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  • 2010-2014  (437,129)
  • 2010  (437,129)
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Language
Year
  • 1
  • 2
    Monograph available for loan
    Monograph available for loan
    [Edgecumbe, N.Z.] : A. Muller
    Call number: M 15.89146
    Description / Table of Contents: An account of the results of the 2 March 1987 earthquake in the eastern Bay of Plenty and the aftermath's effects on the people and places on the Rangitaiki Plains
    Type of Medium: Monograph available for loan
    Pages: 223 S., , Ill.
    Language: English
    Branch Library: GFZ Library
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  • 3
    Call number: MOP 19538/1d-6d
    Type of Medium: Monograph available for loan
    Pages: 111 S.
    ISSN: 0486-2287
    Language: Russian
    Note: In kyrill. Schr.
    Location: MOP - must be ordered
    Branch Library: GFZ Library
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  • 4
    Call number: Z 06.0500
    Type of Medium: Journal available for loan
    Pages: 30 cm
    ISSN: 1824-7741
    Former Title: Vorgänger Geologisch-paläontologische Mitteilungen, Innsbruck
    Language: German , English
    Note: Ersch. unregelmäßig , Beiträge teilweise in Englisch
    Branch Library: GFZ Library
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  • 5
    Call number: IASS 15.89494
    Type of Medium: Monograph available for loan
    Pages: Losebl.-Ausg.
    Edition: Stand: Oktober 2010
    ISBN: 9783768501828
    Language: German
    Branch Library: IASS
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  • 6
    Monograph available for loan
    Monograph available for loan
    Garmisch-Partenkirchen : Institut für atmosphärische Umweltforschung der Fraunhofer- Gesellschaft
    Call number: MOP 44829 / Mitte
    Type of Medium: Monograph available for loan
    Pages: 25 S. , graph. Darst.
    Language: English
    Location: MOP - must be ordered
    Branch Library: GFZ Library
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  • 7
    Call number: (DE-599)GBV03709842X
    Type of Medium: Monograph available for loan
    Language: German
    Location: MOP - must be ordered
    Branch Library: GFZ Library
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  • 8
    Monograph available for loan
    Monograph available for loan
    Leningrad : Gidrometeorolog. Izd.
    Call number: MOP 33767
    Type of Medium: Monograph available for loan
    Pages: 663 S.
    Language: Russian
    Note: In kyrill. Schr., russ.
    Location: MOP - must be ordered
    Branch Library: GFZ Library
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  • 9
    Monograph available for loan
    Monograph available for loan
    Stuttgart : Schweizerbart Science Publishers ; Volume 1, number 1 (1978)-
    Call number: M 18.91571
    Type of Medium: Monograph available for loan
    Pages: 134 Seiten
    ISSN: 2363-7196
    Series Statement: Global tectonics and metallogeny : special issue Vol. 10/2-4
    Classification:
    Tectonics
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Global tectonics and metallogeny
    Language: English
    Location: Upper compact magazine
    Branch Library: GFZ Library
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  • 10
    Journal available for loan
    Journal available for loan
    München : Altop Verlag ; 2007 -
    Call number: Z 19.92410
    Type of Medium: Journal available for loan
    Pages: 30 cm
    ISSN: 1865-4266
    Former Title: Vorg. Nachhaltiges Wirtschaften in Deutschland
    Language: German
    Note: Ungezählte Beil. ab 2010: Special , Ersch. jährl. 4x
    Branch Library: IASS
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  • 11
    Call number: AWI A3-20-93434-2
    In: Meteorologische Abhandlungen / Institut für Meteorologie und Geophysik der Freien Universität Berlin, Band XXXII, Heft 2
    Type of Medium: Series available for loan
    Pages: 218 Seiten , Illustrationen
    Series Statement: Meteorologische Abhandlungen / Institut für Meteorologie und Geophysik der Freien Universität Berlin 32,2
    Language: German
    Note: Zugleich: Dissertation, Freie Unversität Berlin, [ca. 1963] , INHALTSVERZEICHNIS PROBLEMSTELLUNG UND ZIELSETZUNG 1. BEMERKUNGEN ZUM BEOBACHTUNGSGELÄNDE UND ZUM BEOBACHTUNGSMATERIAL 1.1 Das Beobachtungsgelände 1.2 Das Beobachtungsmaterial 2. HOMOGENITÄTSBETRACHTUNGEN 2.1 Temperatur 2.2 Niederschlag 2.3 Wind 2.4 Sonnenschein und Bewölkung 3. TEMPERATURVERHÄLTNISSE 3.1 Monats- und Jahreswerte 3.2 Tageswerte 3.3 Pentadenwerte 3.4 Häufigkeitsbetrachtungen 3.5 Interdiurne Veränderlichkeit 3.6 Der tägliche Gang 3.7 Vorkommen bestimmter Schwellenwerte 3.71 Frost- und Eistage 3.72 Sommer- und Tropentage 4. DER WASSERGEHALT DER LUFT 4.1 Monats- und Jahreswerte 4.2 Tageswerte 4.3 Häufigkeitsbetrachtungen 4.4 Interdiurne Veränderlichkeit 4.5 Der tägliche Gang 5. BEWÖLKUNGSVERHÄLTNISSE 5.1 Monats- und Jahreswerte 5.2 Tageswerte 5.3 Häufigkeitsbetrachtungen 5.4 Der tägliche Gang 5.5 Heitere und trübe Tage 5.6 Nebel 6. SONNENSCHEIN 6.1 Monats- und Jahreswerte 6.2 Tageswerte 6.3 Der tägliche Gang 7. NIEDERSCHLAGSVERHÄLTNISSE 7.1 Monats- und Jahreswerte 7.2 Niederschlagsbereitschaft 7.3 Tageswerte 7.4 Der tägliche Gang 7.5 Häufigkeitsbetrachtungen 7.6 Niederschlags- und Trockenperioden 7.7 Niederschlag und Wind· 7.8 Schneeverhältnisse 7.81 Schneefall und Schneedecke 7.82 Schneehöhe 7.9 Gewitter 8. WINDVERHÄLTNISSE 8.1 Windrichtung 8.2 Windgeschwindigkeit 8.21 Der jährliche Gang 8.22 Häufigkeitsbetrachtungen 8.23 Sturmtage und Windstillen 8.24 Der tägliche Gang 9.ZUSAMMENFASSUNG VERZEICHNIS DER TEXTTABELLEN VERZEICHNIS DER ABBILDUNGEN LITERATURVERZEICHNIS TABELLENANHANG
    Location: AWI Reading room
    Branch Library: AWI Library
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  • 12
    Call number: AWI A3-20-93434
    In: Meteorologische Abhandlungen / Institut für Meteorologie und Geophysik der Freien Universität Berlin, Band XXXII, Heft 1
    Type of Medium: Series available for loan
    Pages: 121 Seiten , Illustrationen
    Series Statement: Meteorologische Abhandlungen / Institut für Meteorologie und Geophysik der Freien Universität Berlin 32,1
    Language: German
    Note: Zugleich: Dissertation, Freie Unversität Berlin, [ca. 1963] , INHALTSVERZEICHNIS PROBLEMSTELLUNG UND ZIELSETZUNG 1. BEMERKUNGEN ZUM BEOBACHTUNGSGELÄNDE UND ZUM BEOBACHTUNGSMATERIAL 1.1 Das Beobachtungsgelände 1.2 Das Beobachtungsmaterial 2. HOMOGENITÄTSBETRACHTUNGEN 2.1 Temperatur 2.2 Niederschlag 2.3 Wind 2.4 Sonnenschein und Bewölkung 3. TEMPERATURVERHÄLTNISSE 3.1 Monats- und Jahreswerte 3.2 Tageswerte 3.3 Pentadenwerte 3.4 Häufigkeitsbetrachtungen 3.5 Interdiurne Veränderlichkeit 3.6 Der tägliche Gang 3.7 Vorkommen bestimmter Schwellenwerte 3.71 Frost- und Eistage 3.72 Sommer- und Tropentage 4. DER WASSERGEHALT DER LUFT 4.1 Monats- und Jahreswerte 4.2 Tageswerte 4.3 Häufigkeitsbetrachtungen 4.4 Interdiurne Veränderlichkeit 4.5 Der tägliche Gang 5. BEWÖLKUNGSVERHÄLTNISSE 5.1 Monats- und Jahreswerte 5.2 Tageswerte 5.3 Häufigkeitsbetrachtungen 5.4 Der tägliche Gang 5.5 Heitere und trübe Tage 5.6 Nebel 6. SONNENSCHEIN 6.1 Monats- und Jahreswerte 6.2 Tageswerte 6.3 Der tägliche Gang 7. NIEDERSCHLAGSVERHÄLTNISSE 7.1 Monats- und Jahreswerte 7.2 Niederschlagsbereitschaft 7.3 Tageswerte 7.4 Der tägliche Gang 7.5 Häufigkeitsbetrachtungen 7.6 Niederschlags- und Trockenperioden 7.7 Niederschlag und Wind· 7.8 Schneeverhältnisse 7.81 Schneefall und Schneedecke 7.82 Schneehöhe 7.9 Gewitter 8. WINDVERHÄLTNISSE 8.1 Windrichtung 8.2 Windgeschwindigkeit 8.21 Der jährliche Gang 8.22 Häufigkeitsbetrachtungen 8.23 Sturmtage und Windstillen 8.24 Der tägliche Gang 9.ZUSAMMENFASSUNG VERZEICHNIS DER TEXTTABELLEN VERZEICHNIS DER ABBILDUNGEN LITERATURVERZEICHNIS TABELLENANHANG
    Location: AWI Reading room
    Branch Library: AWI Library
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  • 13
    Call number: IASS 22.95033
    Type of Medium: Monograph available for loan
    Pages: 378 S , 225 mm x 135 mm
    ISBN: 3899421876 , 978-3-89942-187-3
    Series Statement: Edition panta rei
    Language: German
    Note: Zugl.: Marburg (Lahn), Univ., Habil.-Schr., 2004 u.d.T.: Gutmann, Mathias: Die Medialität des Erfahrens
    Branch Library: IASS
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  • 14
    Journal available for loan
    Journal available for loan
    Tübingen : Mohr Siebeck ; 1.1884 - 48.1931; N.F. 1.1932/33 - 10.1943/44(1945),3; 11.1948/49(1949) -
    Call number: ZS 22.95039
    Type of Medium: Journal available for loan
    Pages: Online-Ressource
    ISSN: 1614-0974 , 0015-2218 , 0015-2218
    Language: German , English
    Note: N.F. entfällt ab 57.2000. - Volltext auch als Teil einer Datenbank verfügbar , Ersch. ab 2000 in engl. Sprache mit dt. Hauptsacht.
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  • 15
    Monograph available for loan
    Monograph available for loan
    London : Penguin Books
    Type of Medium: Monograph available for loan
    ISBN: 9780141985206
    Language: English
    Branch Library: IASS
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  • 16
    Monograph available for loan
    Monograph available for loan
    Madrid : Secc
    Call number: PIK N 456-17-90913
    Type of Medium: Monograph available for loan
    Pages: 536 Seiten
    Series Statement: Ministerio de Transportes Turismo Y Comunicaciones : Publicación Serie A 114
    Parallel Title: 1,1=6; 2,1=13 von Publicaciones / D / Ministerio del Aire, Subsecretaria de Aviación Civil, Servicio Meteorológico Nacional
    Language: Spanish
    Location: A 18 - must be ordered
    Branch Library: PIK Library
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  • 17
    Call number: 3/S 07.0034(2016)
    In: Annual report
    Type of Medium: Monograph available for loan
    Pages: 51 Seiten
    ISSN: 1865-6439 , 1865-6447
    Parallel Title: Erscheint auch als Annual report ... / Helmholtz Association of German Research Centres
    Language: English
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  • 18
    Monograph non-lending collection
    Monograph non-lending collection
    Leiden : Nijhoff ; 1.2009 -
    Call number: IASS 17.92082
    Type of Medium: Monograph non-lending collection
    ISSN: 1876-8814
    Language: English
    Branch Library: IASS
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  • 19
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Physics Letters B 294 (1992), S. 466-478 
    ISSN: 0370-2693
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 20
    Electronic Resource
    Electronic Resource
    Amsterdam : Elsevier
    Physics Letters B 317 (1993), S. 474-484 
    ISSN: 0370-2693
    Source: Elsevier Journal Backfiles on ScienceDirect 1907 - 2002
    Topics: Physics
    Type of Medium: Electronic Resource
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  • 21
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    Wien : [Verlag nicht ermittelbar] ; 22.1910/25(1925),3; 23.1914/31(1929/31),2-3; 24.1927,1-2; 25.1939,1; 26.1948,1; 27.1971-Band 76 (2022)
    Call number: S 91.1179
    ISSN: 0375-5797 , 0378-0864
    Parallel Title: 35=2 von European Conodont Symposium (ZDB) Guidebook, abstracts / European Conodont Symposium
    Parallel Title: 41=2 von Workshop on Agglutinated Foraminifera (ZDB) Proceedings / Workshop on Agglutinated Foraminifera. Geologische Bundesanstalt
    Parallel Title: 39=3 von International Nannoplankton Association Proceedings of the ... International Nannoplankton Association conference
    Parallel Title: 60=11 von Deutsche Gesellschaft für Geowissenschaften. Fachsektion GeoTop Internationale Jahrestagung der Fachsektion GeoTop der Deutschen Gesellschaft für Geowissenschaften
    Former Title: Vorg. Geologische Reichsanstalt Abhandlungen der Kaiserlich-Königlichen Geologischen Reichsanstalt, Wien
    Subsequent Title: Fortgesetzt durch Abhandlungen
    Language: German
    Branch Library: GFZ Library
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  • 22
    Call number: IASS 13.0067
    Branch Library: IASS
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  • 23
    Call number: 8/M 11.0116 ; M 11.0116 2. Ex. ; 8/M 11.0116 3. Ex.
    Type of Medium: Monograph available for loan
    Pages: Getr. Zählung
    Series Statement: Natural hazards and earth system sciences : Special issue 2009
    Classification:
    B..
    Location: Reading room
    Location: Lower compact magazine
    Location: Reading room
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    Branch Library: GFZ Library
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  • 24
    Publication Date: 2010-04-01
    Description: The contributions in this volume originally formed a set of presentations at a conference on the same theme held in Mallorca, Spain in 2006. The goal of this conference was to investigate the potential to develop age or architecture specific reference models for carbonate systems and reservoirs similar to those successfully developed for siliciclastic systems. The conference focused on the Mesozoic and Cenozoic carbonate sequences of the Mediterranean and Middle East. These sequences were chosen for a number of reasons. Firstly, they represent sequence development in a variety of basin settings within a contiguous geographical entity, the former NeoTethys Ocean (Fig. 1). The sequences were also formed predominantly within tropical or sub-tropical climatic zones (cf. Schlager 2003). Finally, the high levels of industry and academic interest in the region have generated many excellent multidisciplinary studies of these sequences, based on both the comprehensive datasets of hydrocarbon-bearing strata and the excellent surface exposures in the region. In general, all Earth models underestimate the complexity of the subsurface and hence are intrinsically inaccurate. The value of developing such models, however, lies in the improved understanding of the processes controlling sequence development gained from their application (e.g. Ahr 1973; Read 1985; Burchette & Wright 1992; Handford & Loucks 1993; Pomar 2001; Bosence 2005). Extrapolating from data rich examples into areas where data coverage is poorer obliges us to distil out the generic from the specific and to propose appropriate subsurface analogues...
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  • 25
    Publication Date: 2010-04-01
    Description: A regional sequence stratigraphic model is proposed for the Oligo-Miocene Asmari and Pabdeh Formations in the Dezful Embayment of SW Iran. The model is based on both new detailed sedimentological observations in outcrops, core and well logs, and an improved high-resolution chronostratigraphic framework constrained by Sr isotope stratigraphy and biostratigraphy. A better understanding of the stratigraphic architecture distinguishes four, geographically separated types of Asmari reservoirs. Three Oligocene sequences (of Rupelian, early Chattian and late Chattian age) and three Miocene sequences (of early Aquitanian, late Aquitanian and early Burdigalian age) have been distinguished, representing a period of 15.4 Ma. The stratigraphic architecture of these sequences is primarily controlled by glacio-eustatic sea-level fluctuations, which determined the distribution of carbonates, sandstones and anhydrites in this sedimentary system. Tectonic control became important in the Burdigalian with a regional tilt down towards the NE. The lithological heterogeneity, the complex geometries, and both early and late diagenetic alterations are the basis for a classification of four main stratigraphic reference types for the Asmari Reservoirs: Type 1, sandstone dominated; Type 2, mixed carbonate-siliciclastic; Type 3, mixed carbonate-anhydrite; and Type 4, carbonate dominated. The sequence stratigraphic model predicts how and when these types change laterally from one to another.
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  • 26
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 329: 291-315.
    Publication Date: 2010-04-01
    Description: The combination of sedimentological and diagenetic data is important for the characterization of carbonate pore systems. This is particularly true for carbonates that were affected by meteoric diagenesis during sub-aerial exposure, for instance at sea-level lowstands. This diagenetic environment is commonly believed to be associated with increases in porosity, permeability and pore-throat diameters. Using data from three localities, improvement or deterioration of reservoir parameters below karst unconformities were analysed with a three-fold approach. In the first step, meteoric dissolution was characterized and early to late diagenetic products were described. In the second step, sedimentological and diagenetic data were converted to petrophysical data. In the third step, modelled climate data, in particular the occurrence of monsoon cells, in conjunction with other control mechanisms, were considered to understand the processes that controlled meteoric dissolution and later pore infill. Three case studies were analysed: (1) Lower Triassic oolites (sedimentary rocks dominated by ooids) and microbialites of the Calvorde Formation (Buntsandstein Group, Germany); (2) stacked shallowing-upward cycles of carbonate platform deposits in the Middle-Upper Triassic Mahil Formation (Arabian plate, Oman), capped by palaeosols; and (3) an Upper Triassic coral patch reef and overlying strata (Adnet, Salzburg region, Austria). Data integration allowed the establishment of three scenarios of significantly different processes related to meteoric diagenesis below unconformities: (1) increase of porosity and permeability and their preservation through time; (2) increase of porosity and permeability and subsequent pore system occlusion; and (3) decrease of porosity and permeability and creation of a barrier for pore fluids. Knowledge of the time span involved in meteoric diagenesis and the nature of the climatic regime helped to explain the origins and control mechanisms of the meteoric pore systems. The study provided evidence that a well-connected, large karst system, typical of a humid climate, is likely to be sealed subsequently by sediment and cement. Under arid climatic conditions, tight palaeosols developed at the unconformity and small karst pore systems developed which had the potential to remain open during basin evolution. Depending on the aforementioned parameters, carbonates affected by meteoric diagenesis may either become tight rocks or reservoirs.
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  • 27
    Publication Date: 2010-04-01
    Description: This paper describes an integrated field, petrographic and geochemical study of an Albian carbonate platform from the Basque-Cantabrian basin (northern Spain). It examines the distribution and evolution of porosity and the relationships between facies variations, sequences and variations in diagenesis. These platform carbonates were deposited on the footwall crests of active tilted blocks formed during continental rifting related to the Mesozoic opening of the Bay of Biscay and North Atlantic. The studied units document an early Albian aggradational steep-sloping platform and a late Albian, low-gradient expansive shelf separated by a hiatal unconformity spanning the middle-early late Albian (c. 5 Ma). The late Albian platform unit also exhibits a major internal unconformity. Platform geometries and facies architecture were mainly controlled by tectonics, hydrodynamic energy level and water depth. Petrographic, cathodoluminescence and geochemical analyses suggest that early meteoric diagenesis developed during sub-aerial exposure in strata below these two major unconformities. The platform carbonates have been affected during burial by a number of diagenetic processes that include four phases of dissolution, several fracture generations, and six cement sequences with development of at least 13 calcite and dolomite cement zones (Z0-Z12). A contrasting diagenetic response from the different platform environments illustrates the role of primary sediment composition and unconformity development in controlling porosity and cement distribution. Limestone stabilization and cementation were relatively early processes that were mostly completed within the first kilometre of burial depth beneath the depositional surface. Below this burial depth, fluid circulation was concentrated along restricted pathways (fractures and fault zones). Migration of hydrothermal-related fluids along fault zones created localized dolomite patches and large-scale porosity associated with cavities and collapse breccias, but did not significantly increase the small-scale porosity.
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  • 28
    Publication Date: 2010-04-01
    Description: Precipitation of dolomite cements in Jurassic carbonate platform sediments and slope breccias has been studied from well cores and outcrops of the central Southern Alps and central Apennines in Italy. In both areas, an initial, massive dolomite replacement was followed by multiphase precipitation of dolomite cements. The replacement occurred during burial, in a passive margin regime, in response to compaction-driven flow of formational fluids. This interpretation is based on results from fluid inclusion and stable isotope analyses which have been related to the thermal history. The dolomite cements precipitated when both areas were involved in collisional tectonics. In spite of the similar diagenetic evolution, the fluids causing dolomite cementation in each case were compositionally different. In the Alps a decrease in salinity was recorded from sea water to brackish fluids, whereas in the Apennines an increase in salinity from sea water up to 〉10% NaCl equivalent was recorded. The remarkable salinity differences in diagenetic fluids are considered to be related to the different sub-aerial relief of the two belts during dolomite precipitation. In the Alps, the dilution of fluids is related to the infiltration of meteoric waters from the mountain chain, that was widely emergent. In the Apennines, dolomite cements precipitated whilst the structural units were still widely submerged, preventing meteoric dilution of cementing fluids and promoting an increase in salinity through mixing with fluids rising from older evaporate-bearing layers. In both Alpine and Apennine cases, the same diagenetic trend is observed in thrust-fold belt and foreland basin units; in both structural systems the diagenetic events start precipitating dolomite cements in the inner part of the collision zone and then the diagenetic processes migrate towards the foreland basin along with the structural evolution of the area.
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  • 29
    Publication Date: 2010-04-01
    Description: A 380 m thick Aptian platform to basin transition has been studied along a 16 km long transect of excellent and continuous outcrops in NE Spain. The series has been dated using biostratigraphy (foraminifera and ammonites) and carbon-isotope stratigraphy, and has been subdivided at four scales of depositional sequences. The Aptian marine succession is subdivided into two-large scale sequences separated by a middle Aptian sub-aerial exposure surface. A characteristic trend of the floral-faunal fossil assemblages is present, which evolves from orbitolinid-ooid dominated ramps in Sequence I-1, to a coral-stromatoporoid-microbialite dominated platform in Sequence I-2, to a rudist-dominated platform top in Sequence II-1, and finally to a second episode of orbitolinid-ooid dominated ramp system in Sequence II-2. There was an influx of siliciclastic sediments at the base and at the top of this succession. The detailed carbon-isotope curve measured along the Miravete section and covering almost the complete Aptian succession, is compared with published Aptian curves recorded in both basinal and carbonate platform settings along the northern and southern NeoTethys margins. It shows that the Galve sub-basin curve represents all the major isotope excursions of the lower and upper Aptian, in a dominantly shallow-water succession.
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  • 30
    Publication Date: 2010-06-03
    Description: The Zagros Simply Folded Belt (ZSFB) is an active fold-and-thrust belt resulting from the still continuing continental collision between the Arabian plate and the Iranian plate, which probably started in the Oligocene. The present-day shortening (N25{degrees}) is well documented by focal mechanisms of earthquakes and global positioning system (GPS) surveys. We propose in this study a comparison of published palaeostress markers, including magnetic fabric, brittle deformation and calcite twinning data. In addition, we describe the magnetic fabric from Palaeocene carbonates (10 sites) and Mio-Pliocene clastic deposits (15 sites). The magnetic fabrics are intermediate, with magnetic foliation parallel to the bedding, and a magnetic lineation mostly at right angles to the shortening direction. This suggests that the magnetic fabric retains the record of an early layer-parallel shortening (LPS) that occurred prior to folding. The record of LPS allows the identification of originally oblique folds such as the Mand Fold, which have developed in front of the Kazerun Fault. The shape parameter of the magnetic fabric indicates a weak strain compatible with the development of detachment folds in the ZSFB. The palaeostress datasets, covering the Palaeocene to Pleistocene time interval, support several folding episodes accompanied by a counter-clockwise rotation of the stress field direction. The Palaeocene carbonates in the ZSFB record a N47 LPS during early to middle Miocene detachment folding in the High Zagros Belt (HZB). The Mio-Pliocene clastic deposits recorded a N38 LPS prior to and during detachment folding within the ZSFB at the end of the Miocene-Pliocene. Similarly, fault slip and calcite twin data from the ZSFB also support a counter-clockwise rotation from NE to N20 between the pre-folding stage and the late rejuvenation of folds. This counter-clockwise trend of palaeostress data agrees with fault slip data from the HZB. During the late stage of folding in the ZSFB, the Plio-Quaternary palaeostress trends are consistently parallel to the present-day shortening direction.
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  • 31
    Publication Date: 2010-06-03
    Description: We present a synthesis and a comparison of the results of two temporary passive seismic experiments installed for a few months across the Central and Northern Zagros. The receiver function analysis of teleseismic earthquake records gives a high-resolution image of the Moho beneath the seismic transects. On both cross-sections, the crust has an average thickness of 42{+/-}2 km beneath the Zagros fold-and-thrust belt and the Central domain. The crust is thicker beneath the hanging wall of the Main Zagros Reverse Fault (MZRF), with a greater maximum Moho depth in the Central (69{+/-}2 km) than in the Northern Zagros (56{+/-}2 km). The thickening affects a narrower region (170 km) beneath the Sanandaj-Sirjan zone of the Central Zagros and a wider region (320 km) in the Northern Zagros. We propose that this thickening is related to overthrusting of the crust of the Arabian margin by the crust of Central Iran along the MZRF, which is considered as a major thrust fault cross-cutting the whole crust. The fault is imaged as a low-velocity layer in the receiver function data of the Northern Zagros profile. Moreover, the crustal-scale thrust model reconciles the imaged seismic Moho with the Bouguer anomaly data measured on the Central Zagros transect. At upper mantle depth, P-wave tomography confirms the previously observed strong contrast between the faster velocities of the Arabian margin and the lower velocities of the Iranian micro-blocks. Our higher-resolution tomography combined with surface-wave analysis locates the suture in the shallow mantle of the Sanandaj-Sirjan zone beneath the Central Zagros. The Arabian upper mantle has shield-like shear-wave velocities, whereas the lower velocities of the Iranian upper mantle are probably due to higher temperature. However, these velocities are not low enough and the low-velocity layer not thick enough to conclude that delamination of the lithospheric mantle lid has occurred beneath Iran. The lack of a high-velocity anomaly in the mantle beneath Central Iran suggests that the Neotethyan oceanic lithosphere is probably detached from the Arabian margin.
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  • 32
    Publication Date: 2010-06-03
    Description: SE Iran is the site of a rare case of young transition between subduction and collision. We have synthesized recent results in geodesy, tectonics, seismology and magnetism to help understand the structure and kinematics of the Zagros-Makran transition. Surface observations (tectonics, magnetism and geodesy) indicate a transpressive discontinuity consisting of several faults striking obliquely to the convergent plate motion, whereas deeper observations (seismology) support a smooth transition across the fault system. No lithospheric transform fault has been created, although the transition already behaves like a major boundary in terms of tectonic style, seismic structure, lithology and magnetism. The Zendan-Minab-Palami fault system consists of several faults that accommodate a transpressive tectonic regime. It is the surface expression of a southward propagation of the north-south-trending right-lateral strike-slip fault system of Jiroft-Sabzevaran. Within each system the numerous faults will coalesce into a single, lithospheric, wrench fault.
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  • 33
    Publication Date: 2010-06-03
    Description: The Mountain Frontal Flexure shows a single step along the front of the Pusht-e Kuh Arc with about 3 km of structural relief. This front has been interpreted as being formed by a basement monocline above a blind crustal-scale and low-angle thrust with a ramp-flat geometry (the ramp dips 12-15{degrees} towards the inner part of the orogen and cuts the entire crust). The Anaran anticline on top of the Mountain Frontal Flexure shows an irregular geometry in map view and consists of four segments with diverse directions of which the SE Anaran, the Central Anaran and the NW Dome are culminations. The North-South Anaran segment may form a linking zone developed during the rise and amplification of single culminations, the NW Dome and the Central Anaran, above the Mountain Frontal Flexure. The asymmetric Anaran anticline is characterized by the existence of multiple normal faults, some of them with significant dip-slip displacements of up to 1000 m. These faults limit grabens located along the crests of the anticline segments. Cross-cutting relationships show that the normal faults along the Central Anaran are older than along the North-South Anaran, reinforcing the temporal constraints on the later growth of this segment of the anticline. The geometry of the Anaran anticline is asymmetric with the subvertical forelimb very little exposed. This forelimb is cut above and below by a thrust system that seems to develop along the fold hinges. The lower thrust, with a ramp-flat geometry, carries the entire anticline towards the foreland on top of slightly deformed rocks in the footwall. The thrust flattens in the Gachsaran evaporitic level forming a typical triangular zone filled with evaporites, which produce a strong fold disharmony between the overburden (Passive Group) and the underlying rocks (Competent Group). The growth of the Anaran anticline lasted for about 6 Ma and was the consequence of detachment folding that was subsequently thrust, rotated and uplifted above the Mountain Frontal Flexure with coeval reactivation of earlier crestal layer-parallel extension normal faults to accommodate the large increase of structural relief between the foreland and the tectonic arc. Three main results from analogue modelling have been combined with field data to resolve the geometry of the Anaran anticline as well as its evolution: (1) a thickening of intermediate evaporites (Gachsaran Formation) is produced above the flat segment of the thrust carrying the anticline on top of foreland strata; (2) growth strata deposited in the adjacent syncline modify the geometry of the anticline by increasing the dip and the length of its forelimb; (3) coeval erosion to anticline growth, as well as thick growth strata deposition, increases fold amplification rather than foreland propagation of deformation. The proposed fold model may be applied to other anticlines on top of this major basement-related thrust, such as the Siah Kuh and Khaviz anticlines in the Pusht-e Kuh Arc and Dezful Embayment domains.
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  • 34
    Publication Date: 2010-03-29
    Description: Limestone is a highly successful and widely used building material, found in many important historic buildings and new monuments around the world. Whilst its success reflects its durability under a wide range of environmental conditions, there are still important questions surrounding the selection, use and conservation of building limestones. In order to make best use of new limestone today, and to conserve old limestone most effectively, we need to bring modern research methods to bear on understanding the characteristics of different limestones, what mortars to use, and how key limestones have responded to polluted atmospheres. This volume brings together recent inter-disciplinary research on these issues, illustrating the diversity of innovative techniques that are now being applied to furthering our understanding of building limestones.
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  • 35
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 331: 27-35.
    Publication Date: 2010-03-29
    Description: Carbonate rocks are present in many geological formations of the Mediterranean region, thus having favoured their common use as building stone for the many civilizations that inhabited the area throughout history. The wide presence of carbonate rocks has been supplemented by a large variety of rock types that can be found in monumental, funerary and normal constructions. Five main carbonate rock types used as building stone can be differentiated: metamorphic marble; banded fine-grained limestone; shell limestone; travertine; and brecciated-nodular carbonate rocks. In most cases these carbonate rocks have been traditionally used, although new rock types are currently marketed. Nowadays, several Mediterranean countries are major producers of carbonate building stone that is marketed for its ornamental and decorative characteristics. Italy, Spain and Turkey are placed in high rank positions of the global carbonate ornamental stone market, whilst Greece, France, Croatia, Israel, Morocco, Egypt, Algeria and Tunisia produce mainly for internal consumption.
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  • 36
    Publication Date: 2010-03-29
    Description: The effects of borax on the crystallization of sodium and magnesium sulphate, two of the most damaging salts affecting porous stones, have been studied. Borax promotes the crystallization of mirabilite and inhibits epsomite crystallization in open glass beakers. The additive is preferentially adsorbed onto {140}mirabilite and {111}epsomite faces, thus acting as an effective habit modifier. In contrast, in the presence of a calcitic support (either Iceland spar single crystals or a porous limestone - a biocalcarenite) crystallization is promoted in the presence of borax, irrespective of the salt tested. Apparently, this is due to a high stereochemical affinity between borate molecules adsorbed (and/or co-precipitated) onto calcite, and mirabilite and epsomite crystals. Salt weathering tests using a biocalcarenite show a significant damage reduction upon borax addition to the saline solutions. Borax promotes the crystallization of both mirabilite and epsomite within the pores of the stone, reducing its porosity. Crystallization promotion favours nucleation at a low supersaturation, thereby resulting in very low crystallization pressure and minimal damage. Application of borax to porous limestones affected by mirabilite and/or epsomite crystallization could be a new means of suppressing salt weathering.
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  • 37
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 331: 113-117.
    Publication Date: 2010-03-29
    Description: One of the most common stone types in building construction in Greece is limestone. Whole structures such as castles, palaces, fortresses and churches were built only with limestone blocks or limestone pieces combined with other types of stone. In this paper two types of limestone (a biogenic limestone and a travertine) used in the construction of monuments are tested and analysed in terms of their physical, mechanical and microstructural characteristics in order to record their properties. Their exposure to different environmental conditions and the pathology forms they present are also recorded. The possibility of their replacement is approached either by supplementing the missing parts, by finding a comparable new stone or by applying an artificial one. The results of the study performed in each case are also presented.
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  • 38
    Publication Date: 2010-03-29
    Description: A characterization is presented of the building materials used in the Cathedral of Tudela, as well as of the different forms of decay, with the aim of establishing the cause and mechanisms of this decay. The Cathedral of Tudela was built mainly with Campanile limestone from the upper Miocene. The campanile limestone is a wackestone, with a terrigenous content of 2.6% and 1.5-2.5% of organic matter. After a detailed investigation of all the different forms of stone decay, our conclusion is that the main type of damage affecting Campanile limestone has morphologies similar to a mechanical fracture with breakages of convex surfaces and resulting very sharp edges. The process of decay is caused by the expansion of the rock during the drying process, which has a very rapid and aggressive effect on the rock. Laboratory tests showed that through extreme drying in the presence of a magnesium sulphate solution, the salt crystallization inside the stone generates a strength greater than the tensile strength of the stone, thus causing a fracture and the loosening of rock fragments. The materials introduced in recent restorations (sandstone and Portland cement) provide the necessary magnesium for the development of this weathering in Campanile limestone.
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  • 39
    Publication Date: 2010-03-29
    Description: This paper builds on work using Adobe Photoshop as image-processing software to obtain (histogram-based) quantification of camera-captured images. The analysis tracks cross-temporal surface colour change (in 2005 and 2007) at the facade-scale of a limestone building (cleaned between 2006 and 2007) by means of digital photographs obtained in repeat photographic surveys taken under different outdoor lighting conditions (of a clear sky v. overcast). The relevance of the study is to contribute to further research using the integrated digital photography and image processing (IDIP) method in an outdoor setting (O-IDIP) with differing levels of light at a facade- (building) scale necessary for assessments of soiling affecting decisions of maintenance and restoration. Calibration was performed using spectrophotometric data (acquired in the winter of 2006). Findings show that the calibrated method is able to measure change before v. after the cleaning of the southern facade, which was darker in 2005 (with a lower level of lightness), especially at the east elevation. Lightness (surface darkening or blackening) is more affected by outdoor lighting conditions than chromatic values along green-red (a) and blue-yellow (b) channels of colour. These findings confirm that there is more error associated with soiling measurements at the facade-scale (in an outdoor setting).
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  • 40
    Publication Date: 2010-03-29
    Description: It is known that cyclic heating-cooling and wetting-drying can play a significant role in the long-term deterioration of building stone. These cycles can be modified by the deposition of atmospheric particulates, which darken surfaces, resulting in changes in the absorptivity and emissivity characteristics of the stone. The capacity of diesel and coal particulates to modify the moisture and temperature regime of Portland Limestone and Hollington Sandstone was investigated. Through a greater capacity to lower the albedo of the stone and enhance the absorption of radiant energy, diesel particulate was shown to significantly increase the rate of moisture loss, temperature, and rates of heating and cooling of Portland Limestone. With particulates from diesel combustion now becoming one of the dominant particulate types found in urban centres, potential implications for future stone conservation are discussed.
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  • 41
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 332: 1-15.
    Publication Date: 2010-04-16
    Description: Submicroscopic microchemical disequilibrium in minerals is extremely widespread. Disequilibrium recrystallization is promoted by water in metamorphic terranes and near granites, contact aureoles, and faults. Recrystallization is energetically less costly at almost any temperature than diffusive re-equilibration. Radiogenic isotopes (except 4He) never diffusively re-equilibrate faster than major elements forming the mineral structure. Isotopic inheritance tied to relicts was demonstrated for zircon, monazite, amphibole, K-feldspar, biotite and muscovite. The mechanism for resetting the isotope record in nature depends more on the availability of recrystallization-enhancing water than on reaching a preset temperature. Laboratory diffusion experiments on hydrous minerals were plagued, to a variable but always large extent, by dissolution-reprecipitation. Mineral geochronometers should be viewed as geohygrometers' that essentially date the fluid circulation episodes. Thanks to submicroscopic petrology, isotopic disequilibria can be put into context with petrogenetic disequilibria. Analytical advances allow the successful dating of each mineral generation. This has opened up a much richer wealth of data on the P-T-A-X-d history of rocks, which in the long run will also improve our ability to develop credible numeric models.
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  • 42
    Publication Date: 2010-04-16
    Description: This contribution presents a quantitative microstructural analysis of a polycrystalline aggregate of gypsum, deformed in torsion (T=70-90 {degrees}C) at {gamma} (shear strain) ranging from 0 to 4.82. Quantitative microstructural analysis is used to compare the evolution of microstructures observed by optical microscope with those obtained from analysis of X-ray and neutron diffraction data. This analysis shows that during experimental deformation, gypsum accommodated strain by brittle and plastic deformation mechanisms, developing Riedel-like microfaults with plastic foliations and crystallographic preferred orientation (CPO). The relations of microstructures show that with increasing strain, the Riedel systems start from R planes with an angle of {approx}30{degrees} to the Imposed Shear Plane. This angle decreases (5{degrees}-15{degrees}) when strain increases, and Y planes develop. Quantitative texture analysis (QTA) shows that S-foliations start developing at low {gamma} and maintain their orientation up to high {gamma}, and that the most active slip system is the (010) along normal to (100) and the [001]-axis. Shape preferred orientation (SPO) of gypsum does not coincide with the theoretical orientation as it does not decrease with increasing strain. This discrepancy is explained by the role of the brittle shear planes that impose a back rotation to gypsum. No brittle to plastic transition occurs. But both plastic and brittle structures contemporaneously accommodate and localize strain.
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  • 43
    Publication Date: 2010-04-16
    Description: In the past fractal (ruler) dimension (Dr) of quartz grain-boundary sutures and area-perimeter fractal dimension (Da) of quartz grains, respectively, have been shown to depend on temperature (T) and strain rate. However, the application of these methods to gauge temperature and strain rate in naturally deformed intrusive rocks has not yet been tested. In the present study Dr and Da are calculated in 12 thin sections from different parts of a syntectonic granite (Godhra Granite, India). Of these, six belong to the northern part, two to the central part and four to the southern part of the granite. Earlier work on the Godhra Granite showed both a strain and a temperature gradient, with high temperature in the north and high strain in the south. Microstructural studies reveal that the quartz grain-boundary sutures are less serrated in the northern samples compared to those from the remaining part of the granite. The northern samples contain abundant high-temperature solid-state deformation fabrics that formed between 675 and 725 {degrees}C (quartz chessboard pattern thermobarometry). Using a Dr v. T plot given by earlier workers, a Dr value of 1.05-1.14 is expected for the above T range. Dr calculations of quartz sutures from the northern samples give a median of 1.11 and most of the sutures have Dr 〈1.14. These data fit well with the expected temperature range in which the quartz chessboard pattern formed in the Godhra Granite. The central and southern parts of the granite are dominated by myrmekites (500-670 {degrees}C), recrystallized feldspars (450-600 {degrees}C), deformation twins in feldspar (400-500 {degrees}C) and kinked biotite (〈300 {degrees}C). The expected Dr of quartz sutures under the above medium-low temperature ranges are 1.07-1.23, 1.11-1.25, 1.16-1.28 and 〈1.27, respectively. Dr calculations reveal that most of the quartz sutures from the central+southern part have Dr 〉1.14, and the median values are 1.18 (centre) and 1.17 (south). Using the Dr v. T plot, these Dr values indicate that most of the textures in the central+southern part of the Godhra Granite formed in the temperature range of 450-600 {degrees}C, which fits well with the temperature range required for the development of medium-low temperature fabrics that dominate this part of the granite. Thus, it is concluded that Dr of quartz sutures can be used as a geothermometer in syntectonic granites. Da for northern and southern samples is 1.10 and 1.14, respectively. Strain rates of the order of approximately 10-7 and 10-11 s-1, respectively, are obtained for high (675 {degrees}C) and low temperature (300 {degrees}C) using area-perimeter fractal dimension (Da) values. Although these are higher than geological strain rates that are known in nature (10-12-10-15 s-1), the calculated values for the lower-temperature range are similar to strain rates estimated for intrusions (10-10-10-12 s-1). The calculations indicate that the method to calculate strain rate using Da of quartz grains fails to give geologically reasonable strain rates for high temperature in a syntectonic granite. However, the method maybe useful in obtaining reasonable strain rate estimates for lower temperatures.
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  • 44
    Publication Date: 2010-04-16
    Description: The active tectonics of the Western Alps reveals contrasting regimes: ongoing extension at the heart of the chain and transpression-compression at its external sectors. The active processes currently affecting this region are still a matter of debate. The classical models proposed in the literature invoke: Eurasia-Adria plate collision, counterclockwise motion of the Adria microplate, slab retreat of the subducted continental lithosphere and slab-detachment. More recently, several authors prefer the hypothesis of tectonics driven by isostasy-buoyancy forces. To better understand the influence of these processes on the velocity, strain and stress fields at the surface and in the crust, we developed 2D viscoelastic numerical models along a vertical cross-section perpendicular to the Western Alps. We run our models with different driving forces in order to investigate, one by one, the geodynamic processes proposed in the literature. Results are compared with available geodetic, geological and seismotectonic data. In order to bring into coincidence model predictions and observations, an important vertical isostatic readjustment must be included in the modelling, together with a slight horizontal compression (0.5 mm year-1), probably due to Africa-Eurasia convergence. We show that the subduction process in this Alpine region is likely to be dead and that buoyancy forces may be dominating the present-day tectonics.
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  • 45
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 332: 69-78.
    Publication Date: 2010-04-16
    Description: Electrical impedance measurements were performed on deforming fine-grained (c. 300 {micro}m) synthetic halite rocks containing small quantities of water in order to study the distribution of intercrystalline brine. The experimental conditions were 125 {degrees}C and 50 MPa confining pressure. The resistivity at the predeformational, heated and hydrostatically pressurized state suggests that brine is interconnected in halite. The resistivity progressively increases with deformation, reflecting the change in distribution. In this paper we applied a simple tube model to the resistivity change, and found that the change must be caused by deformation of a thin fluid path with an initial aspect ratio of less than 2x10-4. Brine must, therefore, exist on grain boundaries as a thin fluid film. Previous studies on dihedral angles, however, showed that brine cannot be interconnected under our experimental conditions. The variation in grain-boundary energy cannot explain the coexistence of grain-boundary brine with a positive dihedral angle. The observed resistivity change requires grain-boundary brine to be very thin (〈100 nm). Such a thin fluid film might have properties distinct from the bulk fluid, and coexist with brine pores at grain corners and grain faces.
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  • 46
    Publication Date: 2010-04-16
    Description: A strain gradient was mesoscopically recognized in sheared leucogneisses cropping out near Mount Montalto (Calabria, southern Italy) in the Aspromonte-Peloritani Unit on the basis of field observations. In order to investigate the relationship between textural and physical anisotropy, a microstructural and petrophysical study was carried out on selected mylonites exhibiting different stages of deformation. The main mineral assemblage is Qtz+Pl+Kfs+Wm, displaying S-C and shear-band textures; mica-fish and ribbon-like quartz are widespread. As strain increases K-feldspar, biotite and premylonitic low phengite white mica transformed to synmylonitic high phengite white mica and quartz, accompanied by an increasing albitization. Different quartz c-axis patterns are ascribable to non-coaxial progressive deformation; we suggest that deformation proceeded under greenschist- up to amphibolite-facies conditions owing to a local increase in shearing temperature. Laboratory seismic measurements were carried out on sample cubes (43 mm edged) cut according to the structural frame (foliation, lineation) of the rock. At 400 MPa and room temperature the averages of compressional (Vp) and shear-wave velocities (Vs) are very similar: 5.70-5.91 and 3.36-3.55 km s-1, respectively. Seismic anisotropy and shear-wave splitting are related to the modal amounts of constituent minerals (in particular mica) and their crystallographic preferred orientation. Importantly, anisotropy is lowest in the most strained rock.
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  • 47
    Publication Date: 2010-04-01
    Description: Different varieties of serpentinites present at Cabo Ortegal were studied. For many years, the Verde Pirineos' type has been quarried and sold commercially, but its physical characteristics do not fulfil the requirements for its use as an ornamental stone. Piedra de Doelo' is the local name for a serpentinite that has been quarried and used for many centuries in a large number of historical buildings distributed throughout the area. The preservation status of the rock is very poor and the stone is severely affected by weathering. A third variety, similar to the ophicalcite' described in the literature, is currently under investigation with a view to studying the possibility of the resumption of serpentinite quarrying. Although serpentinites are commercially known as green marbles', Galician serpentinites do not fulfil the mineral requirements to be described as such. Study of the characteristics of serpentinites, including their mineralogy, may offer a clue to the correct use of Galician serpentinites.
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  • 48
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 333: 111-118.
    Publication Date: 2010-04-01
    Description: Salt absorption in porous building stones contributes greatly to the degradation of monuments. Two French porous limestones with similar main characteristics (total porosity, densities and mechanical resistance) were studied: white Tuffeau and Sebastopol stone. Accelerated ageing (weathering) tests were carried out by applying immersion-drying cycles with water containing sodium sulphate or sodium chloride. Samples of the two stones were tested separately and then in sets containing both rock varieties. The results facilitated interpretation of the observed and measured responses of these two limestones to the cycling salt crystallization. The durability of studied stones was evaluated by determining the normalized weight changes during the applied cycles. The Sebastopol stone amplified the amount of salt stored in the Tuffeau with increasing number of cycles performed, inducing its more rapid degradation. Water retention and water transfer in the pore space were found to be two main factors controlling the rate and the type of stone decay due to the salt crystallization.
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  • 49
    Publication Date: 2010-04-01
    Description: Rhenish tuffs from the volcanic Eifel region in Germany, in particular the so-called Romer tuff, are among the most prominent and voluminous natural stones in Dutch monuments. The Romer tuff has been used since Roman times, and was widely used again in Romanesque (and to a lesser extent Romano-Gothic and early Gothic) architecture. The limited (or non) availability of Romer tuff for restoration purposes is posing an increasing problem. Last decennia, the availability of Romer tuff was practically limited to blocks from the lower parts of the pyroclastic flows with abundant basalt (and other) xenoliths, giving the rock a different appearance from its traditional type; the different types of Romer tuff also demonstrate different physical and hygric properties. Given the wide use of tuff stone in Italian architecture, several Italian tuffs have been evaluated in search of a compatible replacement stone for Romer tuff. The replacement stones should approach the original as much as possible, that is, in terms of authentic appearance, physical characteristics and durability. The Italian tuffs evaluated include tuffs commercially denominated as Tufo Etrusco and Tufo Romano (from the central part of Italy) and a variety of Neapolitan Yellow Tuff (Naples region). Hygric behaviour, resistance to frost-thaw cycles, petrographic characteristics and mineralogy of Italian tuffs have been determined and compared with original Romer tuff. In all three cases, resistance to frost-thaw cycles is unfortunately shown to be considerably less than that of original Romer tuff. In addition, hygric expansion of the Neapolitan Yellow Tuff appeared to be considerably larger than that of original Romer tuff. Of the tuffs evaluated, the variety of Neapolitan Yellow Tuff is a good match with the original Romer tuff in terms of visual appearance. It has already been sparsely used in the Netherlands in minor amounts. However, the durability characteristics require additional evaluation.
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  • 50
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 334: 139-161.
    Publication Date: 2010-06-03
    Description: Conodonts have played an important role in the construction of a Triassic timescale. Each of the stage boundaries is reviewed in the context of their evolving conodont faunas. The base Triassic (Induan) is defined by the appearance of Hindeodus parvus, which developed from H. praeparvus; a parallel zonation is provided by Neogondolella species. For the Induan-Olenekian boundary, the appearance of Neospathodus waageni sensu lato within a plexus of similar species is favoured as the defining datum; Borinella and Eurygnathodus also appear about this time. The base of the Middle Triassic Anisian stage lies close to the appearance of Chiosella, with Triassospathodus and Spathicuspus characterizing the late Olenekian, and Gladigondolella tethydis and Nicoraella confined to the Anisian. Proxies for the Anisian-Ladinian boundary, which is defined by an ammonoid, are the first Budurovignathus species. The basal Carnian, also defined by an ammonoid, lies close to the first metapolygnathids, including M. polygnathiformis and M. tadpole. The Carnian-Norian boundary interval is characterized by many new taxa in Canada, but only a few species are common to Tethys, notably Metapolygnathus ex gr. M. echinatus. The Norian-Rhaetian boundary is likely to be based on evolution in Misikella in Tethys, with concurrent changes recognized in North American Epigondolella.
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  • 51
    facet.materialart.
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 334: 163-200.
    Publication Date: 2010-06-03
    Description: This paper summarizes 30 years of research on the biostratigraphy of Triassic radiolarians and presents a correlation of currently-used radiolarian zonations established in North America, Europe, Japan and Far East Russia. An up-to-date stratigraphic distribution of all hitherto described and still valid Triassic genera is provided. This new range chart consists of 282 genera and allows an accurate dating to substage level. It also clearly manifests general trends in radiolarian evolution through the Triassic. The end-Permian extinction, the most severe extinction in the history of radiolarians, was followed by a long recovery until the early Anisian. The middle and late Anisian were then characterized by a rapid explosion of new morphologies. Maximum generic diversity was attained during the early Carnian, but the first severe extinctions also occurred in the Carnian. A progressive decline of diversity took place through the Norian and Rhaetian, and ended in a mass extinction around the Triassic-Jurassic boundary.
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  • 52
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 334: 201-219.
    Publication Date: 2010-06-03
    Description: Substantial advances by numerous researchers over the past 20 years have made it possible to develop a composite biochronological scheme for the Triassic based on the bivalves Claraia, Peribositria, Enteropleura, Daonella, Halobia, Eomonotis and Monotis. These bivalves exhibit temporal durations nearly equal to ammonoids and conodonts. Widely distributed across the Tethys, Panthalassa and Boreal regions, these bivalves occur in a wide variety of marine facies and water depths, but are most notable for their thick shell accumulation in deeper-water oxygen deficient environments. They were most likely resting or reclining benthos, may have housed chemosymbionts, and were part of episodic opportunistic palaeocommunities in or near oxygen deficient settings. A new biochronological zonation for bivalves is presented that encompasses the entire Triassic and is integrated with standard ammonoid schemes. The Lower Triassic is characterized by 2-3 zones of Claraia, most notably from the eastern Tethys representing the entire Induan and lower portion of the Olenekian. Later in the Olenekian, and most notably from the Boreal realm, species of Peribositria (included by some workers within Bositra) provide useful zonal indexes. The Middle Triassic is well represented by Enteropleura (Middle Anisian) and Daonella (Upper Anisian through Ladinian) in the Tethys and North America with significant occurrences throughout the circum-Pacific and Boreal realms. The Upper Triassic can be subdivided into 8-13 bivalve zones based on the succession of Halobia, Eomonotis and Monotis sensu lato species with best representation in the Tethys, Boreal and eastern Panthalassa regions.
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  • 53
    facet.materialart.
    Unknown
    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 334: 221-262.
    Publication Date: 2010-06-03
    Description: The Triassic chronostratigraphic scale was built on two centuries of research on ammonoid biostratigraphy and biochronology. Two Triassic stage bases and all of the Triassic substages are currently defined by ammonoid bioevents. The study of Triassic ammonoids began during the late 1700s, and in 1895, Edmund von Mojsisovics, Wilhelm Waagen and Carl Diener published an essentially complete Triassic chronostratigraphic scale based on ammonoid biostratigraphy. This scale introduced many of the Triassic stage and substage names still used today, and all terminology of stages and substages subsequently introduced has been based on ammonoid biostratigraphy. Early Triassic ammonoids show a trend from cosmopolitanism (Induan) to latitudinal differentiation (Olenekian), and the four Lower Triassic substage (Griesbachian, Dinerian, Smithian and Spathian) boundaries are globally correlated by widespread ammonoid biotic events. Middle Triassic ammonoids have provinciality similar to that of the Olenekian and provide a basis for recognizing six Middle Triassic substages. Late Triassic ammonoids provide a basis for recognizing three stages divided into five substages. The main uncertainty for the future of Triassic ammonoid biostratigraphy is not the decline of the ammonoids as a tool for dating and correlation of Triassic strata but, rather, the dramatic decrease in the number of specialists, due to the lack of replacement of experienced palaeontologists who started their activity in the 1950s and 1960s.
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  • 54
    Publication Date: 2010-07-14
    Description: The Sverrefjell Quaternary volcano in Spitsbergen contains composite xenoliths showing lherzolite rocks cross-cut by websterite veins. These two rock types are characterized by similar major element compositions of olivines, orthopyroxenes, clinopyroxenes and spinels, as well as similar trace element composition for clinopyroxene. The clinopyroxenes of both rock types mostly display upwards convex or spoon-shaped REE (rare earth elements) patterns with a systematic enrichment in La over Ce (CeN/YbN 0.72-1.32; SmN/YbN 0.86-1.93 and LaN/CeN 1.27-1.93), except for one sample (SV-69) in which clinopyroxenes show a pattern characterized by low LREE compare to HREE (CeN/YbN 0.33-0.35). Metasomatic processes appear to be the most reasonable origin to form the lherzolite-websterite associations. We therefore propose that the Spitsbergen mantle has undergone at least two events: (1) a sub-alkaline (tholeiitic) metasomatism followed by (2) an alkaline metasomatic event.
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  • 55
    Publication Date: 2010-07-14
    Description: Clino- and orthopyroxenes in anhydrous spinel peridotite xenoliths from Pliocene alkali basalts of the western Pannonian Basin have been analysed for trace elements by laser ablation inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). Clinopyroxenes show highly variable mantle normalized REE (rare earth elements) patterns but basically can be classified into three major groups: LREE-depleted, LREE-enriched and U-shaped patterns. As the REE patterns of clinopyroxenes usually reflect the REE patterns of the host peridotite, the three major REE patterns define three geochemically different groups of xenoliths. LREE-depleted xenoliths generally have undeformed protogranular textures, while the more deformed xenoliths with porphyroclastic and equigranular textures have LREE-enriched trace element patterns. The U-shaped pattern is very distinctive and is generally associated with poikilitic textures. The HREE content of the clinopyroxenes suggest that most of the xenoliths experienced less than15% partial melting, with the lowest degree occurring in the LREE-depleted xenoliths, and the highest degree in LREE-enriched xenoliths. Cryptic metasomatism frequently accompanies deformation. Metasomatic enrichment of incompatible trace elements can be observed not only in clinopyroxenes but also in coexisting orthopyroxenes. The metasomatic agents were probably alkaline mafic melts of asthenospheric origin and some may relate to upper Cretaceous alkali lamprophyre magmatism. Geochemical signatures of subduction-related melts or fluids have not been found in the anhydrous LREE-enriched xenoliths, although poikilitic xenoliths with U-shaped normalized REE patterns may indicate the influence of subduction-related melts.
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  • 56
    Publication Date: 2010-09-28
    Description: This volume honours the career of Brian F. Windley, who has been hugely influential in helping to achieve our current understanding of the evolution of the continental crust, and who has inspired many students and scientists to pursue studies on the evolution of the continents. Brian has studied processes of continental formation and evolution on most continents and of all ages, and has educated and inspired two generations of geologists to undertake careers in studies of continental evolution. The volume is organized into six sections, including: oceanic and island arc systems and continental growth; tectonics of accretionary orogens and continental growth; growth and stabilization of continental crust; collisions and intraplate processes; Precambrian tectonics and the birth of continents; and active tectonics and geomorphology of continental collision and growth zones.
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  • 57
    Publication Date: 2010-07-14
    Description: Ultramafic xenoliths from Mont Briancon, Ray Pic and Puy Beaunit in the French Massif Central show variable mineral compositions that indicate a residual origin after various degrees of partial melting of a fertile peridotite. Furthermore, trace element and Sr-Nd isotopic variations of clinopyroxenes indicate mixing processes between depleted mantle and enriched components such as asthenospheric melt and silicate carbonatite melt. Pyroxene geothermometer and CO2 geobarometer estimates are 860-1060 {degrees}C at 0.92-1.10 GPa for Mont Briancon, 930-980 {degrees}C at 0.89-1.04 GPa for Ray Pic and 840-940 {degrees}C at 0.59-0.71 GPa for Puy Beaunit. From south to north, the xenoliths show the following trends: (1) deeper to shallower origin; (2) more depleted mineral compositions, suggesting higher degrees of partial melting; and (3) more enriched isotopes and trace elements, indicating a mixing process with a silicate-rich carbonatite melt characterized by high H2O and K2O, possibly during Variscan subduction.
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  • 58
    Publication Date: 2010-09-28
    Description: Chromitites in the late Archaean Fiskenaesset anorthosite complex are characterized by a most unusual mineral assemblage: highly calcic plagioclase, iron-rich aluminous chromites and primary amphibole. In particular, the chromite compositions are atypical of chromitites in layered igneous intrusions. However, rare occurrences of this mineral assemblage are found in modern arcs and it is proposed here that the late Archaean calcic anorthositic chromitites formed by the partial melting of unusually aluminous harzburgite in a mantle wedge above a subduction zone. This melting process produced a hydrous, aluminous basalt, which fractionated at depth in the crust to produce a variety of high-alumina basalt compositions, from which the anorthosite complex with its chromitite horizons formed as a cumulate within the continental crust. The principal trigger for the late precipitation of chromite is thought to have been the removal of Al from the basaltic melt through plagioclase crystallization, and the build-up of Cr through an absence of clinopyroxene. It is proposed that the aluminous mantle source of the parent magma was produced by the melting of a harzburgitic mantle refertilized by small-volume, aluminous slab melts. This process ceased at the end of the Archaean because the dominant mechanism of crust generation changed such that melt production shifted from the slab into the mantle wedge, thus explaining why highly calcic anorthosites are almost totally restricted to the Archaean.
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  • 59
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 342: 5-15.
    Publication Date: 2010-08-16
    Description: Marine sedimentary cores retrieved from the western Pacific provide important clues for deciphering how the East Asian Monsoon (EAM) system has evolved during the past 5 Ma. Here we briefly review some recent progress on the reconstructions of the EAM based on marine SST (sea surface temperature), SSS (sea surface salinity), and productivity records from the SCS (South China Sea) and ECS (East China Sea) and their implications for EAM evolution and variability on tectonic, orbital and millennial timescales. This review highlights the importance of high resolution sampling on giant marine cores (such as cores collected with the International Marine Past Global Change, IMAGES program) that provide opportunities for better defining the timing and amplitude of the EAM variability expressed in marine records. We also discuss possible future directions of EAM palaeoclimatic and palaeoceanographic studies that require development of multiple new marine EAM proxies and a comparison of the marine records with the stalagmite records on land.
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  • 60
    facet.materialart.
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 339: 5-9.
    Publication Date: 2010-09-09
    Description: The transition from water to land is perhaps the most dramatic event in the history of life after the rise of photosynthesis, sexuality and predation. During the late Neoproterozoic and the early Palaeozoic, some green plants, fungi and animals happened to overcome the constraints that linked them to the primeval aquatic environment of life, became progressively adapted to the terrestrial, aerobic environment and finally contributed to its change through time. We do not know how many taxa initially survived this trial, but we have some indication of the result in extant life: a threefold world of pluricellular terrestrial organisms, all depending on each other to various degrees and surrounded by a cryptic world of bacteria and unicellular eukaryotes. Fossils provide us with acceptable information about the evolutionary history of only two of these worlds: embryophytes and bilateralian animals. The molecules of their living representatives can only begin to tell us how they gained the complexity that allowed them to achieve this remarkable adaptation to life on land and in air.
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  • 61
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 343: 111-153.
    Publication Date: 2010-10-06
    Description: Despite dinosaurs becoming significant icons' in our culture, few women have made major contributions to the study of fossil vertebrates, especially reptilian taxonomy, by specializing in the dinosaurs and related saurians'. Most who were involved over the first 150 years were not professional palaeontologists but instead wives, daughters and pure (and usually unpaid) amateurs. Here we salute some 40 of them, showing how some kept alive childhood dreams and others fell into the subject involuntarily. As usual nineteenth-century female practitioners are virtually unknown in this area except for one icon, Dorset girl Mary Anning of Lyme Regis, who significantly contributed to the palaeontology. Only in the early twentieth century did women such as Tilly Edinger conduct research with an evolutionary agenda. Before the modern post-1960s era, beginning with Mignon Talbot, few were scientists or conducting research; others such as Mary Ann Woodhouse, Arabella Buckley, the Woodward sisters, Nelda Wright were artists, photographers and/or writers, scientifically illustrating and/or popularizing dinosaurs. Like many other women, they often battled to get from first base to job, appear fleetingly in the literature then disappear; or exist as anonymous presences behind eminent men. In contrast, the modern era offers better prospects for those wanting to pursue dinosaurs and their relatives, even if it means volunteering for a dino dig, watching a live Time team'-type dinosaur dig on TV or entering the Big Virtual Saurian World now on the Internet. This paper considers the problems and highlights the achievements of the oft-forgotten women. Supplementary materialAdditional references and list of books and publications by or about deceased women related to saurians', including these mentioned in the text, are available at http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18419.
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  • 62
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 339: 37-48.
    Publication Date: 2010-09-09
    Description: The rise of land plants during the early Palaeozoic had profound effects upon subsequent Earth history and evolution. The sequestration of standing biomass and carbon burial caused a primary shift in the distribution of active carbon within the biosphere and surficial Earth systems. This manifested itself in a dynamic decline in pCO2 during Silurian-Devonian time, affecting both terrestrial and marine ecosystems. We examined first-order correlations between terrestrialization and pCO2 by comparing the GEOCARB III data with time-constrained fossil events in the early evolution of land plants. We compared the same GEOCARB III data with the species/genus richness of lower Palaeozoic acritarchs. The correlation between the rise of woody plants and pCO2 is built into the GEOCARB model for the Late Devonian and later, but pCO2 begins to decline in the Cambrian long before the origin of woody trees (lignophytes). The influence of early phases in plant evolution may be seen in a two-stage pCO2 decline corresponding to fossil evidence for the origin of thalloid bryophytes in the Middle Cambrian and the origin of tracheophytes near the Ordovician-Silurian boundary. The decline of the acritarchs shows a highly correlated lag of about 10 Ma with respect to the pCO2 decline. The relation between pCO2 and acritarch species richness suggests a tight coupling between the evolution of the marine phytoplankton and atmospheric CO2, supporting previous suggestions that pCO2 was a significant causal factor in the near extinction of acritarchs by the end of the Devonian.
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  • 63
    Publication Date: 2010-09-09
    Description: The invasion of the land by plants ( terrestrialization') was one of the most significant evolutionary events in the history of life on Earth, and correlates in time with periods of major palaeoenvironmental perturbations. The development of a vegetation cover on the previously barren land surfaces impacted on the global biogeochemical cycles and the geological processes of erosion and sediment transport. The terrestrialization of plants preceded the rise of major new groups of animals, such as insects and tetrapods, the latter numbering some 24 000 living species, including ourselves. Early land-plant evolution also correlates with the most spectacular decline of atmospheric CO2 concentration of Phanerozoic times and with the onset of a protracted period of glacial conditions on Earth. This book includes a selection of papers covering different aspects of the terrestrialization, from palaeobotany to vertebrate palaeontology and geochemistry, promoting a multidisciplinary approach to the understanding of the co-evolution of life and its environments during Early to Mid-Palaeozoic times.
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  • 64
    Publication Date: 2010-09-09
    Description: The lignophytes (Embryophytes that possess a bifacial cambium) evolved during the Devonian period and include seed plants. Their advent was a major event in the history of life and had a profound impact on terrestrial environments. Recent reinvestigations of a Devonian locality, Dechra Ait Abdallah in Central Morocco, led to the discovery of a rich assemblage of fossil plants and Tentaculita. This paper focuses on a single specimen of the lignophyte Rellimia Leclercq & Bonamo. Rellimia (Aneurophytales) is a monospecific genus reported from a large number of Middle Devonian localities from western Europe (Belgium, Czech Republic, Germany and Scotland) and America. Its fertile organs are highly distinctive and borne helically on branches. They consist of a basal stalk that dichotomizes once near the base, the resulting branches dividing pinnately and bearing elongated sporangia terminally on ultimate divisions. According to the late Emsian age indicated by our sample of Tentaculita, this Moroccan specimen is to date the earliest representative of both the genus and the lignophytes. If confirmed, this occurrence suggests a possible origin of the Aneurophytalean lignophytes in Gondwana and their rapid and widespread colonization in the Middle Devonian towards Laurussia.
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  • 65
    facet.materialart.
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 343: 313-323.
    Publication Date: 2010-10-06
    Description: The immense size of many pterosaurs is now well known to academics and laymen alike, but truly enormous forms with wingspans more than twice those of the largest modern birds were not discovered until 83 years after the first pterosaur fossils were found. These remains were discovered in an expedition to the Cretaceous chalk deposits of Kansas led by O.C. Marsh in 1870: initially revealing animals with 6.6 m wingspans, Marsh eventually found material from animals estimated to span 7.6 m. Marsh's record breaking pterosaur - the largest flying animal known for nearly 80 years - was equalled by a supposed wing bone described by C.A. Arambourg in 1954, and then surpassed with the discovery of the 10 m span azhdarchid Quetzalcoatlus northropi by D. Lawson in 1972. Subsequent fragmentary azhdarchid discoveries suggest even larger forms: reinterpreting Arambourg's wing bone' as a cervical vertebra suggests an animal with an 11-13 m wingspan, while the Romanian taxon Hatzegopteryx thambema is a particularly large and robust form with a 12 m wingspan. Giant pterosaur footprints are also known, with the largest footprints recording walking azhdarchids of comparable size to those suggested by body fossils.
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  • 66
    facet.materialart.
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 343: 335-360.
    Publication Date: 2010-10-06
    Description: Prior to recent developments in computer-generated images, reconstructions of dinosaurs and other prehistoric animals were limited to static images or objects. Although a dynamic tension could be introduced to a composition or construction, it fundamentally lacked the ability to convey the motion of a now-extinct animal to its viewer. Before digital art forms the one exception to this was graphic or sequential art, generally in the form of comic' strips. This article explores how one particular comic strip came to be the mass communicator of a new dynamism in dinosaur reconstructions within 2 years of the data for the so-called dinosaur renaissance' being presented in the scientific press.
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  • 67
    Publication Date: 2010-11-17
    Description: Glacimarine dynamics and associated sedimentary processes are closely tied to glacial regime and reflect dominant climatic conditions. Quantitative measurements for subpolar glaciers, such as sediment yield, are limited especially near glacial termini where most sediment accumulates. Here we characterize the modern glacimarine environment, quantify sediment flux and yield, document landform genesis and hypothesize potential future behaviour of Kronebreen and Kongsvegen glaciers in inner Kongsfjorden, Svalbard. A minimum of 6.74x103 g m-2 d-1 (at least 300 mm a-1) of glacimarine sediment is building a grounding-line fan via submarine stream discharge from Kronebreen. Average daily sediment flux to the ice-contact basin is recorded to be 2.6x103 g m-2 d-1 or an average annual flux of 1.56x105 g m-2 a-1. We measure an average annual ice-contact sediment yield of 1.20x104 tonnes km-2 a-1 associated with the rapid genesis of grounding-line landforms. With forecasted warming we expect meltwater volumes and sediment flux to increase. Grounding-line deposits may aggrade above water, tending to stabilize the terminus at least initially if the sediment is sufficient to counteract total terminus ablation. This would hold until either the glaciers next surge or climatic warming ablates the glaciers through surface melting.
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  • 68
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 343: 161-173.
    Publication Date: 2010-10-06
    Description: The history of dinosaur collecting in central India (former Central Provinces and Central India Agency) began in 1828 when W. H. Sleeman discovered isolated sauropod caudal vertebrae in the Lameta Formation near Jabalpur. Subsequently, the area became a focal point for fossil collection, leading to a series of further discoveries that continues today. The earliest discoveries were made by numerous collectors for whom palaeontology was a secondary pursuit, and who were employed in the armed forces (W. H. Sleeman and W. T. Nicolls), medicine (G. G. Spilsbury) or as geologists (T. Oldham, H. B. Medlicott, T. W. H. Hughes and C. A. Matley). Most of their finds were concentrated around Jabalpur or farther south near Pisdura and often consisted of isolated, surface-collected bones. Charles Matley undertook the two most extensive collecting efforts, in 1917-1919 and 1932-1933 (Percy Sladen Trust Expedition). As a result he discovered significant deposits of dinosaurs on Bara Simla and Chhota Simla, revisited Pisdura, and mapped the Lameta Formation. Many new dinosaur taxa resulted from Matley's studies, which still represent most of the known Lameta Formation dinosaur fauna. Current scientific understanding places these fossils among the Sauropoda (as titanosaurians) and Theropoda (as abelisaurids and noasaurids). Early reports of armoured ornithischians were erroneous; these materials also pertain to sauropods and theropods. Supplementary materialA list of the archival documents in the Natural History Museum, London that were used for this study is available at http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18418.
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  • 69
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 342: 293-301.
    Publication Date: 2010-08-16
    Description: Impacts of mountain uplift on the Asian monsoon and adjacent seas are investigated by climate model sensitivity studies. Two sets of general circulation model (GCM) experiments are performed. Using an atmosphere-ocean coupled GCM, a progressive mountain uplift experiment is performed. During boreal summer, monsoon precipitation is confined in the deep tropics around 10{degrees}N in the no-mountain case, but as mountains become higher, heavy rain areas move inland from the East Asian coast with stronger upward winds and increased rainfall over the southeastern Tibetan Plateau region. An increase of freshwater discharge from the Asian rivers results in a significant decrease of sea surface salinities over the Bay of Bengal, the South China, East China and Yellow Seas. A high-resolution atmospheric GCM experiment, which shows improvement in reproducing the present-day model climatology, gives more precise information on precipitation and the circulation changes caused by mountain uplift.
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  • 70
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 343: 265-275.
    Publication Date: 2010-10-06
    Description: The identification of avian and dinosaurian digits remains one of the major controversies in vertebrate evolution. A long history of morphological interpretations of fossil forms and studies of limb development in embryos has been given as evidence for two differing points of view. From an originally pentadactyl forelimb, either digits I, II and III form in the manus of birds and thus support a dinosaurian ancestry, or digits II, III and IV form in the manus supporting a more ancient ancestry or an evolutionary frame shift. A review of the history of research into the subject is presented here, dating from approximately 1825 to 2009.
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  • 71
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 343: 79-87.
    Publication Date: 2010-10-06
    Description: During the nineteenth century Europe and then America were the focal points for major advances in the study of palaeontology and the great, often acrimonious, debate on evolutionary theory. Natural history was one of the great educational disciplines of the day and those involved were part of an educated elite who practised as medics, clergymen, chemists and anatomists. Some were shy and retiring, others forceful even bombastic, sometimes evil by intent. Many were driven by fame and it was their wish to discover the best, the biggest and the most important specimens they could get their hands on. Others were great orators who could defend a cause; some were the first of many who became diligent and careful in the collection and storage of material or brilliant field scientists who taught us the importance of observation, data gathering and interpretation of sedimentary successions worldwide. Being considered worthy of joining such an elite social, scientific circle was an immense tribute to their contribution to the natural sciences. It was an honour denied William Smith who lacked the educational background of the middle classes of the time, but given in abundance to the Italian scientist Giovanni Capellini who was born into an upper middle-class Italian family and who received a classic ecclesiastical training before venturing into the natural sciences. Supplementary materialA list of selected publications by Giovanni Capellini (1858-1907) is available at http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18417.
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  • 72
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 343: 237-250.
    Publication Date: 2010-10-06
    Description: Archaeopteryx, first discovered in 1861 from the Solnhofen lithographic limestone of Bavaria, is the oldest feathered animal in the fossil record. Since its discovery it has been the focus of discussions about avian ancestry. Its mosaic of saurian and avian skeletal characters made it the classical missing link' of the Darwinian Theory of evolution. Even as early as 1868 Huxley advocated a close dinosaurian relationship of birds, a position followed later by such palaeontological luminaries as Marsh, Baur, Nopcsa and Abel, among others. Only in 1926, when Gerhard Heilmann published his seminal work, The Origin of Birds, was a thecodontian' origin of birds favoured. This book dominated perceptions of avian origins for the next half century, until John H. Ostrom reinvigorated the hypothesis of a dinosaurian ancestry for birds based on more Archaeopteryx specimens and new discoveries of theropod dinosaurs. Finally, the advent of cladistic methodology was instrumental in supporting Archaeopteryx and Aves within the theropod clade Maniraptora, a view almost ubiquituous today.
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  • 73
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 344: 17-33.
    Publication Date: 2010-11-17
    Description: A rich and wide variety of fluid dynamic processes occur in fjords. Although a fjord may at one level be simply defined a glacially formed coastal inlet, this simple definition belies a huge range of geomorphological manifestations and environmental forcing conditions. It is the interplay between geomorphology and environmental forcing which defines the relative importance of differing physical fluid processes within a given fjord. In this chapter we present a non-mathematical review of the dominant physical processes which are found to occur in fjordic systems, how their relative importance may depend on geomorphology and forcing, and how, in turn, the dominant physical processes effect circulation and sediment distribution. Our aim is to provide the non-physical oceanographer with an insight into the rich and varied fluid dynamical processes presented to us by the fascinating 'mini-ocean' geo-type generically referred to as a fjord.
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  • 74
    Publication Date: 2010-11-17
    Description: Fjords are glacially over-deepened semi-enclosed marine basins, typically with entrance sills separating their deep waters from the adjacent coastal waters which restrict water circulation and thus oxygen renewal. The location of fjords is principally controlled by the occurrence of ice sheets, either modern or ancestral. Fjords are therefore geomorphological features that represent the transition from the terrestrial to the marine environment and, as such, have the potential to preserve evidence of environmental change. Typically, most fjords have been glaciated a number of times and some high-latitude fjords still possess a resident glacier. In most cases, glacial erosion through successive glacial/interglacial cycles has ensured the removal of sediment sequences within the fjord. Hence the stratigraphic record in fjords largely preserves a glacial-deglacial cycle of deposition over the last 18 ka or so. Sheltered water and high sedimentation rates have the potential to make fjords ideal depositional environments for preserving continuous records of climate and environmental change with high temporal resolution. In addition to acting as high-resolution environmental archives, fjords can also be thought of as mini-ocean sedimentary basin laboratories. Fjords remain an understudied and often neglected sedimentary realm. With predictions of warming climates, changing ocean circulation and rising sea levels, this volume is a timely look at these environmentally sensitive coastlines. Supplementary materialThe Glossary is available at: http://www.geolsoc.org.uk/SUP18440.
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  • 75
    Publication Date: 2010-11-17
    Description: Fjords have long been recognized for their value as sites of sediment deposition, recording past climatic conditions. Recently, Arctic fjords have been recognized as the critical gateway through which oceanic waters can impact on the stability of glaciers. Arctic fjords are also used as idealized locations to study ice-influenced physical, biological and geochemical processes. In all cases a clear understanding of the physical oceanographic environment is required to interpret and predict related impacts and linkages. In this review we consider the characteristic elements of Arctic fjords and the important dynamical processes. We show how the intense seasonality of these regions is reflected in the varying stratification of the fjords. In particular, we show that sea ice has a central role in terms of the fjord salinity which ultimately influences the exchange with oceanic waters. When the fjord is ice free, wind forcing from the intense down-fjord katabatic winds gives rise to rapidly changing cross-fjord gradients, upwelling and strong surface circulations. The stratification and dimensions of Arctic fjords mean that they are often classed as 'broad' fjords where rotational effects are important in their circulation. We refer to the link between the physical oceanographic conditions and the related depositional records throughout.
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  • 76
    facet.materialart.
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 344: 51-60.
    Publication Date: 2010-11-17
    Description: Fjords in the Arctic often have a more complex circulation pattern than the classical two-dimensional estuarine circulation. This is due to the effects of the Earth's rotation on stratified waters in wide fjords. Observations from a semi-enclosed fjord basin, Van Mijenfjorden on Spitsbergen, show that the hydrography and circulation vary considerably on short timescales (hours) in the summer season. The depth and distribution of the low salinity upper water layer respond quickly to changes in the wind field. The Coriolis effect has an essential impact on the circulation, inducing eddy-like flow patterns and strong cross-fjord gradients. Within the upper layer, the lowest salinity values and highest temperatures were found on the northern side of the fjord in calm wind periods. When the wind was strong from the west, the cross-fjord gradients were reversed. Internal wave activity contributes to large vertical displacement of water below the upper layer. Knowledge of such strongly variable hydrographic conditions in fjords are important for sampling strategy and interpretation of data, for instance of primary production and sedimentation processes, and for the understanding of fjords as depositional systems.
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  • 77
    Publication Date: 2010-12-14
    Description: This paper presents a simple but effective method to improve Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) digital elevation models (DEMs). Digital elevation models are an important component of geomorphological modelling so their integrity is vital to achieve reliable results. For this investigation the relative ASTER DEM produced from an automated cross-correlation algorithm was not considered accurate enough, so 3 arcsecond (90 m) Shuttle Radar Topography Mission (SRTM) data were used to modulate the ASTER DEM. The method presented in this paper allows the SRTM to enforce vertical control on the relative ASTER DEM whilst attempting to maintain the ASTER DEM's 30 m spatial resolution. The process is fast and efficient, and can be applied to other DEMs. There is, however, a compromise since the fusion process, involving the averaging of the values, does potentially mean that some of the detail in the original 30 m ASTER DEM will be lost.
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  • 78
    Publication Date: 2010-12-14
    Description: This paper presents results of research undertaken on the creation and filtering of digital elevation models (DEMs) from a stereo pair of Advanced Spaceborne Thermal Emission and Reflection Radiometer (ASTER) images. The raw DEM, created by automatic image matching, appears to be very noisy. Two types of irregularities can be observed. First, a random occurrence of small sinks and mounds with high amplitude is observed. Secondly, a more regular east-west-oriented pattern of noise is present. Many DEM-creation programs provide some editing tools to smooth out the irregularities, including some noise removal, smoothing and interpolation algorithms. However, the application of these algorithms has an important impact on the values of the parameters derived from the elevation, such as slope, aspect and curvature. In this study we propose a filtering algorithm based on morphological greyscale reconstruction in order to remove the sinks and mounds. This technique is very effective in mitigating the artefacts while preserving the remaining structures. For the regular pattern, a linear north-south-oriented low-pass filtering showed the best results. This approach was compared with a median filter and proved to be more effective in terms of both elevation and slope parameters.
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  • 79
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 345: 55-66.
    Publication Date: 2010-12-14
    Description: The NEXTMap Britain digital elevation model (DEM) has opened many new opportunities that considerably help and enhance the way we undertake our geological mapping of bedrock, structure, and superficial and artificial deposits. The dataset has been successfully integrated into the digital and conventional mapping workflows of the Vale of York mapping team. A variety of visualization and analysis techniques have been applied throughout the mapping process. These techniques include an initial appraisal of NEXTMap with a comparison to existing geological mapping to define the field mapping strategy and site-specific manipulation using Tablet PCs. NEXTMap interpretation has made an important contribution to the understanding of the extensive glacial and proglacial deposits found in the Vale of York; such as sand bodies resting on lake deposits, and identifying details within morainic and alluvial complexes. For bedrock mapping, NEXTMap has been used to identify landform features that relate to the underlying geology, such as breaks in slope, the extent of escarpments, hillcrests and dip slopes, to provide an overview of the landscape and to save time in mapping out features in the field. Techniques have also been developed to automatically generate these landform features. The dataset has also been used to identify areas where landsliding has occurred, for the accurate mapping of artificial ground and as a key surface for three-dimensional (3D) geological modelling.
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  • 80
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 346: 7-22.
    Publication Date: 2010-11-16
    Description: A theory is presented that coarse-grained sand beach ridge plains in northeastern Australia have developed their final form (i.e. the height of the ridges above sea level) as a result of marine inundations generated by intense tropical cyclones. Although winds generated during such tempests are of more than sufficient velocity to transport coarse-grained sands the beach is typically inundated by the storm surge and waves during these events and hence there is no viable source for aeolian sand transport. Numerical storm surge and shallow water wave models are run for two sites (Cairns and Cowley Beach) and the results indicate that only wave run-ups generated by category 3 or more intense tropical cyclones can deposit the final units of sediment onto the sand beach ridges at these locations. It is suggested that as a sand beach ridge increases in height, via successive deposition of units of sand, progressively higher marine inundations are required to reach the ridge crest. The final height of the sand beach ridge is dependent upon the interplay of sediment supply rates to the coastal system and the intensity and frequency of tropical cyclones. If tropical cyclones are responsible for the final form of the sand beach ridges then these sequences can be used to assess the long-term climatology of intense tropical cyclones over this broad geographical region.
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  • 81
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 346: 23-42.
    Publication Date: 2010-11-16
    Description: Four beach types were identified from field surveys of beach profiles on low-energy sandy beaches in Cockburn Sound, a micro-tidal, semi-enclosed basin in southwestern Australia. These were delineated by an exposure factor (Ef), which provided a surrogate for the relationship between incident wave energy and attenuation as a result of structures, banks and shoals. The four beach profiles identified were exponential, segmented, concave-curvilinear and convex-curvilinear in form. Whether the different profile shapes occurred in environments subject to different degrees of sheltering and protection under the same tidal regime was open to question. Beach profiles were examined for Como Beach and Princess Royal Harbour in Western Australia and compared with observations from Cockburn Sound to test this proposition. Cockburn Sound and Princess Royal Harbour are subject to minimal penetration of swell waves whereas Como Beach, in the Swan River Estuary, is wholly fetch limited. Profile forms identified in each environment were consistent with those described from Cockburn Sound. Similar profile types had similar exposure values for all sites such that Ef〈1 was characteristic of exponential profiles, 1-1.5 of segmented, 1.5-2 of concave-curvilinear, and Ef〉2 of convex-curvilinear. Although this approach requires further testing in low-energy environments subject to different tidal ranges and fluctuations in sea level, use of the exposure factor for delineation of low-energy sheltered beach types appears to be a robust procedure.
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  • 82
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 346: 57-69.
    Publication Date: 2010-11-16
    Description: Almost one-third of the seabed off the coastline north and south of Sydney comprises a planated bedrock surface, evident from sidescan surveys over the inner continental shelf. In seismic records, this rock surface extends up to 23 km offshore from the sea cliffs along 300 km of the coast. The rock surface dips offshore to as much as 180 m below sea level, where it merges with a major unconformity in the shelf sediment wedge. The surface is eroded into Mesozoic and Palaeozic rocks and is heavily dissected by sediment-filled, palaeo-valley incision and structural jointing. The sediment-fills comprise sand wedges that thicken landwards to form beaches and estuarine flood-tide deltas, respectively, in smaller and larger palaeo-valleys incised to below present sea level. At the base of the cliffs, the planated surface is buried by shelf sand bodies up to 30 m thick in places. The seaward edge of the surface is everywhere buried by the onlapping continental-shelf sediment wedge. The contiguity of the abrasion surface with the unconformity in the shelf sediment wedge suggests that marine planation began in the Mid-Oligocene, indicating time-average rates of gross cliff retreat at about 1 mm a-1.
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  • 83
    Publication Date: 2010-09-14
    Description: The Black Sea is generally thought to be a back-arc basin with active extension (rifting) beginning in late Early Cretaceous times - although some fundamental issues such as the presence or absence of a related magmatic arc and the orientation of the related, driving, subduction zone remain vaguely defined at best. However, as shown here, the regional structure of the Black Sea is consistent with that predicted by geodynamic models of modern back-arc basin formation, in which extension is driven by slab roll-back. This includes an asymmetric distribution of horst and graben structures in the back-arc basin, the distribution and spacing of which is related to the strength of the underlying lithosphere, which forms the hanging wall of the subduction zone. By analogy, the intrabasinal structure of the Black Sea as a whole is explicable as the consequence of a single phase of asymmetric back-arc basin formation, not two separate phases independently responsible for its western and eastern segments, and its underlying lithosphere is rheologically strong, as predicted by recent models of Precambrian Europe and present-day tomography.
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  • 84
    Publication Date: 2010-09-09
    Description: There are probably many reasons for the widespread belief that temnospondyls and other early stegocephalians were largely restricted to freshwater, but three of the contributing factors will be discussed below. First, temnospondyls have been called amphibians (and thought to be more closely related to extant amphibians than to amniotes). Some authors may have simply concluded that, like extant amphibians, temnospondyls could not live in oceans and seas. Second, under some phylogenies, temnospondyls are more closely related to anurans (and possibly urodeles) than to gymnophionans and could be expected, for parsimony reasons, to share the intolerance of all extant amphibians to saltwater. Similarly, lepospondyls' are often thought to be more closely related to gymnophionans than to anurans, and could also be expected to lack saltwater tolerance. Third, extant lungfishes live exclusively in freshwater, and early sarcopterygians have long been thought to share this habitat. These interpretations probably explain the widespread belief that early amphibians and early stem-tetrapods were largely restricted to freshwater. However, these three interpretations have been refuted or questioned by recent investigations. A review of the evidence suggests that several (perhaps most) early stegocephalians tolerated saltwater, even although they also lived in freshwater.
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  • 85
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 345: 129-133.
    Publication Date: 2010-12-14
    Description: The UK is served by a wide range of digital elevation models (DEMs) that have a variety of technical specifications from several different vendors. The abundance of data presents researchers with a complex range of choices dependent upon their application (and therefore fitness-for-purpose') and desired use of intellectual property rights (IPR). This paper explores current DEM datasets of the UK and presents their use within the context of claimed copyright and IPR. In particular, responsibilities placed upon grant holders for the lodgement of research outputs by UK Research Councils places new emphasis upon data access, derived data and data re-use. The complex interplay of rights between research output stakeholders (data suppliers, data creators, data users) presents a difficult scenario for both data repositories and data depositors.
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  • 86
    Publication Date: 2010-11-16
    Description: The Australian continental margin hosts numerous canyons. Some of the most spectacular canyons are located offshore Kangaroo Island, and these are linked to ancient courses of the River Murray, which would have flowed across the very wide Lacepede Shelf during periods of low sea level. During the AUSCAN-1 project, modern sedimentation was assessed using a multi-tracer approach on interface sediments from 350 to 2500 m water depth. The presence of freshly deposited particles, tagged by 234Th in excess, 210Pb-based sediment accumulation (0.03-0.13 cm a-1) and 230Th-based focusing ratios, supports the occurrence of significant advection of marine sediments within these canyons. In the absence of direct riverine inputs, the shelf, being the site of intensive carbonate production, is the main supplier of material. The presence of incised channels in the eastern portion of the Murray Canyons Group (MCG) indicates recent to sub-recent activity along the canyons. The presence of underwater slides in the western side of the MCG confirms that sediment transport to the abyssal plain does occur. Based on our preliminary investigation and by synthesizing previous work on other canyons, we provide a conceptual model for sediment focusing and transfer within the canyons offshore Australia.
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  • 87
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 346: 71-85.
    Publication Date: 2010-11-16
    Description: This paper reviews the long history of interaction between scientists working in geomorphology, stratigraphy, sedimentology and chronology and those working in archaeology to understand past human-environment interactions in Australia. Despite this close collaboration, differentiating environmental impacts from the influence of human behaviour has proven difficult in research on key topics such as the causes of megafauna extinction, the significance of fire, and the impact of climatic shifts such as the El Nino-Southern Oscillation. Geoarchaeological research focused on depositional environments and post-depositional change in western New South Wales, Australia, provides important examples of how processes acting over different temporal scales affect archaeological deposits. The archaeological record is in some places discontinuous in time because geomorphological activity has removed the record of particular time periods, and it is discontinuous in space because it is preserved only in places that are geomorphologically relatively inactive. Important inferences concerning past human behaviours may be drawn from the record, but the processes responsible for both the presence and absence of the record must be considered. More attention needs to be given to ensuring that datasets with a similar temporal resolution are compared if the causes for behavioural changes in the past are to be correctly understood.
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  • 88
    Publication Date: 2010-12-14
    Description: In the UK national derived geological datasets are increasingly being produced, many of which are based on NEXTMap digital terrain model (DTM) or digital surface model (DSM) data. These include groundwater level and land stability datasets. Any DTM is a model of the land surface and under different conditions may have differing degrees of accuracy. This paper compares the NEXTMap data, derived from airborne Interferometric Synthetic Aperture Radar (IfSAR) data, with other frequently used datasets derived from contours and point data; in particular, the Integrated Hydrological Digital Terrain Model (IHDTM), a terrain model that was originally derived from Ordnance Survey (OS) 1:50 000 scale contours, and a DTM interpolated from Land-Form PROFILE data. This initial comparison of the DTMs has highlighted some issues with the NEXTMap data: first, that of elevation inaccuracy in woodland areas; and, secondly, the shadowing effect caused by the side-looking scanner. It also highlights the problems of using DTMs created from contour data in areas of low relief. The development of an uncertainty layer would enable a user to decide whether the DTM was appropriate in certain areas, and could also be incorporated into uncertainty models for the derived national datasets.
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  • 89
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 346: 141-164.
    Publication Date: 2010-11-16
    Description: A new map, the first based on interpretation of satellite imagery, reveals both the complexity of Australia's dunefields and their relationships with topography, climate and substrate. Of the five main sand seas, the Mallee, Strzelecki and Simpson in eastern Australia cover Quaternary sedimentary basins whereas the Great Victoria and Great Sandy dunefields in the west are formed by reworking of valley and piedmont sediments in a non-basinal landscape of low-relief ridge and valley topography. These dunefields cover large areas of the arid zone and semi-arid zone and small areas of dunes in sub-humid areas around the margins of the continent reflecting past expansion of arid climates during glacial stages of the last several glacial cycles. Several areas of low relief stand out as being largely dune-free: the limestone Nullarbor Plain, clay plains of the Georgina Basin and floodplains of rivers in the Carpentaria, Lake Eyre and Murray-Darling drainage basins where sand is rare or not transported by diminished Late Quaternary rivers. The Yilgarn Block of southwestern Australia is also surprisingly free of dunes, possibly as a result of long, deep weathering. Everywhere the history of climate change is evident in dune morphology and distribution, including large areas where the sand dune orientations are markedly divergent from modern sand moving wind directions.
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  • 90
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 345: 75-79.
    Publication Date: 2010-12-14
    Description: Groundwater flooding, which occurs when the groundwater table rises in response to exceptional recharge rates either to the ground surface or to a point where subsurface infrastructure is affected, has been recognized as a significant issue with real economic impacts. A methodology has been developed to produce maps of groundwater flooding susceptibility, using geological and hydrogeological data. While good geological map data are available in digital form for England and Wales, there are much less data on water levels. These levels are usually measured during the construction of water boreholes, and while there is a national groundwater level monitoring network for regulatory purposes, at a national level data are sparse. To assist in developing a comprehensive map of water levels, the British Geological Survey (BGS) has adopted a number of strategies for data interpolation for areas with limited water level data and a surface has been derived from a terrain model by considering interactions between groundwater and surface water in rivers and lakes. When comparing the calculated levels against the available field measurements, a high correlation was found to exist. However, it was considered that in areas where bedrock aquifers dominate, this interpolated surface was probably inaccurate, and so refinements were developed to improve the modelled water levels surfaces. The resulting groundwater levels have been used to develop maps of areas where shallow groundwater may pose a risk. With potential changes in groundwater recharge postulated as a result of global climate change, identifying areas prone to flooding from groundwater, or areas where groundwater is likely to increase the impact of surface water flooding, is increasingly important.
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  • 91
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 347: 1-8.
    Publication Date: 2010-11-08
    Description: Reservoir Compartmentalization - the segregation of a petroleum accumulation into a number of individual fluid/pressure compartments - occurs when flow is prevented across ‘sealed’ boundaries in the reservoir. These boundaries are caused by a variety of geological and fluid dynamic factors, but there are two basic types: ‘static seals’ that are completely sealed and capable of withholding (trapping) petroleum columns over geological time; and ‘dynamic seals’ that are low to very low permeability flow baffles that reduce petroleum cross-flow to infinitesimally slow rates. The latter allow fluids and pressures to equilibrate across a boundary over geological time-scales, but act as seals over production time-scales, because they prevent cross-flow at normal production rates - such that fluid contacts, saturations and pressures progressively segregate into ‘dynamic’ compartments. Thus, reservoir compartmentalization impacts the volume of moveable (produceable) oil or gas that might be connected to any given well drilled in a field, which restricts the volume of reserves that can be ‘booked’ for that field. Booking of reserves is tightly regulated by government authorities because it is a key measure used by stock analysts and investors to value an oil company. This places reservoir compartmentalization studies, and the predictive science and technology applied to them, at the heart of company valuation. Unexpected compartmentalization can also seriously impact the profitability of a field: with more data acquisition, more study, more wells, more time being required to produce less oil and gas than was originally anticipated. In extreme cases, this might even lead to early...
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  • 92
    Publication Date: 2010-11-08
    Description: Compartmentalized reservoirs can be identified based on a variety of criteria most commonly using structural geometries and stratigraphic barriers. This paper reviews several case studies from West African fields in which an additional variable, fluid chemistry, is used to identify compartmentalization at an early stage in the production history. Fluid characterization is important to constrain productivity, connectivity, facilities planning, and commercial value. Near-critical, single-phase fluids offer a case in which underestimation fluid PVT behaviour and variability can have a significant impact on all of these elements - resulting in incorrect interpretations of resource type and distribution.
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  • 93
    Publication Date: 2010-11-08
    Description: Drainage cells are localized reservoir volumes that are bounded both laterally and vertically by permeability barriers. The subdivision of a reservoir volume into drainage cells provides a framework that allows a mature producing field to be screened for remaining oil volumes. Nine drainage cells have been defined in the Nelson field. The lateral edges of these drainage cells are stratigraphic in nature and correspond to the boundaries between individual macroforms, for instance, between channel complexes and interchannel sediments. A very large dataset of produced water chemical analyses has been used to help define the extent of the drainage cells. Provinciality, shown by areal variations in produced water compositions, is consistent with the inferred location of the cells. The Nelson field shows variation in the chloride ion concentration of produced water both vertically and laterally. Vertical variation can be detected by changes in produced water chemistry after water shut-off events at shale horizons which are thought to be laterally extensive within the reservoir. Lateral variation corresponds to patchwork areas that are consistent with individual macroforms such as channel complexes. An additional technique has been used to confirm the location and extent of drainage cells within the field. This involves the compilation of drainage charts, a quantitative volumetric method that involves comparing theoretical and actual oil-water contact changes within particular field areas.
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  • 94
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 347: 103-112.
    Publication Date: 2010-11-08
    Description: The Azeri field in the South Caspian Sea, offshore Azerbaijan, is a periclinal anticline 20 km in length containing multiple stacked reservoirs of Pliocene age. Appraisal wells that were drilled at the eastern end of the structure identified multiple oil-water contacts and fluid pressure gradients in both of the principal reservoirs, the Pereriv B and D. At the time, these data were interpreted to indicate the presence of compartments at the eastern end of the field as a result of sealing faults within the aquifer. This local compartmentalization seemed to be in marked difference to the majority of the field where pressure connectivity had been observed. A new analysis of the pressure data for the Pereriv B shows that aquifer pressures at sea-level datum define a simple water potential gradient. As a result of this, the oil-water contact in this reservoir is gently inclined towards the NNE. The precise inclination and orientation of the oil-water contact has been determined geometrically using the depths and coordinates of free-water levels and oil-water contacts from around the field. The best-fit inclined oil-water contact for the Pereriv B also provides a good fit to the contact observed from seismic amplitudes. The new analysis provides a more optimistic view of reservoir connectivity, and the conceptual geological model for the eastern end of the field is now consistent with observations made in the rest of the Azeri field.
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  • 95
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 347: 25-41.
    Publication Date: 2010-11-08
    Description: This paper examines the impact of compartmentalization on oil recovery, the importance of identifying it during field appraisal, and methods to evaluate it using fluid data. The impact on recovery factor is highlighted using a global database of oil field recovery factors as a function of reservoir complexity and compartmentalization, and emphasized in two case studies. The effect of compartmentalization on oil recovery demonstrates the benefit in characterizing compartmentalization correctly during appraisal, so that the field can be developed in an optimal manner. Early characterization of field compartmentalization requires making maximum use of available fluid data during appraisal. When interpreting fluid data to identify compartmentalization, it is critical to take into account the different time-scales for various fluid signals (pressure, contacts, density, composition) to equilibrate, and to be able to extrapolate to field production time-scales. This is essential to avoid false negatives (compartments assumed absent due to homogeneous fluid properties, when in fact fluids would have equilibrated even in the presence of compartments), false positives (where fluid differences are interpreted as evidence of compartments when in fact there has not been sufficient time for equilibration to occur), and to resolve apparently conflicting data (some fluid indicators are at equilibrium, others are not). Rigorous simulation of fluid equilibration is a complex multiphase multidimensional process, and is generally reserved for specialist in-depth studies. However, order-of-magnitude evaluations can be made using analytical solutions in minutes, allowing many what-if' scenarios to be considered and uncertainty to be assessed. Analytical solutions for estimating the time required for spatially-varying fluid properties to revert to steady state distributions are reviewed. All these mixing processes are shown to be diffusive in character. An effective diffusion coefficient for each process can be calculated from the reservoir rock and fluid properties. For an isothermal system, the different time-scales and distances for each fluid-property variation to attain equilibrium can be compared on a single graph. Where the time elapsed since fluid-perturbation is known, analytical solutions can be used to estimate the degree of compartmentalization (e.g. permeability of barriers). These solutions lend themselves to the development of simple practical compartment-assessment tools for industry practitioners.
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  • 96
    Publication Date: 2010-09-14
    Description: In order to improve our understanding of the palaeogeographic and geodynamic evolution of the Tethyan realms preserved in the Lesser Caucasus we here review the existing data for the sedimentary cover of ophiolites preserved in Armenia. Particular attention is given to those dated sedimentary rocks that are in direct genetic contact with ophiolitic lavas, as they provide constraints for submarine oceanic activity. The oldest available ages come from the Sevan-Akera suture zone that point to a Late Triassic oceanization. Data from both the Sevan and Vedi ophiolites provide evidence for Middle Jurassic (Bajocian) submarine activity, that continued until at least the Late Jurassic (Mid/Late Oxfordian to Late Kimmeridgian/Early Tithonian), as dated recently in Stepanavan and in this study for the Vedi ophiolite.
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  • 97
    Publication Date: 2010-09-14
    Description: The Bitlis complex, SE Anatolia, constitutes a crystalline complex derived from the north of the Arabian Plate, accreted to the South Armenian block. Metamorphic studies in the cover sequences of the Bitlis complex allow constraining the thermal evolution of the massif by metamorphic index minerals. A regionally distributed low temperature-high pressure (LT-HP) metamorphic evolution is documented by glaucophane, relics of carpholite in chloritoid-bearing schists and pseudomorphs after aragonite in marbles. The metamorphic age of these HP assemblages is constrained by Ar isotope dating as 74{+/-}2 Ma. This indicates that (i) the Bitlis complex represents a terrane detached from the Arabian indenter that was subducted and stacked to form a nappe complex during the closure of the Neo-Tethys and (ii) that during Late Cretaceous to Cenozoic evolution the Bitlis complex never underwent temperatures over 450 {degrees}C. The consequences of the metamorphic evolution of the Bitlis complex (a cold continental block within a hot environment) for the Eastern Anatolian plateau are complied in a crustal section.
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  • 98
    Publication Date: 2010-09-13
    Description: This volume combines original data in various fields from the offshore Levant Basin and adjacent continental slopes and platforms. The first group of papers document the tectonic structures and sedimentological patterns associated with the development of the Levant Basin. They identify the successive rifting events from the Late Palaeozoic to the Early Cretaceous, followed by a moderate tectonic activity. The contribution of external factors like global sea-level and climate changes to the sedimentation processes during the Mid-Cretaceous is discussed in the second set of papers. The final group presents new kinematics and age constraints on the Late Cretaceous to Neogene tectonic phases and discusses the relationship of the structures with the closure of the Neo-Tethys and separation of the Arabia plate. This collection of research papers demonstrates new concepts on the opening and crustal thinning of the Levant Basin and gives updated interpretations of the latter tectonic structures of the Levant.
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  • 99
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    In:  Geological Society Special Publication 341: 1-8.
    Publication Date: 2010-09-13
    Description: The Levant area comprises the offshore Levant Basin (LB) (eastern corner of the Eastern Mediterranean) as well as the adjacent continental slopes and platforms of the African and Arabian plates. This area experienced major events of the geodynamical evolution of the Middle East, such as the Late Palaeozoic-Early Mesozoic Pangea break up, the Late Cretaceous-Cenozoic closure of the Neo-Tethys and individualization of the Arabian plate, as well as a set of external factors like global sea-level and climate changes. This volume combines original data from the offshore and onshore Levant in various fields, including sedimentology, palaeontology, sequence stratigraphy, geochemistry, structural geology, stress reconstitution and geophysics (seismic lines, palaeomagnetism). All together, these multidisciplinary approaches allow the review of the development of the LB and gain a better insight on the later geological history and deformation processes of the Levant provinces.
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  • 100
    Publication Date: 2010-09-14
    Description: In the Lesser Caucasus three main domains are distinguished from SW to NE: (1) the autochthonous South Armenian Block (SAB), a Gondwana-derived terrane; (2) the ophiolitic Sevan-Akera suture zone; and (3) the Eurasian plate. Based on our field work, new stratigraphical, petrological, geochemical and geochronological data combined with previous data we present new insights on the subduction, obduction and collision processes recorded in the Lesser Caucasus. Two subductions are clearly identified, one related to the Neotethys subduction beneath the Eurasian margin and one intra-oceanic (SSZ) responsible for the opening of a back-arc basin which corresponds to the ophiolites of the Lesser Caucasus. The obduction occurred during the Late Coniacian to Santonian and is responsible for the widespread ophiolitic nappe outcrop in front of the suture zone. Following the subduction of oceanic lithosphere remnants under Eurasia, the collision of the SAB with Eurasia started during the Paleocene, producing 1) folding of ophiolites, arc and Upper Cretaceous formations (Transcaucasus massif to Karabakh); 2) thrusting toward SW; and 3) a foreland basin in front of the belt. Upper-Middle Eocene series unconformably cover the three domains. From Eocene to Miocene as a result of the Arabian plate collision with the SAB to the South, southward propagation of shortening featured by folding and thrusting occurred all along the belt. These deformations are sealed by a thick sequence of unconformable Miocene to Quaternary clastic and volcanic rocks of debated origin.
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