parabolic and hyperbolic) which in general permits an analytical treatment of the problems.
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    Biological cybernetics 2 (1965), S. 206-215 
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    Notes: Summary Recent electrophysiological studies of the activity in response to acoustic stimuli of single primary afferent neurons in the VIIIth nerve of mammals strongly suggest that the spike activity is inherently stochastic in that a) the detailed pattern of activity varies unpredictably from repetition to repetition of an identical acoustic wave-form, but b) appropriate averages of this activity show stability or statistical regularity. Since the only way in which auditory information can reach the more central parts of the nervous system is via the VIIIth nerve, the effective “neural noise” implied by such stochastic “coding” of auditory information must set some sort of limits on auditory discriminations. As shown in this paper, these limits can be calculated if an appropriate statistical model of the neural activity is accepted. Of course, no more than a bound on discrimination performance can be determined in this way, since there is no reason to suppose that the central processing in the nervous system is effectively ideal — particularly in the artificial situations of auditory psychophysics. But if these bounds closely approximate performance (and there is some reason to believe they may, at least for the very simple auditory discriminations treated in this paper) then it seems reasonable to maintain that the observed stochastic “coding” in a sense accounts for or explains these behavioral limits. The key to such an analytical effort as proposed here is the availability of sufficient data on the activity in single primary afferent fibers to permit one to infer a reasonable statistical model describing the total (spike) activity in all the tens of thousands of acoustic fibers of the VIIIth nerve in response to the signals of interest. In spite of extensive studies of single-fiber activity by a number of observers, highfrequency tone bursts (several kilocycles or more) are one of the few classes of signals for which an even roughly adequate amount of data exists at present. For such signals the data suggest that the firing pattern of each neuron can be modeled as a sample function from a simple stationary random process whose parameters depend on stimulus frequency, tensity, cochlear location, neuron sensitivity, etc. The desired overall model can then be obtained by assuming reasonable distributions for these parameters over the population of neurons. Given such a model for the pattern of activity in the auditory nerve, discriminations between tone bursts of different frequencies or different intensities can be studied. These differences will be reflected in the properties of the random processes characterizing the auditory nerve. Using the theory of statistical hypothesis testing, it is possible to determine the smallest difference which could be reliably discriminated by an ideal computer examining the total activity of all fibers. As will be shown, the performance of this ideal computer parallels in a number of ways the performance of human observers. The general trends of this performance, moreover, (including an effect similar to Weber's Law) are largely insensitive to the details of the random process model for the neuron activity. However, it is interesting that the functioning of the ideal computer is particularly and uniquely simple for precisely that class of random process models which seems best to represent the physiological data.
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    Biological cybernetics 2 (1965), S. 248-248 
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    Notes: Summary Information content and information capacity of chromatograms are investigated using the mole fraction information as defined in previous communications. The terminus chromatographic information is introduced in a way that enables the calculation of the total separation work supplied to the mixture. The amount of information is a measure of the effectivity of chromatographs and chromatographic methods under different conditions.
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    Biological cybernetics 2 (1965), S. 257-274 
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    Notes: Summary Two types of neuronal lateral inhibition in one-dimensional fields of receptors and neurons are considered. The first type, which has been demonstrated in the eye of Limulus, is called subtractive inhibition (SI): it assumes that neuronal activity depends on the difference between the total excitation and inhibition. The second type is called shunting inhibition (SHI): it assumes that inhibitory influences cause a shunting of a portion of the excitation-produced depolarizing current. Consideration of the shunting model is dictated by its considerable physiological plausibility. The actions of SI and SHI, examined for a variety of coupling conditions and time-stationary positive inputs, are shown to be markedly different. The results indicate that SI is most suited for obtaining (1) a linearity between input and output, (2) a contrasting effect that does not depend on the presence of input discontinuities, and (3) contrasting whose degree is independent of input amplitude. SI is especially useful if coupling coefficients can be varied to accommodate the various input form functions or if, for fixed coupling coefficients, the class of input form functions is limited. On the other hand SHI appears most suited for obtaining (1) a nonlinear input-output relation, (2) a relative contrasting only of discontinuities, and (3) a dependence of the contrasting upon input amplitude.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1966), S. 13-17 
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    Notes: Abstract A model of pulse generation in the peripheral nervous system is discussed in this paper. The model uses no nonlinear circuit analogues of cellular membrane but rather a direct piecewise linear characterization of the membrane permeability changes and related ionic transport which accompany pulse generation. The relative simplicity of the model notwithstanding, predictions of pulse frequency versus generator potential amplitude relationship and pulse frequency versus pulse amplitude relationship as well as the threshold property of the process are correctly furnished by straight-forward calculations.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1966), S. 187-191 
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    Notes: Summary The maintained activities of 116 neurons of the cat's optic nerve were recorded on tape. Non-sequential interval histograms were computed; in 29 neurons a multimodal type was observed. The peaks were regularly spaced corresponding to a fundamental period of 20–35 msec. Similar interval histograms were found also during constant illumination and under the influence of strychnine and picrotoxin. In the same neuron the interval histogram may alternate between a unimodal and a multimodal type. The discussion is based on the assumption of two interacting generators differing with respect to their characteristics.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1967), S. 203-214 
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    Notes: Summary The human pupillary response in one eye can be controlled by monocular light stimulation to either of the eyes. If both eyes are stimulated simultaneously the pupil reaction depeneds upon some combination of the signals originating in both eyes. Characteristic differences between the reactions to monocular and simultaneous binocular stimuli can yield information regarding the type of underlying neural interaction processes as well as the succession of neural events along the pupillomotor pathway. Qualitative comparison of the pupil reactions to monocular and binocular stimulation of sinusoidally varying intensity leads to the conclusion 1) that addition of the signals originating in both eyes occurs, and 2) that only linear transformation of the signals may take place after the addition. However, the quantitative relationship between the reactions to monocular and simultaneous binocular stimuli cannot be explained on the basis of this simple model; Data on pupil reactions to both sinusoidally modulated and flash light stimuli suggest that a mutual inhibition of the signals in the two optic nerves occurs before the addition of the signals.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1967), S. 250-254 
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    Notes: Summary The Limulus ommatidial potential, as recorded with intracellular microelectrodes, can be divided into three components. These components do not occur in the same portion of the ommatidium. During dark adaptation one can plot the height of the response evoked by a constant stimulus presented at regular intervals of time after the adapting light is removed. Hyperpolarizing current influences the shape of the curve obtained by this means. Increasing potassium ion concentration in the external medium reduces the height of the ommatidial potential. The steady component is decreased more by high potassium than the final component. Removing calcium ion from the medium abolishes the transient component.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1967), S. 272-275 
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    Notes: Summary Self-improving control systems may belong to either of two categories, according to whether or not they embody an explicit model of the part of their environment with which they interact. The two forms of operation are discussed and compared, and it is shown that the two may be mathematically equivalent. The treatment also gives theoretical justification for a particular mode of operation for nonmodel-forming controllers.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1967), S. 276-285 
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    Notes: Summary The function of the facet-separating pigments in the compound eyes of the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster with hypernormal (se), normal (+), subnormal (wa), and missing (w) pigmentation was studied by investigation of: (1) the in-flight optomotor responses to movement of striped patterns with a mean brightness of 300 cd/m2, and (2) the retinal action potentials evoked by flashes in a program of .0003 cd/m2 average brightness. The pigment deficient mutants (w a, w) are less sensitive to the pattern contrast in the bright adapted state, and more sensitive to the flash intensity in the dark adapted state than either the wild-type (+) or the overpigmented mutant(se). These differences are complementary and can be explained by the increased translucency of the pigment cells. Thus the photoreceptors in the equally illuminated eyes of the normal and mutant animals +, se, w a, and w are expected to receive light in a ratio of about 1∶1∶7∶19. However the sensitivity of the receptors as well as the half-peak widths and the density of their visual fields are apparently independent of the eye pigmentation and seem to be equal at common levels of adaptation. The effects of omnidirectional excess light reaching the receptors of the pigment deficient mutants can be simulated in less translucent eyes: when certain amounts of background illumination were combined with the optomotor stimulus in the visual fields of the wild-type receptors it was possible to elicit the predicted “mutant behavior”.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1967), S. 238-240 
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    Notes: Summary The formation of the interconnection stimulus-response in a learning system is analysed. The system, a technical or a biological one establishes this correspondence by processing the information fed back from the medium during the learning process. This information has two aspects: a quantitative one related to the probability of the events, and a qualitative one related to the utility of the events in view of a goal. Both aspects are taken into consideration; by successive experiences the system eliminates the double uncertainty concerning the probabilistic dependence: stimulu — sresponse — outcome and its utility. Learning implies then a system for evaluating the utilities of different outcomes in view of a goal, a memory to record them and a decision system for selecting the corresponding responses upon a given criterion.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1967), S. 254-263 
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    Notes: Zusammenfassung Sinusförmig wechselnde Kräfte werden am Auge angewandt, und die resultierenden Bewegungen werden mit Hilfe eines Beschleunigungsmessers gemessen. Dieser ist an einer Kontaktlinse befestigt. Die Veränderung der Größe und des Phasenwinkels der Augendrehung mit der Frequenz wird in Form eines Bode-Diagramms wiedergegeben. Ein mechanisches Modell, das aus linearen visco-elastischen Elementen besteht, wird verwendet, um das Augapfel-Muskel-System nachzuahmen. Die Parameter des Modells werden nach der Methode der besten Übereinstimmung aus den Übergangs-Charakteristika bestimmt. Die Beschleunigung-gegen-Zeit Kurve der Bewegung, die durch Anwendung einer stufenartigen Verdrehung am Auge verursacht wird, ist in guter Übereinstimmung mit der vom Modell vorausgesagten. Die Drehwinkel-Übergangsfunktion des unbelasteten Auges wird aus dem Modell durch Abzug des Trägheitsmoments der Kontaktlinse und ihrer Anhängsel abgeleitet. Ergebnisse für Horizontal- und Vertikalbewegungen werden gesondert diskutiert. Vier kanonische und eine nicht-kanonische Form des mechanischen Modells sind angegeben. Angesichts der bekannten mechanischen Eigenschaften freiwilliger Muskel wird vermutet, daß die nicht-kanonische Form am ehesten physikalischen Elementen in der Augenhöhle entspricht. Drei Arten der Augenbewegung, die für das Sehen wichtig sind, werden verglichen mit der Mechanik des Augapfel-Muskel-Systems. Es wird vorausgesagt, daß eine Rotationsresonanz des Augapfels in der Pfanne erzeugt werden kann, wenn der Kopf in geeigneter Weise in Schwingungen gebracht wird. Die Natur der Muskelkräfte, die für saccadische Bewegungen und unwillkürliche Fixierungstremore verantwortlich sind, wird aufgeklärt.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1966), S. 143-148 
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    Notes: Summary Pattern-specific response in the visual system is represented in terms of a mathematical model and as the response of corresponding sequential circuits. The mathematical model employs standard relations of propositional calculus, with extension to the time domain. It is shown that pattern sensitive units of many types can be generated by successive applications of a generalised contrast operator together with a spatial summation operator. The implications of the models are interpreted in neural terms.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1966), S. 109-128 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Das Membranmodell von Hodgkin und Huxley wurde durch einfache lineare Modelle einer erregenden und einer hemmenden Synapse ergänzt. Die Impulsverarbeitung des so entstandenen mathematischen Neuronenmodells wurde mit Hilfe eines Digitalrechners untersucht. In erster Linie interessierten die Eingangs und Ausgangsbeziehungen, d. h. die Zusammenhänge zwischen den Daten der präsynaptischen Anregung und der postsynaptischen Antwort. Die Modellparameter und damit auch die postsynaptische Antwort hängen von der Intensität und vom Zeitverlauf der Anregung ab. Daher wurde das Modell mit Einzelimpulsen, Impulspaaren und Impulsfolgen sowie mit sprungartig und rampenförmig einsetzender Gleichspannung angeregt. Durch die Gleich- oder Daueranregung wird der Fall nachgebildet, daß viele Synapsen gleichzeitig von verschiedenen Impulsfolgen mit hinreichend hoher Folgefrequenz aktiviert werden. Die Gleichanregungskennlinien geben den Zusammenhang zwischen der präsynaptischen Gleichanregung und der stationären postsynaptischen De- oder Hyperpolarisation an (Abb. 5). Sie zeigen Sättigungscharakter; ihre Steilheit besitzt am Anfang den größten Wert und nimmt mit zunehmender De- und Hyperpolarisation ab. Im unterschwelligen Bereich bis zu Depolarisationen von etwa 4 mV ist das Modell stabil, es können nur lokale Antworten erzeugt werden. Im Zwischenbereich von 4–8,8 mV können je nach Anstiegsart der Dauererregung ein oder mehrere Aktionspotentiale hervorgerufen werden. Im instabilen Bereich von 8,8 mV bis etwa 18 mV ergeben sich in jedem Fall periodische Folgen von Aktionspotentialen, deren Folgefrequenz mit wachsender Depolarisation zunimmt. Die Impulshemmungskennlinien (Abb. 12) geben den Zusammenhang zwischen den Amplituden der Eingangsimpulse und der zugehörigen IPSP an. Sie haben ebenfalls Sättigungscharakter. Überlagert man IPSP und Dauerpolarisation, so erhält man mit zunehmender Depolarisation eine Verstärkung der IPSP. Durch erregende Eingangsimpulse können postsynaptische Antworten mit jeder beliebigen Amplitude zwischen 0 und 100 mV erzeugt werden. Die Impulserregungskennlinien (Abb. 7, 27) beginnen mit einer geringen Steigung, die in der Nähe des Schwellenwertes rasch zunimmt. In der Umgebung des Schwellenwertes, wo die postsynaptischen Potentiale in die Aktionspotentiale übergehen, verläuft sie sehr steil und nähert sich dann rasch einem Grenzwert. Überlagert man EPSP mit einer konstanten De- oder Hyperpolarisation, so erhält man in jedem Fall eine Abschwächung des EPSP. Bei der Überlagerung von postsynaptischen Potentialen können starke Impulsverformungen auftreten. Diese sind besonders ausgeprägt, wenn einem großen Hauptimpuls ein kleiner Testimpuls überlagert wird (Abb. 15–20). Aktionspotentiale werden gewöhnlich durch hinreichend starke erregende Eingangsimpulse ausgelöst. Sie können aber auch durch hemmende Eingangsimpulse hervorgerufen werden, wenn das erste positive Nachpotential des IPSP den Schwellenwert überschreitet (Abb. 30). Bei der Anregung des Modelles mit periodischen Impulsfolgen wurde insbesondere die Frequenz- bzw. Impulsratenteilung untersucht. Das Ergebnis ist in Form eines v-Diagrammes dargestellt (Abb. 32, 33).
    Notes: Summary A simple neuron model has been developed by adding simple linear excitatory and inhibitory synapse models to Hodgkin and Huxley's model of the giant axon. Some cases of pulse processing of this model have been investigated by an electronic digital computer. The postsynaptic response of the model depends on the shape and on the intensity of the presynaptic impulses. Therefore, it has been activated by single and double presynaptic impulses, by pulse trains and by DC excitation (inhibition). DC excitation (inhibition) simulates the case that there are very many excitatory (inhibitory) synapses activated alternately by pulse trains of high repetition rate. The characteristic curves of the model for DC excitation (inhibition) represent the relationship between the presynaptic DC excitation (inhibition) and the depolarisation (hyperpolarisation) of the postsynaptic membrane potential (Fig. 5). These curves show saturation. At the beginning they are rather steep. With increasing depolarisation (hyperpolarization) the steepness decreases. With DC excitation four states of different stability can be distinguished. Up to 4 mV depolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane the model is absolutely stable; no actionpotentials can be evoked. A quasi stable state exists for depolarisation between 4 mV and 8.8 mV. In this range single actionpotentials or trains of actionpotentials may be evoked. For depolarisations between 8.8 and 18 mV the model is instable; each displacement of the membrane potential in this range generates a periodic tram of impulses. Another quasi stable state exists for depolarisations above 18 mV. In this range single actionpotentials may be evoked which are followed by a damped oscillation (Figs. 21, 23). The characteristic curve for inhibition by single presynaptic impulses represents the relationship between the amplitude of the IPSP and the intensity of inhibition (in the neuron: number of synchronously activated synapses; in the model: amplitude of presynaptic impulse). Inhibitory impulses have been superimposed on DC excitation or DC inhibition. The amplitude of the IPSP increases with increasing depolarisation and decreases with increasing hyperpolarisation (Figs. 12, 14). The characteristic curve for excitation by single presynaptic impulses gives the relationship between the amplitudes of the postsynaptic response and of the presynaptic impulse (Figs. 7, 27). This curve raises slowly in the subthreshold range, very fast close to the threshold and remains almost constant above threshold (Fig. 27). If subthreshold presynaptic impulses are superimposed on DC excitation or inhibition, the amplitude of the postsynaptic response (EPSP) decreases in both cases (Figs. 9, 10). Because of the nonlinearity of the model there are many eases where postsynaptic responses of single presynaptic impulses cannot been added linearly (Figs. 15–20). In general actionpotentials are evoked by sufficiently high excitatory input impulses. They also may be evoked by sufficiently high inhibitory input impulses. In this case the first positive afterpotential may exceed the threshold and evoke a spike (Fig. 30). The model has been activated by periodic pulse trams. Depending on the input intensities and on the repetition rates the model shows three modes of operation: 1. full (one to one) transmission, 2. partial transmission (division of repetition rate), 3. no transmission at all (subthreshold activation) (Figs. 32, 33).
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1966), S. 17-24 
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    Notes: Summary A mathematical model is presented that is supposed to describe certain types of multimodal interval distributions of neuronal discharges. Basically it consits of the selective interaction between an excitatory and an inhibitory impulse sequence. The theoretical results are compared with nerve cell interval distributions reported in the literature, and with distributions from simulation studies. A possible relationship between the properties of this model and longtailed interval distributions is indicated. Several extensions are discussed.
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    Biological cybernetics 3 (1966), S. 53-66 
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    Notes: Abstract Small-signal frequency-response measurements of a locust visual reflex in the range 0.0014 cps to 6 cps suggest description via special departures from ordinary linear-system characterization, at both low and high frequencies. At low frequency the response is similar to that of an adapting system having the formal characteristics of fractional-order differentiation. Adjustment of test-pattern luminance from 0.00025 to 1 lambert increases the order of this differentiation by about 0.37. Comparison of intensity-dependent properties of the reflex with related electrophysiological studies of photoreception implies that the frequency dependence of the optomotor response is dominated by receptor dynamics. At high frequency, phase lag is less than that required by minimum-phase linear description of the gain curves. In order to avoid the question of “predictive tracking” by the locust, a time-and frequency-dependent gain modulation is suggested to account for the less-than-minimum phase property, and shown to be qualitatively compatible with transients in gain at the start of sinusoidal pattern motion. The motion-perception model of Hassenstein and Reichardt, shown previously to predict the gross gain and phase relations of the small-signal locust response, is apparently an inappropriate description of these data since the decisive gain and phase measurements are more plausibly accounted for by intensity-dependent adaptation than by the properties of the model underlying the original prediction. An abstraction of the fundamental properties of their multiplicative interaction of ommatidia, however, can assist electrophysiological search for neural correlates of motion perception; it is shown that, under certain conditions, interaction of receptor channels via lateral shunting inhibition is (a) indistinguishable from the multiplicative motion-perception topology, and (b) formally related to a nonlinear property of inhibition in the eye of Limulus.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1967), S. 1-10 
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    Notes: Summary A mathematical model is presented that is supposed to describe those types of neuronal discharges which show a preponderance of short intervals, as well as one or more preferred intervals of a longer duration. It is assumed that via two channels impulses impinge upon a nerve cell and that each impulse gives rise to a response. The intervals between impulses in one channel are distributed according to an exponential, or an exponential-like, function; those in the other channel are distributed according to a monomodal, or a multimodal, function. The interval distributions and the expectation density (auto-correlation) functions of the model are in particular compared with data on thalamic neuron discharge patterns reported in the literature. The properties of superimposed time series of events would seem to be of a wider interest, stretching beyond the field of theoretical neurophysiology. It is indicated how the theory is of use in the detection of hidden rhythms in records which are composed of a mixture of different signals.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1967), S. 18-26 
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    Notes: Zusammenfassung Das femorale Chordotonalorgan adaptiert nicht vollständig. — Werden die femoralen Chordotonalorgane einer Körperseite operativ dauernd gespannt, weichen die Tiere auf einer senkrechten Lauffläche in Richtung der intakten Körperseite von der Senkrechten ab. — Der Regelkreis zur Stabilisierung des Femur-Tibia-Gelenkes kann auf unterschiedliche Werte adaptieren. Daraus werden Rückschlüsse auf die einzelnen Glieder des Regelkreises gezogen. — Eine Operationstechnik zur Verlegung des Ansatzes der Receptorsehne des femoralen Chordotonalorganes von der dorsalen auf die ventrale Seite des Femur-Tibia-Gelenkes wird beschrieben. Auf diese Weise operierte Tiere bewegen die Femur-Tibia-Gelenke während des Laufens nur, wenn die Tarsen einen Gegenstand berühren. Sonst bleiben die Beine starr ausgestreckt. Sind die Tiere dagegen in Ruhe, beugen sie das operierte Bein in regelmäßigen Abständen. — Die Untersuchung der Tiere am Laufrad ergibt: Verhindert man das Rückschwingen eines Beines, wird es beim Laufen nicht bewegt. Es erzeugt aber eine Kraft. Diese Kraft ist im intakten Bein größer als bei durchtrennter Receptorsehne und kleiner als bei dauernd gespanntem Chordotonalorgan. — Es wird ein Modell entwickelt, das die Steuerung des Führungsgrößengebers für die Bewegung eines Beines durch die bis jetzt bekannten Afferenzen aus Beinreceptoren abbildet.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1967), S. 67-68 
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1967), S. 55-65 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Zusammenfassung Konsensuelle Pupillenreaktionen auf Lichtblitze wurden mit dem Verfahren der Infrarot-Reflexphotometrie an 10 gesunden Versuchspersonen registriert. Die Latenzzeit sowie die wichtigsten Kennzeiten des Reflexablaufes wurden ausgemessen und vom Zeitpunkt des Lichtreizes her der mitregistrierten Atmung zugeordnet. Bei Spontanatmung zeigen die Kennwerte des Pupillen-Lichtreflexes folgende Änderungen: inspiratorisch (Lichtreiz während der Inspiration) werden die Latenzzeit (t L ) verlängert, die Kontraktion beschleunigt (Kontraktions-Halbwertszeit t K/2 und Kontraktionszeit t K verkürzt), daß Ausmaß der Pupillenverengung (Amplitude A) reduziert und die Wiedererweiterung verzögert (Dilatations-Viertelwertszeit t D/4 verlängert). Die große Variabilität in den respiratorischen Schwankungen von t D/4 wird so erklärt, daß die Wiedererweiterung einem doppelten Einfluß von Seiten der Einatmung unterliegt: a) einem früheren Effekt, der bald nach dem Lichtreiz den Reflexablauf im Sinne einer langsamen Wiedererweiterung modifiziert, und b) einem späten Effekt, der direkt in den Verlauf der Wiedererweiterung beschleunigend eingreift. Bei willkürlich verlangsamter Atmung sind die respiratorischen Einflüsse auf die Latenzzeit (t L ) vermindert, die auf t D/4 jedoch verstärkt. Dies darf so gedeutet werden, daß die Latenzzeit mehr von der spontanen Tendenz des Atemzentrums, der Verlauf der Wiedererweiterung hingegen stärker von dem Atemablauf unmittelbar abhängt. Diese Deutung wird durch die Resultate bei Atemstillstand gestützt. Das Konzept der „kollektiven Merkmalsverschiebung” nach Drischel wird eingehend diskutiert. Die strenge Kopplung zwischen verschiedenen Merkmalen des Pupillen-Lichtreflexes, die Drischel (1957) sowohl in variationsstatistischen Untersuchungen an einer großen Personengruppe wie auch bei Einwirkung von Pharmaka fand, gilt nicht für intraindividuelle, atemrhythmische Veränderungen. Es finden sich im Gegenteil sehr ausgeprägte „differenzierte Merkmalsverschiebungen”. Gerade dies läßt die Pupillographie als einen besonders interessanten Indicator für vegetative Tonusschwankungen erscheinen.
    Notes: Summary Consensual reflexes of the pupil to light flashes were recorded with infrared reflexion photometry in 10 healthy subjects. Latency and other characteristic times of the pupil response were measured. The respiration was recorded simultaneously. During spontaneous respiration the light reflex of the pupil shows the following variations: during inspiration (light stimulus during inspiration) the latency (t L ) is prolonged, the contraction is slightly accelerated and reduced in amplitude, and the redilatation (t D/4) is protracted. During voluntarily slowed respiration the respiratory influences on latency are reduced, but those on redilatation are increased. Thus it is concluded that the latency depends more on the spontaneous tendency of the respiratory centres, whereas the course of redilatation depends more on the respiratory movements directly. The strong correlations between the different parameters of the pupillary reflex described by Drischel (1957) (“kollektive Merkmalsverschiebung”, collective shifts of parameters), based on a statistical analysis of interindividual variations and on pharmacological effects, could not be verified for intraindividual variations with the respiratory rhythm. In contrast, under these conditions, different parameters can be influenced separately.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1968), S. 190-194 
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    Notes: Zusammenfassung Im Hinblick auf eine Sprachübertragung über den Tastsinn an der Innenseite des Unterarms werden die Fühlschwelle, Mitfühlschwelle und Vibrationsstärke-Empfindung bei örtlich und zeitlich verteilter mechanischer Reizung der Haut untersucht. Ferner wird die Erkennbarkeit eines einfachen, aus zwei Reizen bestehenden Reizmusters ermittelt.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1968), S. 195-197 
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    Notes: Summary By the application of a new concept of activity, which is an extension of excitability in physiology, it was possible to establish the activity cycle in relation to the interstimulus interval as an extension of excitability cycle. It was proved also that the response area and audiogram in the auditory system, as well as the spectral response curve in the visual system can be described in uniform fashion as a special situation of activity. It was further found that Fechner's law and Stevens' power function are none other than one of the laws of activity in the semi-logarithmic and in the double logarithmic domains, respectively.
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    Biological cybernetics 4 (1968), S. 157-171 
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    Description / Table of Contents: Summary This communication examines, in digital computer simulated networks, the input-output relation established at synaptic level. It is restricted to excitatory junctions and analyzes the changes in post-synaptic discharge which occur when the number of pre-synaptic terminals increases while the EPSP size decreases, when the statistical structure or “form” (as measured by the interspike interval mean, standard deviation, histogram and by the autocorrelogram) of the spike train in each pre-synaptic fiber changes, and/or when the interdependence between pre-synaptic fibers varies from complete independence to strong dependence. 1Independent Pre-synaptic Terminals. When the number of pre-synaptic terminals increases and the EPSP size decreases proportionally (while the input form remains constant), the post-synaptic interspike interval mean increases slightly, the standard deviation decreases markedly, the histogram becomes sharp and narrow and the autocorrelogram becomes periodic. When, on the other hand, the pre-synaptic form varies (while the number of terminals and the EPSP size remain constant), the effect upon the post-synaptio output depends upon the given number of terminals and EPSP size. If terminals are few and EPSP's large, the output varies with the pre-synaptic form. The post-synaptic coefficient of variation is linearly related to the pre-synaptic coefficient of variation, the slope decreasing as the number of inputs increases. If terminals are numerous and weak, the pre-synaptic form ceases to be influential and the post-synaptic cell generates the same output regardless of the detailed structure of the corresponding input. The output common to any combination of independent weak input forms is a very regular train of evenly spaced spikes. (This conclusion is valid unless pre-synaptic terminals fire at extremely low rates.) Such results are mathematically predictable in a simple and realistic model of membrane potential and threshold dynamics (see Appendix). As the EPSP size increases, all other variables being equal, the post-synaptic interval mean decreases monotonically. The decrease is smooth or in steps depending on whether the pre-synaptic form is Poisson or pacemaker, respectively. Post-synaptic spikes are effectively blocked by relatively small numbers of inhibitory terminals. 2Dependent Pre-synaptic Terminals. When there is a physiological amount of interdependence between the presynaptic terminals that impinge upon the post-synaptic cell, the activity of the latter is a function of the statistical form of the input channels, even when the latter are numerous and weak. This happens when interdependence involves only a proportion of all terminals or only the terminals within separate and independent groups. In order to understand the transactions that take place in the nervous system, it is necessary to identify the presynaptic statistics that influence the corresponding post-synaptic discharge. When pre-synaptic terminals produce large PSP's their influence is dominant and exerted by way of the precise statistical form of the discharge. When terminals produce small PSP's their influence is contingent on their degree of interdependence. If they are uncorrelated, they act exclusively by way of their mean rates and provide a smooth adjustment of the post-synaptic membrane potential and firing rate. If terminals are correlated, they act by way of several statistical features and assume a dominant role that determines a precise relation between pre-synaptic timing and post-synaptic firing. The degree of inter-terminal correlation is thus a functionally significant variable.
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Mit Hilfe eines Digitalrechners wurden die Eingangs-und Ausgangsbeziehungen auf synaptischer Ebene untersucht und dargestellt. Diese Untersuchung erstreckt sich auf erregende Synapsen und analysiert die Veränderungen postsynaptischer Aktionspotentiale, die auftreten, 1. wenn die Anzahl der präsynaptischen axonischen Endigungen ansteigt, während andererseits die Amplitude des EPSP abnimmt; 2. wenn sich die statistische Struktur oder „Form” der Spike-Kette in jeder präsynaptischen Faser verändert; und/oder 3. wenn die Beziehungen zwischen den präsynaptischen Fasern von völliger Unabhängigkeit bis zu starker Abhängigkeit variiert werden. 1Unabhängige präsynaptische Endigungen. Mit zunehmender Anzahl präsynaptischer Endigungen bei gleichzeitiger proportionaler Abnahme des EPSP (Input Form konstant) treten folgende Veränderungen auf: a) das durchschnittliche Intervall zwischen den postsynaptischen Spikes nimmt etwas zu; b) die mittlere statistische Abweichung (standard deviation) nimmt erheblich ab; c) die Form des Histogramms wird eng umschrieben; und d) das Autokorrelogramm nimmt „periodischen” Charakter an. Wenn andererseits die präsynaptische Form verändert wird (während die Anzahl der Endigungen sowie die Größe des EPSP konstant bleibt), hängt der am postsynaptischen Ausgang registrierte Effekt von der gegebenen Anzahl der Endigungen und von der Größe des EPSP ab. Ist die Anzahl der Endigungen gering und das EPSP groß, dann variiert der Ausgang mit der präsynaptischen Form. Der postsynaptische Variationskoeffizient steht dann in linearer Abhängigkeit vom präsynaptischen Variationskoeffizienten, wobei die Steigung der Geraden mit zunehmendem Eingang abnimmt. Sind die Endigungen zahlreich und die Größen der EPSPs gering, dann übt die präsynaptische Form keinen Einfluß mehr aus, und das von der postsynaptischen Zelle erzeugte Ausgangsprodukt wird unabhängig von der detaillierten Struktur des Eingangs. Für eine jegliche Kombination von unabhängigen und schwachen Eingangsformen stellt sich das Ausgangsprodukt in Form einer sehr regelmäßig gestalteten und durch gleichmäßige Abstände gekennzeichneten Spike-Kette dar (diese Folgerung gilt nur für die Fälle, in denen die präsynaptischen Endigungen sich nicht äußerst langsam entladen). Diese Resultate können mathematisch an Hand eines einfachen Membranmodells abgeleitet werden (s. Appendix). Wenn das EPSP in Größe ansteigt, alle anderen Variablen jedoch gleich bleiben, dann nimmt das postsynaptische Intervall fortwährend ab. Dieser Abfall ist entweder gleichmäßig (präsynaptische Form: „Poisson”) oder stufenweise (präsynaptische Form: „pacemaker”). Die postsynaptischen Aktionspotentiale werden durch eine vergleichsweise kleine Anzahl von hemmenden Endigungen wirkungsvoll blockiert. 2Abhängige präsynaptische Endigungen. Wenn sich der Grad der Abhängigkeit zwischen den präsynaptischen Endigungen in physiologischen Grenzen bewegt, dann kann die Aktivität der postsynaptischen Zelle als eine Funktion der statistischen Form der Eingangskanäle angegeben werden, und das sogar, wenn die letzteren zahlreich und schwach sind. Dieser Fall tritt dann ein, wenn die Abhängigkeit zwischen den präsynaptischen Endigungen nur einen Teil aller Endigungen oder nur die Endigungen innerhalb getrennter und unabhängiger Gruppen betrifft. Um die im Nervensystem stattfindenden Übertragungen zu verstehen, ist es notwendig, diejenigen präsynaptischen Statistiken zu idendifizieren, die entsprechende postsynaptische Entladungen beeinflussen. Wenn präsynaptische Endigungen große PSPs hervorrufen, dann ist ihr Einfluß dominierend und wird entsprechend der präzisen statistischen Form ausgeübt. Wenn die Endigungen kleine PSPs hervorrufen, dann hängt ihr Einfluß weitgehend von dem Grad der Abhängigkeit voneinander ab. Wenn die präsynaptischen Endigungen unkorreliert sind, dann vermitteln ihre durchschnittlichen, präsynaptischen Entladungsgeschwindigkeiten eine gleichmäßige Regulierung des postsynaptischen Membranpotentials und der postsynaptischen Entladungsgeschwindigkeiten. Sind andererseits die präsynaptischen Endigungen korreliert, dann nehmen sie eine dominierende Funktion ein, und die Beziehungen zwischen präsynaptischer Regulierung und postsynaptischer Entladung können präzise definiert werden. Somit stellt sich der Grad der Abhängigkeit zwischen den präsynaptischen Endigungen als eine funktionell bedeutende Variable dar.
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    Biological cybernetics 5 (1969), S. 174-176 
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    Notes: Summary Discharges of individual fibers from the IX-th frog dorsal root, under stretching of the hind leg by falling weights, have been recorded. About 1/3 of the recorded fibers are leading off from rapidly adapting receptors. The fibers coming from slowly adapting receptors and those not responding to the applied stimulus are analyzed with some details. The number of pulse per second as a function of time and load is examined. It has been found that a group of fibers increases the rate of firing regularly with the load, a second group gives the greatest response in intermediate zones of the loads scale and a third group shows a higher threshold. Some remarks on the aggregate message reaching the spinal cord are developed.
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    Biological cybernetics 5 (1969), S. 219-221 
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    Notes: Summary Two methods for measuring the amount of linguistic change are described: 1. It is possible to measure the correspondence between two phoneme inventories of two periods in a language's development in the same way as in information theory between the inventories of the transmitted and received symbols (measure of correspondence B). 2. This first method, however, does not measure the development of a phonologic pattern. Therefore the correlation of similarity is computed (as applicated in the psychology of development).
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    Biological cybernetics 5 (1969), S. 177-187 
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    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Computer Science , Physics
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Als bestimmend für die Dynamik des Langzeitvorganges des Spannungsabfalles im Muskel nach aufgebrachten stufen- und rampenförmigen Längenänderungen ist das Übertragungsverhalten eines s k -Elementes mit einer elastischen Komponente ermittelt worden. Vergleichende Betrachtungen über die Veränderung der H-Zonenlänge und des Exponenten k haben zu einer Lokalisierung der Übertragungseigenschaften in der in der Mitte des Sarkomers befindlichen H-Zone geführt. Es wird vorgeschlagen, daß die elastische Rückstellkraft des Muskels in den parallel zur H-Zone befindlichen m-Filamenten generiert wird; diese Strukturen stellen zusätzliche Verbindungen zwischen den Myosinfilamenten in den beiden Halbsarkomeren dar. Aus der Modellierung mit einem Analogrechner folgt, daß das s k -Element physikalisch einer Kombination einer stark nichtlinearen Feder mit einem konventionellen Dämpfertopf entspricht. Durch vektorielle Subtraktion des s k -Anteiles mit elastischer Komponente von der Ortskurve der Dehnbarkeit des entspannten Insektenflugmuskels ist mit sehr guter Genauigkeit die Übertragungsfunktion von zwei in Serie befindlichen viskoelastischen Elementen des Maxwell-Typs ermittelt worden. Durch die Annahme, daß in einem der drei bereits früher postulierten Maxwell-Elemente, die als konzentriert in den dominanten passiven Strukturen — den Verbindungsfilamenten, den Myosinfilamenten und der H-Zone — angenommen wurden, die Feder in Serie mit dem Dämpfertopf eine stark nichtlineare Kraft-Längen-Charakteristik hat, wird es möglich, die Gültigkeit eines schon früher formulierten Modelles auf Langzeitveränderungen ausdehnen. Die Möglichkeit der Beschreibung von Spannungsabfällen, gemessen für verschiedene andere Muskeln, durch die Übertragungseigenschaften eines s k -Gliedes läßt eine Allgemeingültigkeit der am Insektenmuskel erzielten Ergebnisse als wahrscheinlich erscheinen. Die Möglichkeit ist diskutiert, daß die für Dehnungsreceptoren abgeleitete Übertragungsfunktion das im Muskel lokalisierte s k -Glied mit einbezieht.
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  • 97
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    Biological cybernetics 5 (1969), S. 241-247 
    ISSN: 1432-0770
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Computer Science , Physics
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Das Gefäßsystem isolierter Nieren und isolierter Herzen von Ratten wurde mit einer zellfreien, sauerstoffgesättigten isotonischen Nährlösung künstlich durchströmt. Dabei wurden a) die Volumenstromantworten (als Ausgangssignal) auf rechteckförmige Drucksprünge (als Eingangssignal) analysiert und b) die Volumenstrom-Druckbeziehung (V/P) isolierter Nieren bei sinusförmig moduliertem Eingangs(Druck-) signal und bei unmoduliertem (DC) Eingangssignal mit dem Ziel untersucht, eine aufgrund früherer Untersuchungen vermutete (Druck-)steilheitsabhängige Reaktionskomponente nachzuweisen (Başar et al., 1968a). 1. Bei gleichem mittleren Perfusionsdruck liegt der mittlere Perfusionsvolumenstrom im Druckbereich der sog. Autoregulation (zwischen 100 und 220 mm Hg) bei sinusförmig moduliertem Druck signifikant niedriger als bei Perfusion mit Gleichdruck. 2. Volumenstromantwortkurven auf Aufwärtsdrucksprünge (von 90 auf 180 mm Hg) enthalten eine differentialquotientenempfindliche Antwortkomponente, während die Registrierung von Abwärtssprungantworten (180 auf 90 mm Hg) ein proportionales Verhalten ergibt. Die Ergebnisse werden im Licht des kürzlich von Clynes (1961, 1962) erarbeiteten Konzeptes einer „unidirectional rate sensitivity” diskutiert. Übertragungsfunktionen, die den Zusammenhang zwischen dem Perfusionsdruck und der resultierenden Perfusionsstromstärke in der autoregulierenden Niere und dem Coronargefäßsystem des Herzens beschreiben, werden aus Bode-Diagrammen abgeleitet und miteinander verglichen.
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  • 98
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    Biological cybernetics 6 (1969), S. 1-6 
    ISSN: 1432-0770
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Computer Science , Physics
    Notes: Abstract In the field of control, it is often necessary to classify a large set of different input vectors into a small number of different classes. The input vectors which for example represent the state of a controlled system, define points in the so-called “pattern space”, and the classification may be regarded as a separation of these points. The structures of two different trainable classifiers for linear and piecewise linear separation are described: the madaline and the learning-matrix. As a training method for the learning-matrix with minimum distance classification, two algorithms are introduced: the method of weighted shifting and the method of error projection.
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  • 99
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    Biological cybernetics 6 (1969), S. 72-74 
    ISSN: 1432-0770
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Computer Science , Physics
    Notes: Zusammenfassung Diese Arbeit untersucht die Analogien zwischen den statistischen Gesetzen der Sprache und denjenigen im Bereich der Physik. Es wird gezeigt, daß die Entwicklung eines Textes durch einen Zufallsvorgang beschrieben werden kann, dessen Stetigkeitszustand nahezu übereinstimmt mit dem Verhältnis, das zwischen den entsprechenden linguistischen Parametern besteht.
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  • 100
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    Biological cybernetics 6 (1969), S. 81-96 
    ISSN: 1432-0770
    Source: Springer Online Journal Archives 1860-2000
    Topics: Biology , Computer Science , Physics
    Notes: Summary From the communication engineers point of view the paper deals with networks consisting of linear filters and a special sort of controlled statistical pulse generators (SIG). The SIG responds to an analog signal with a sequence of Dirac impulses, where the probability for an output impulse at a given time depends on the instantaneous value of the input signal only. In connection with linear filters, however, systems can be realized in which the whole past of the input determines the statistical structure of the output. Therefore systems consisting of linear filters and SIGs (SIG networks) become interesting as models of biological systems, because in biological information processing transformations from analog signals into pulse trains occur very often. An example concerning the application of SIG systems in behavioural sciences will be discussed in a subsequent paper. In the present paper a theoretical analysis of the SIG and SIG networks is carried out by means of Statistical Communication Theory and Theory of Stochastic Processes. It is shown that under certain conditions very complex SIG networks can be treated with Correlation Theory. For one case not satisfying these conditions a solution on the base of Markoff processes is given.
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